10° “A”

TEAM MEMBERS:
 Cruz Aguilar Filiberto de Jesús

 García Abad María Lucero

 Maldonado Acuña Dulce Carolina

 Soto Zavala Ulises

INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE

ENGINEERING

ULTRASONIC ALTAMIRA, TAMPS. October 2019

TESTING
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 CONTENT
I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 2
II. DEFINITION ..................................................................................................... 3
III. GLOSARY ........................................................................................................ 4
IV. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................ 5
How Ultrasonic Testing Works? ........................................................................ 5
Coupler ............................................................................................................. 6
Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing ..................................................................... 8
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing ................................................................ 8
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing ............................................................... 9
What are the potential limitations of ultrasonic testing? .................................. 10
What is an ultrasonic transducer? ................................................................... 10
What is an ultrasonic thickness gage? ............................................................ 11
How accurate is ultrasonic thickness gaging? ................................................ 11
What is an ultrasonic flaw detector? ............................................................... 11
Who uses ultrasonic flaw detectors? .............................................................. 12
What other types of instruments are available? .............................................. 12
Factors that influence ultrasonic testing .......................................................... 12
Straight beam ................................................................................................. 13
Img. 8 Straight beam....................................................................................... 13
Angle beam testing ......................................................................................... 14
Img. 10 Angle beam testing ............................................................................ 14
V. PROCEDURE ................................................................................................. 15
VI. APPLICATION ................................................................................................ 16
VII. STANDARDS .................................................................................................. 17
VIII. ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION CRITERIA .................................................. 18
IX. REQUIREMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SAFETY CONDITIONS ..... 19
X. MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR ULTRASONIC TESTING...... 19
XI. REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 20

1
 I. INTRODUCTION

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating

materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in
characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other
words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.

NDT is most commonly used where component failure may have catastrophic
consequences, such as in aircraft, electric power plants and petrochemical plants,
as well as gas lines and offshore installations. The periodic inspection of components
in these fields determines if they are suitable for continued service.

Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment
used to perform that test. Current NDT methods are:

Acoustic Emission Testing (AE), Electromagnetic Testing (ET), Guided Wave

Testing (GW), Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Laser Testing Methods (LM), Leak
Testing (LT), Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL), Microwave Testing, Liquid Penetrant
Testing (PT), Magnetic Particle Testing (MT), Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR),
Radiographic Testing (RT), Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR), Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
Vibration Analysis (VA) and Visual Testing (VT).

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 II. DEFINITION

Ultrasonic nondestructive testing, also known as ultrasonic NDT or simply UT, is a

method of characterizing the thickness or internal structure of a test piece through
the use of high frequency sound waves. The frequencies, or pitch, used for ultrasonic
testing are many times higher than the limit of human hearing, most commonly in the
range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz.

Img. 1 Ultrasound waves

Principle of ultrasonic testing.

LEFT: A probe sends a sound wave into a test material. There are two indications,
one from the initial pulse of the probe, and the second due to the back wall echo.

RIGHT: A defect creates a third indication and simultaneously reduces the amplitude
of the back wall indication.

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III. GLOSARY

 Sound waves: A sound wave is the pattern of disturbance caused by the

movement of energy traveling through a medium (such as air, water, or any
other liquid or solid matter) as it propagates away from the source of the
sound.

 Reflections: Reflection is when light bounces off an object. If the surface is

smooth and shiny, like glass, water or polished metal, the light will reflect at
the same angle as it hit the surface.

 Couplant: A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the

transmission of ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen.
Couplant is generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch
between air and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is large.

 Transducer: Is a device that converts energy from one form to another.

Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in
another.

 Viscous: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation

at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of
"thickness”:

 Ultrasonic: Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the

upper audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound is not different from "normal"
(audible) sound in its physical properties, except that humans cannot hear it.

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 IV. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In ultrasonic testing, high-frequency sound waves are transmitted into a material to

detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly
used ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo, whereby sound is introduced into a
test object and reflections (echoes) from internal imperfections or the part's
geometrical surfaces are returned to a receiver. Below is an example of shear wave
weld inspection. Notice the indication extending to the upper limits of the screen.
This indication is produced by sound reflected from a defect within the weld.

Img. 2 Ultrasound test

How Ultrasonic Testing Works?

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is
passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from
the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing.
However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not required, however it is advisable to
use them.

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Coupler
More or less viscous liquid that is used to allow the transducer waves to pass to the
part under examination, since the frequencies used for metallic materials are not
transmitted in the air.

Characteristics of the Coupling Liquid:

 Wettability (able to wet the surface and the probe)

 Adequate viscosity.
 Low attenuation (that the sound is transmitted 100%)
 Low cost.
 Removable
 Not toxic.
 Non corrosive
 Adequate acoustic impedance.

Types of Couplings:

 Water
 Oil
 Grease
 Glycerin
 Vaseline

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform.

They are

1. Reflection
2. Attenuation

Reflection method
In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the
receiving of the pulsed waves as the “sound” is reflected back to the device.

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Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or
from an imperfection within the object.

The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an
amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing
the arrival time of the reflection.

Img. 3 Reflected ultrasound

Attenuation method
In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound
through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached
it on another surface after traveling through the medium.
Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver
reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the
couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the
ultrasonic wave energy due to separation between the surfaces.

Img. 4 Attenuation

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Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing

1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth
of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with
different acoustic properties
7. Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing

1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The

transducers alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable
anomalies of other specimens (both termed “noise”) and to faults therein severe
enough to compromise specimen integrity. These signals must be distinguished
by a skilled technician, possibly requiring follow up with other nondestructive
testing methods.
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous
are difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc.,
although paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.

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 5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy
between transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique
is used. Non-contact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic
Transducers.
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants
that do not contain rust inhibitors. In these cases anti-freeze liquids with
inhibitors are often used.

Img. 5 Advantages and disadvantages

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the
pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic
device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the
transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is
introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there
is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be
reflected back from the flaw surface.

The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer
and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is
displayed versus the time from signal generation to when an echo was received.
Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled.

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From the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other
features can sometimes be gained.

Img. 6 Reflector location

What are the potential limitations of ultrasonic testing?

Ultrasonic flaw detection requires a trained operator who can set up a test with the
aid of appropriate reference standards and properly interpret the results. Inspection
of some complex geometries may be challenging. Ultrasonic thickness gages must
be calibrated with respect to the material being measured, and applications requiring
a wide range of thickness measurement or measurement of acoustically diverse
materials may require multiple setups. Ultrasonic thickness gages are more
expensive than mechanical measurement devices.

What is an ultrasonic transducer?

A transducer is any device that converts one form of energy into another. An
ultrasonic transducer converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations (sound
waves), and sound waves into electrical energy. Typically, they are small, hand-held
assemblies that come in a wide variety of frequencies and style to accommodate
specific test needs.

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What is an ultrasonic thickness gage?
An ultrasonic thickness gage is an instrument that generates sound pulses in a test
piece and very precisely measures the time interval until echoes are received.
Having been programmed with the speed of sound in the test material, the gage
utilizes that sound velocity information and the measured time interval to calculate
thickness via the simple relationship [distance] equals [velocity] multiplied by [time].

How accurate is ultrasonic thickness gaging?

Under optimum conditions, commercial ultrasonic gages can achieve accuracies as
high as +/- 0.001 mm (0.00004"), with accuracies of +/- 0.025 mm (0.001") or better
possible in most common engineering materials. Factors affecting accuracy include
the uniformity of sound velocity the test material, the degree of sound scattering or
absorption, the surface condition, and the accuracy and care with which the
instrument has been calibrated for the application at hand.

What is an ultrasonic flaw detector?

Sound waves traveling through a material will reflect in predictable ways off of flaws
such as cracks and voids. An ultrasonic flaw detector is an instrument that generates
and processes ultrasonic signals to create a waveform display that can be used by
a trained operator to identify hidden flaws in a test piece. The operator identifies the
characteristic reflection pattern from a good part, and then looks for changes in that
reflection pattern that may indicate flaws.

Img. 7 Flaw detector

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Who uses ultrasonic flaw detectors?
Ultrasonic flaw detectors are widely used in critical safety-related and quality-related
applications involving structural welds, steel beams, forgings, pipelines and tanks,
aircraft engines and frames, automobile frames, railroad rails, power turbines and
other heavy machinery, ship hulls, castings, and many other important applications.

What other types of instruments are available?

Ultrasonic imaging systems are used to generate highly detailed pictures similar to
x-rays, mapping the internal structure of a part with sound waves. Phased array
technology originally developed for medical diagnostic imaging is used in industrial
situations to create cross-sectional pictures. Large scanning systems are used by
the aerospace industry and metalworking suppliers to check for hidden flaws in both
raw materials and finished parts. Ultrasonic pulser/receivers and signal analyzers
are used in a variety of materials research applications.

Factors that influence ultrasonic testing

The assumptions made are based on all parameters being constant except the one
we are interested in measuring changes in. For example, when performing a
thickness measurement, we assume the acoustic velocity of the test piece we are
measuring is the same as the acoustic velocity in the calibration piece. We further
assume that the temperature at which tests and calibrations are made are not
important. Yet either or both of the parameters assumed fixed (materials velocity and
temperature) can affect our test results. Variables affecting the test results will be
divided into 4 groups:

1. Instrument performance
2. Transducer performance
3. Material variations
4. Defect variations

Another factor relating to the results of an inspection is the Human Factor, this is a
widely debated subject.

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Straight beam

Straight beam testing is generally employed to find cracks or delaminations parallel

to the surface of a test piece, as well as voids and porosity. It may use contact, delay
line, dual element, or immersion transducers, all of which launch longitudinal waves
on a straight path into the test piece. Common applications include testing plates,
bars, forgings, and castings, as well as bolts and hanger pins and similar parts that
can crack parallel to an accessible surface.

Like all other ultrasonic flaw detection techniques, straight beam testing utilizes the
basic principle that sound energy traveling through a medium will continue to
propagate until it either disperses or reflects off a boundary with another material,
such as the air surrounding a far wall or the gap created by a crack or similar
discontinuity. In this type of test, the operator couples the transducer to the test piece
and identifies the echo returning from the far wall, as well as any fixed reflections
originating from geometrical structures such as grooves or flanges. After noting the
characteristic pattern of echoes derived from a good part, the operator then looks for
any additional echoes that appear ahead of that backwall echo in a test piece,
discounting grain scatter noise if present.

No Flaw Present

Sound travels through material and reflects off back wall.

Img. 8 Straight beam Img. 9 Test result

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Angle beam testing

Often straight beam testing will not find a defect. For example, if the defect is vertical
and thin enough, it will not reflect enough sound back to the transducer to let the
tester know that it exists. In cases like this, another method of ultrasound testing
must be used. The other method of ultrasound testing is angle beam testing.

Angle beam testing uses an incidence of other than 90 degrees. In contact testing,
an angled plastic block is place between the transducer and the object to create the
desired angle. For angle beam testing in immersion systems, a plastic block is not
needed because the transducer can simply be angled in the water.

Angle beam testing and a change in the angle of incidence also creates further
complications. Remember that when a wave hits a surface at an angle, it will be
refracted, or bent, when it enters the new medium. Thus, the shear waves and the
longitudinal waves will be refracted in the test object.

The amount of refraction depends on the speed of sound in the two mediums
between which the wave is traveling. Since the speed of shear waves is slower than
the speed of longitudinal waves, their angles of refraction will be different. By using
Snell’s law, we can calculate the angle of refraction if we know the speed of sound
in our material.

Img. 10 Angle beam testing

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V. PROCEDURE

1. Surface Preparation: The surface to be subject to ultrasonic testing shall be

free from any existing lubricants, dirt, residue, rust and sharp edges, so; to
smoothly carry on the procedure.
2. Identify the piece to examine.
3. Proceed with the calibration of the equipment with normal probes that are
performed according to the thickness of the piece Proceed with the calibration
of the equipment with normal probes that are performed according to the
thickness of the piece.
4. The coupler is placed on the calibration block, which is the same for the
calibration and for the exam.
5. As a standard, the thickness of the pattern will have a maximum of half the
thickness of the piece to be examined.
6. Verify that the initial echo is located at 0 on the scale, with the help of the
range and sweep controls.
7. Finally, an implant is placed on the piece to be examined and they begin to
look for discontinuities.
8. For the calibration of the equipment with the angular probe, the same
procedure is followed as with the other probe but determining the point of exit
of the beam by moving the probe forward and backward.

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 VI. APPLICATION

In industrial applications, ultrasonic testing is widely used:

 Metals
 Plastics
 Composites
 Ceramics.

Used in many industries including

 Steel and aluminum construction

 Metallurgy
 Manufacturing
 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Other transportation sectors.

The only common engineering materials that are not suitable for ultrasonic testing
with conventional equipment are wood and paper products. Ultrasonic technology
is also widely used in the biomedical field for diagnostic imaging and medical
research.

Img. 11 Welding applications Img. 12 Transport applications

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 VII. STANDARDS

List of nondestructive testing standards developed by ASTM:

Standard Practice for Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Advanced Ceramics with Broadband
C1331 - 18
Pulse-Echo Cross-Correlation Method
Standard Practice for Measurement of Ultrasonic Attenuation Coefficients of Advanced
C1332 - 18
Ceramics by Pulse-Echo Contact Technique
E114 - 15 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam Contact Testing
Standard Practice for Fabrication and Control of Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard
E127 - 15
Reference Blocks
E164 - 19 Standard Practice for Contact Ultrasonic Testing of Weldments
E213 - 14e1 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Pipe and Tubing
E273 - 15 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of the Weld Zone of Welded Pipe and Tubing
Standard Practice for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo
E317 - 16
Testing Instruments and Systems without the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments
E494 - 15 Standard Practice for Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materials
E587 - 15 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Angle-Beam Contact Testing
E664 / E664M - Standard Practice for the Measurement of the Apparent Attenuation of Longitudinal
15 Ultrasonic Waves by Immersion Method
E797 / E797M - Standard Practice for Measuring Thickness by Manual Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact
15 Method
Standard Practice for Detection and Evaluation of Discontinuities by the Immersed Pulse-
E1001 - 16
Echo Ultrasonic Method Using Longitudinal Waves
E1065 /
Standard Guide for Evaluating Characteristics of Ultrasonic Search Units
E1065M - 14
Standard Guide for Material Selection and Fabrication of Reference Blocks for the Pulsed
E1158 - 14
Longitudinal Wave Ultrasonic Testing of Metal and Metal Alloy Production Material
Standard Guide for Measuring Some Electronic Characteristics of Ultrasonic Testing
E1324 - 16
Instruments
Standard Guide for Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy for Defect Detection in Both
E2001 - 18
Metallic and Non-metallic Parts
E2192 -
Standard Guide for Planar Flaw Height Sizing by Ultrasonics
13(2018)
E2223 - Standard Practice for Examination of Seamless, Gas-Filled, Steel Pressure Vessels Using
13(2018)e1 Angle Beam Ultrasonics

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 VIII. ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION CRITERIA

1-ASME Section VIII division I, Appendix 12

All imperfections that produce an amplitude greater than 20% of the reference level
shall be investigated to the extent that the operator can determine the shape, identity
and location of all such imperfections and evaluate them in terms of the following
acceptance standards.

1.1- Imperfections that are interpreted to be cracks, lack of fusion or incomplete

penetration are unacceptable regardless of length.

1.2- All other linear type imperfections are unacceptable, if the amplitude exceeds
the reference level and the length of the imperfection exceeds the following:

(1) ¼ in. for T up to ¾ in.

(2) 1/3 T for T from ¾in. to 2 ¼ in.

(3) ¾ in. for T over 2 ¼ in.

Where T is the thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement.

For a butt weld joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, T is
the thinnest of these two thickness.

If a full penetration weld includes a fillet weld, the thickness of the throat of the fillet
shall be included in T

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IX. REQUIREMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
SAFETY CONDITIONS

 It does not require special security conditions.

 Turn off the machine at the end
 Keep the area clean
 It requires staff with good technical preparation and great experience.
 Coupling agent required
 The test must be carried out under the procedures that meet the minimum
requirements stipulated by the main standards or manufacturing codes

X. MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR

ULTRASONIC TESTING

 Oscilloscope for ultrasound tests

 Connection cable
 Coupling
 Ultrasonic Test Probe for NDT
 Calibration block
 Wear safety shoes

Img. 12 Equipment for ultrasonic testing

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XI. REFERENCES

 CENTER, N. R. (2015). Rail Inspection . E.U.A.

 Industry, I. f. (2013). Ultrasonic Testing Procedure. Academy Industrial .

 International, A. (2004). Nondestructive Testing Standards. E.U.A : Helping

our world work better .

 OLYMPUS. (2014). Ultrasonic Testing FAQ. Mexico : Industrial Solution .

 PIPING, E. t. (2008). Ultrasonic Testing. Werner Sölken : Vitalik Buterin.

 Testing, T. A.-D. (2019). Introduction to Nondestructive Testing. ASNT.

 Tools, I. (2018). Ultrasonic Testing (UT) : Principle, Advantages,

Disadvantages. Peru: Ultrasonic Testing .

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