At the

interstices of
the 20th
century

American Imperialism and the

struggle for Philippine
Independence
 June 12, 1898
General Philippine Declaration of Independence

Timeline
December 1898
Treaty of Paris

January 1899
Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation

February 1899
Philippine government declares war against the United
States
Perspectives 1. Elite-led Government

2. American Imperialism

3. Continued Revolution
S OVE RE IG N T Y BE N E VOL E N T
AS S IM IL AT ION

OL IG ARC H Y OF KABABAY AN
IN T E L L IG E N C E

Crossing wires between revolution and

imperialism
 Preliminaries
The battle of Manila Bay (J.G. Tyler, 1898)
The absolutist nature "[...] sovereignty is the
of sovereignty power to define and
decide upon what is
exceptional, so
exceptional as to warrant
the breaking of laws in
view of either preserving
or destroying the existing
order and establising a
new one altogether."
V. Rafael, 2010:159
ELITE-LED
GOVERNMENT

Oligarchy of intelligence
Elections for land and property
holders
Tension between the
Philippine civilians and
Philippine military
Philippine Declaration
of Independence

June 12, 1898 in Kawit, Cavite

"we the representatives of the people"
"Us" and "them" terms to distinguish between the
representatives and the people
Ambivalence over the definition of popular rule in
Philippines
POLITICAL REORGANIZATION

June 18, 1898 Jan 23, 1899 Feb 4, 1899 Feb 5, 1899
Decree Declaration Military Power War
Elections for Of the Constitutional In Luzon, Pres. Declaration of war
property holders Republic of the Aguinaldo grants against the United
Philippines; military greater States
Malolos Constitution power than civil
is enacted officials
CENTRAL PRESIDENT EMILIO AGUINALDO

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENT SECRETARIES

WAR BALDOMERO AGUINALDO

INTERIOR LEANDRO IBARRA
FOREIGN AFFAIRS CAYETANO ARELLANO
(LATER REPLACED BY MABINI)
FINANCE MARIANO TRIAS
JUSTICE GREGORIO ARANETA
WELFARE FELIPE BUENCAMINO
The 1899 Philippine Constitution

1. Representative Government
2. Bill of Rights
3. Separation of Church and State
4. Dominance of Single-Chamber
Legislative Branch over the
Executive and Judiciary
 F E L IP E C AL D E RON
Being fully convinced, therefore,
that in case of obtaining our
independence, we were for a long
time to have a really oligarchic
republic in which the military
OLIGARCHY OF element, which was ignorant in
almost its entirety, would
INTELLIGENCE predominate, I preferred to see
that oligarchy neutralized by the
June 18, 1898 oligarchy of intelligence, seeing
that the Congress would be
composed of the most intelligent
elements of the nation
 AUG US T 13
Mock battle in Manila between
Spain and the US; surrender of
Spanish troops

AMERICAN T RE AT Y OF P ARIS
Protocol of Peace
DUPLICITY Felipe Agoncillo

C ON S UL S P RAT T AN D
W IL D M AN
Promises that the US did not
want to colonize the Philippines
 The Philippine-American
War (1899-1902)

22,000 Philippine soldiers

The "first 500,000 Civilians
Vietnam War" 100,000 In Mindanao alone

Philippine-American War Centennial Initiative (PAWCI)

American Imperialism
 Proclamation of
Benevolent
January 1899
Assimilation
President William McKinley
Frontier mentality
HIstorical Evolution and Social Darwinian
theories
AMERICAN REINFORCEMENTS
ARRIVE IN THREE WAVES

2500 M E N 3500 M E N 480 0 M E N

June 30, 1898 july 17, 1898 july 31, 1898

The White Man's Burden
America before America's political ideology

the 1890's Declaration of Independence: against the

subjugation of other people against their will;
Egalitarian "Liberal" idealism in America

Nature of economy
No need for capital outlets
Capital-importing country

Internal political problems

Civil War (1861-5), Indian Wars (1637-1890/1918)
 "There is certainly no power
given by the Constitution to the
Federal Government to establish
EXCERPT FROM or maintain colonies on the

THE 1857 DRED United States or at a distance, to

be ruled and governed at its own
SCOTT VS pleasure, nor to enlarge its
SANDFORD CASE territorial limits in any way
except by the admission of new
Justice Taney States..."
From Thomas McHale
(1962:25)
 In the case of new states:
"It is acquired to become as State
EXCERPT FROM and not to be held as a colony
THE 1857 DRED and governed by Congress with
SCOTT VS absolute authority... to become a
SANDFORD CASE State upon an equal footing with
the other States..."

Justice Taney
From Thomas McHale
(1962:26)
 ON AMERICAN IMPERIALISM
"A reading of the history of the era leaves no doubt
MCHALE 1962:28

that the United States moved into an imperialistic

war against Spain against a background of
tremendous spontaneous popular enthusiasm -- but
without a minimum of reflective thinking regarding
the specific immediate problems involved or the long
run implications of such a move."
POSSIBLE REASONS FOR THE
TURNING POINT

American "frontier" Social Darwinism Economic Change

USS Maine blown up in John Burgess "not a right Industrialization in the
Havana Feb 1989 but an oblilgation" 1880's; from agricultural to
manufactured goods
POSSIBLE REASONS FOR THE
TURNING POINT
Balance of Power
Germany, Japan, Russia
indicated interest into the
Philippines
*The case of Germany:
Vice Admiral Otto van
Deiderichs, Far Eastern
German squadron,
receives orders June 3 1898
from German Emperor
Wilhelm II to inspect Manila
Demonstration Effect
Doing as the great powers
do
 RE P UBL IC AN S IN F AVOR D E M OC RAT S IN F AVOR
Presentations are tools that can be
used as lectures.

RE P UBL IC AN S IN D E M OC RAT S IN
OP P OS IT ION OP P OS IT ION
Deleting of provision on acquiring End the war, stop the bloodshed,
the Philippines detach Philippines from Spain and
grant Filipinos independence.

On the Treaty of Paris 1898:

Major divisions of thought on imperialism
THE AMERICANS J UN E T O J UL Y 1898

SET UP SHOP
Increase of military forces

D E C E M BE R 1 898
Treaty of Paris

J AN UARY 1 899
The First Philippine Commission is
tasked to study the Philippine
situation; recommend mechanisms
of colonial government
 APRIL 4: SCHURMAN
CONSTANTINO 1974:220

COMMISSION
"The supremacy of the United States must and will
be enforced throughout every part of the
Archipelago and those who resist it can accomplish
no end other than their own ruin"
Promise of autonomy in exchange for unconditional
surrender
DYNAMIC IN THE M AY 1899

MALOLOS
Malolos Congress unanimously
accepts Schurman offer; Mabini

CONGRESS
cabinet is dissolved; Pedro Paterno
made Premier

J UN E 1 899
Death of General Antonio Luna;
negotiations for autonomy fail

N OVE M BE R 1899 T O
S E P T E M BE R 1900
Aguinaldo and small party retreat
across Luzon
SURRENDER TO THE M ARC H 1 901

UNITED STATES
Aguinaldo captured

E L IT E S S UP P ORT
AM E RIC AN G OVE RN M E N T ; AP RIL 1 901
M AS S E S C ON T IN UE Oath of allegiance to United States
S T RUG G L E
Constantino 1975:250

J UL Y 4 , 1 901
Taft establishes civil government.
Filipino mestizos set up political
parties, eg. Partido Conservador
Philippine Constabulary inaugurated
in August
 Period of
Suppressed
Nationalism

1901-1907
ANTI-IMPERIALIST LEAGUE
CONSTANTINO 1974:242
ANTI-IMPERIALIST LEAGUE
CONSTANTINO 1974:243
ANTI-IMPERIALIST LEAGUE
CONSTANTINO 1974:243
70,000 120,000
American American
soldiers soldiers

1900 1902, "end" of insurrection

 American Policies
Acts by the Philippine Commission
under Howard Taft:
1. Philippine Constabulary (1901)
2. Sedition Law (1901)
3. Brigandage Law (1902)
4. Reconcentration Law (1903)
5. Flag Law (1907)

Getting Started with a Presentation

 THE NEW KATIPUNAN, LUZON

MACARIO SAKAY, LUZON

PULAHAN MOVEMENT, LEYTE

CONTINUING
REVOLUTION
1901 - 1904 The New
Katipunan
G E N E RAL L UC IAN O S AN M IG UE L , continues the
F AUS T IN O G UIL L E RM O
Rizal and Bulacan areas, "Diliman gang"
struggle
C ORD ON T AC T IC AN D AM IG O AC T
American attacks, rebel alliances

H E AD QUART E R BE T W E E N C AL OOC AN AN D
M ARIK IN A
A mass of Katipunan documents found
1904 - 1907 The Tagalog
RE S IS T AN C E F ORC E S F ROM RIZ AL -
C AVIT E - L AG UN A- BAT AN G AS Repubic
Macario Sakay, Julian Montalan, Corneiio
Felizardo, Lucio de Vega

S AK AY AS P RE S ID E N T
Constitution after Katipunan's, signatories
include old Katipunan members

AP RIL 1904 M AN IF E S T O
Declaring continuing fight against United
States for independence of country
Halina, halina mga kababayan
Ating salubungin itong bagong datal
Mga Filipinong panguloy si Sakay
Silang nagmatuid nitong ating bayan.
Ang binabanig nila'y malamig na lupa
Ang kinukumot nila'y damong mahahaba
Ayao magpatulog - mga kaawa-awa Kaya
tayong lahat mag kaisa
Sa pagmamalasakit sa patria.
KABABAYAN:
POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
Come on, come on countrymen
Let us greet the new arrivals
The Filipinos led by Sakay
Who will set this country on the right course.
They use the ground for their sleeping mats
They use the long grass for their blankets
Unable to sleep - how pitiful they are
So then let us all unite In having compassion
for the mother!
1904 - 1907 The Tagalog
W RAT H AN D W ARF ARE Repubic
Traitors punishments, no tolerance for apathy, ends
villages burned down

A T RAP IS S E T
Dominador Gomez and the promise of general
amnesty, the Philippine Assembly of 1907

D E AT H ON S E P T E M BE R 1 3, 1907
Sakay and de Vega are executed under the
Brigandage Law
MACARIO SAKAYY 
CONSTANTINO 1974:261
AM AL G AM AT ION OF P E AS AN T - BAS E D
The Pulahan
RE S IS T AN C E M OVE M E N T S
Movement
Across Visayas islands (Tabals in Cebu), in
Leyte (Ormoc, Jaro, Buraruen)
1902-1911
D IOS - D IOS
Faustino Ablen, assumed the title of Pope

C ON T E S T E D IN T E RP RE T AT ION S
Hurley: childlike hillpeople and messianic
fanatics
Borrinaga: unravelling the 'irrational',
nativistic, mystical
 Prelude
F R. G AS P AR IG N AC IO D E G UE VARA, 17 65
Biliran Island, 1754 Moro raid, self-sufficient
1768-1902
farming commune

AL BAC E A, E X E C UT OR OF T H E T E S T AM E N T
A secular priest, born in Samar

M OBIL IZ IN G AG AIN S T S P AN IS H
No tax, no allegiance to Spanish; friars
teachings invalid
 Prelude

L A S AN T A D E L E Y T E , 1 862
1768-1902
Benedicta, 4,000 followers, a universal flood,
Dios-Dios

OT H E R D IOS - D IOS M OVE M E N T S

Oraciones, anting-anting, thousands of local
followers

KAT IP UN AN , D IOS - D IOS

Join the army of General Mojica
 The Pulahan
C E BU: QUIN T IN AN D AN AT AL IO T ABAL
Movement
Pulahan: red uniforms; Sergio Osmena
(provincial governor) and the policy of
1902-1911
attraction and reconcentration

P UL AH AN E S IN L E Y T E
Faustino Ablen, assumed the title of Pope
Deliverance from poverty

IN S AM AR
General Vicente Lukban continues resistance
Enrique Dagohob and countryside control
"The pacification of the Philippines after
the Filipino-American War must be
viewed as a collaborative project of
American colonial officals and the first
generation of Filipino politicos, all of
whom viewed themselves as nationalists."

Cullinane, 2009:52
Sources Used
McHale, Thomas. (Mar. 1962). "American colonial
policy towards the Philippines" in Journal of
Southeast Asian History, Vol. 3, No 1, pp. 24-43

Abinales, Patricio and Donna Amoroso. (2005).

State and Society. Quezon City: Anvil Publishing.

Constantino, Renato. (1975). The Philippines: A
Past Revisited. Quezon City: Tala Publishing.
Rafael, Vicente. (Jan 2010). "Welcoming what
comes: Sovereignty and Revolution in the
Colonial Philippines" in Comparative Studies in
Society and History, Vol. 52, No. 1.
Borrinaga, George. (2015). "Seven churches: The
Pulahan Movement in Leyte, 1902-1907" in
Philippine Quarterly of Culture & Society, Vol. 43,
Nos. 1 & 2: 1-139.
Cullinane, Michael. (2009). "Bringing in the brigands:
The politics of pacification in the Colonial
Philippines, 1902-1907" in Philippine Studies, Vol. 57,
No. 1.