SOCIOLOGY WITH GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY

The wonderful adage that says “No man is an island.” can be considered as the mainstream in
identifying the nature and scope of sociology.

Nature & Scope

concerned with the study of people in a group or social context, not as an isolated
individuals
as the science of society, it studies a wide variety of current issues and problems.
As a discipline it takes a neutral position carefully avoiding bias that would affect
sociological findings and conclusions

SOCIOLOGY
 came from the two prominent languages of early advance civilization Socius which means
companion, partners, or society & Logus which means science or study
 the scientific study of society and the social interaction taking place
 the scientific study of human interaction and the product of such interaction
 It is a dazzling (stunning) and compelling (exciting) enterprise, having as its subject matter
our own behavior as social beings.
 a detailed study about the human society, their interactions, reactions and their
development cycle pertaining to the society
 an art that involves scientific understanding and it is the study of human behavior

SOCIOLOGY & OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. Anthropology
- The scientific study of the origin and behavior of man, including the development of societies
and cultures.
- Anthropology focuses on the historical existence of the entities of a certain phenomenon, say
for instance culture and belief practiced in a particular group.
- Anthropologist tend to dig up the primitive or non-literate humanity,
- while sociologists study more on the latest trending of civilization . In short sociologist usually
studies a certain parts of a society such as the family.

2. Geography
- Earth’s Description
- study of the earth's surface; includes people's responses to topography and climate and soil
and vegetation

3. Psychology
- the study of human behavior often called the science of the mind
- it deals with the mental processes such as thinking, learning, resembling and decision
making, feelings, emotions, motives and personality
- sociology is interested on how personality and behavior are influenced by people’s social
background. For instance, why do two neighbors coming from different regions of the
Philippines do not agree on a certain rule practiced in one setting? The reason behind is the
tradition belief and behavior of them

4. Economics
- concerned with the production and distribution of goods and services
- Economics centers on the production and distribution of goods and services. It intentionally
deals with the flow of money and the relationship of prices to supply and demand. Linking
sociology in terms of economic movement, it is also true that socially, protagonists (heroes,
or characters) of business undertakings should have the social background of the
consumers. Or else they could not foresee the economic bearings of their production if they
do not have the baseline of information regarding the likes and dislikes of the people .
 5. Political Science
- the study of political behavior of human beings that focuses on the various aspects of
government, political, institutions, political processes and political parties
- refers to the study of government, it signifies how a certain society run by leadership. But it
is not possible to separate sociology from politics because government can only be effective
if there are people who are socially aware of what is going on to the present society they
belong - the govern system they are in. Politicians should be socially concern and aware to
the behavior of the people.
-
6. History
- the study of the chronology of significant events, people and places in the past
- it is the written records of the past.
- uncovered what transpired in the past for the narration what had happened before.
- On the other hand sociologist studies on the current or more latest events according to the
behavior of the people

- For example, historians recorded the events of the Filipino people during World War II, but
the sociologist discusses on the impact on the behavioral pattern of the Filipino people as
influenced by the presence of Japanese occupation in our country.

7. Humanities
- The science that contains records of man’s experiences, high values, sentiments, ideals and
goals
It is ultimately the expression of man’s feeling and thoughts
- It came from the latin word humanus which means human, cultured and refined

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY
 It provides factual information about our society and the different aspects of our social life
 It enables us to learn the application of scientific information to daily life and problems
 It broadens our experience as we learn to discard our prejudices and become more
understanding of the custom of other people and as we realize that the truth is relative and
good and bad behavior depends upon the norms of conduct of the society in which behavior
takes place

AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Social Organization
- the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of
relationships;
2. Human Ecology
- is the study of the human species and its interactions with its surroundings
- the study of communities of people, the place that they occupy in the natural world and the
ways in
which they adapt to or change the environment.
2. Population studies
- A study of a group of individuals taken from the general population who share a common
characteristic, such as age, sex, or health condition.
3. Sociological theory and research
4. Applied sociology
- is a branch of general sociology which at its basis is the scientific study of society as a whole.

HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

18 th Century
 The period when Western society was experiencing sweeping and histrionic changes
 It was also the time when Sociology as a science gradually developed
 It is known as the Era of Enlightenment
 It was the death of the old order and the stage for the liberalism and reliance of the scientific
method
  The development of sociology as a science was encouraged by the administration of scientific
method in natural science and exposure of Europe to different culture it has acquired as colonies.

Early Sociologist
 Multidisciplinary in their orientation
 Deduce ideas from philosophy and the biological and physical sciences
 Believed that the power of reason could shed light on the improvement of social life and mitigate
or eliminate social problems

HENRY SAINT SIMON

 Based his ideas on the science of society on the law of nature
 He discussed his ideas with Auguste Comte

Sociology was first taught in the United States (1876)

 France (1889)
 Great Britain (1897)
 Poland, India, Egypt and Mexico (1925)
 Sweden (1947)
 Paris (1954

SIGNIFICANT FORERUNNERS OF SOCIOLOGY

AUGUSTE COMTE
 A native of Southern France
 The son of government worker
 His studies focused on mathematics and the natural science
 He was expelled for joining a rebellion against the school’s administration before finishing his
course
 He was greatly influence by Henry Saint Simon’s idea, a precursor of a Marxist version of socialism,
a system where the means of production and industry are owned by the people.
 He was accused of Plagiarism which he denied
 He coined the term Sociology
 The founder of Sociology
 He was known for his Positive Philosophy
 His theory is that “ Intellectual development is an evolutionary process
 He advocated the idea of Positivism or the use of empirical investigation – emphasizing the
techniques of observation, comprehension and experimentation in the development of
knowledge
THE LAW OF THREE STAGES
1. The Theological Stage
 Refers to explanation by personified deities. During the earlier stages, people believed
that all phenomena of nature are the creation of the divine or supernatural. Men and
children failed to discover the natural causes of various phenomena and hence attributed
them to supernatural or divine power.
3 sub-stages of Theological Stage
1.a. Fetishism
- was the primary stage of the theological stage of thinking.
- Throughout this stage, primitive people believe that inanimate objects have living
spirit in them, also known as animism.
- People worship inanimate objects like trees, stones, a piece of wood, volcanic
eruptions, etc.
1.b. Polytheism
- The explanation of things through the use of many Gods.
- Primitive people believe that all natural forces are controlled by different Gods; a few
examples would be God of water, God of rain, God of fire, God of air, God of earth,
etc.
1.c. Monotheism
- Monotheism means believing in one God or God in one;
 - attributing all to a single, supreme deity.
- Primitive people believe a single theistic entity is responsible for the existence of the
universe.
2. The Metaphysical stage
- is the extension of the theological stage.
- refers to explanation by impersonal abstract concepts. People often tried to believe
that God is an abstract being.
- They believe that an abstract power or force guides and determines events in the
world.
3. The Positivity stage
- also known as the scientific stage
- refers to scientific explanation based on observation, experiment, and comparison.
Positive explanations rely upon a distinct method, the scientific method, for their
justification.
- Today people attempt to establish cause and effect relationships. Positivism is a
purely intellectual way of looking at the world; as well, it emphasizes observation and
classification of data and facts. This is the highest, most evolved behavior according
to Comte

TWO MAJOR SOCIAL CONCERN

1. Law of Dynamics
- The study of social change
2. Law of Statics
- The study of social order

HARRIET MARTINEAU
 An English sociologist
 translated Comte’s works
 Observed British and American social practices and customs
 Society in America – book written by Martineau
 Scrutinized American religion, politics, child raring, and immigration with emphasis on race,
status, gender and the effects of law, trade, economy and population on contemporary society’s
social problems.
 She was a feminist, an early advocate of women’s liberation
 She was interested in religious tolerance and the emancipation of slaves
HERBERT SPENCER
 A son of a school teacher
 Born in England
 His education consisted mainly of mathematics and the natural sciences
 His aim was to enable people to understand society better
 He has an organismic view of the nature of society
 He saw society as a living organism with specific parts or organs, each performing specific function
 He was heavily influenced by the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
“ Natural Selection and Survival of the Fittest”
 he thought that the major focus of sociology should be social evolution rather than the
suggestion and implementation of strategies for social improvement
EMILE DURKHEIM
 The son of a rabbi
 Educated in France & Germany
 One of the 1st French professors of sociology
 The 1st French academic sociologist to be conferred by the university of paris the 1st doctors
degree in sociology
 The 1st to hold a chair in sociology
 He is best remembered for his notion that behavior must be understood and comprehended
within a larger context
 He viewed society as an entity or the sum of various parts
 According to him, group or society is the central object of sociological study
 Considered one of the founders of a major sociological perspective known as functionalism
MAX WEBER
 Born in Germany
 Took his early academic training in economics and legal history
 He encourage his students to use VERSTEHEN – (German word for insight or understanding) in
their works
 He thought that to comprehend social behavior, people must understand the meanings attached
to their actions.
 His legacy to sociology is the “Key Conceptual Tool: the ideal type”
 Ideal type
- Is a model that serves as a measuring instrument against which actual cases can be evaluated
 He is one of the founders of Symbolic interactionism – which focuses on social life and human
behavior from the standpoint of the individuals involved in day-to-day interaction
KARL MARX
 A native of Germany
 Descended from a lineage of rabbis
 His first intention is to practice Law but he shifted to Philosophy after involvement with a radical
anti-religious group
 He met Friedrich Engels who became his longtime friend
 They wrote the communist manifesto which urge the masses (proletariat) to unite and overthrow
capitalist societies (bourgeoisie)
 He was one of the earliest and most important proponents of the conflict theory
 His landmark in sociology was his research on group identification by which influences an
individual's place in society
 For him conflict is the main source of social change
GEORG SIMMEL
 German philosopher
 He obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Berlin
 He was among the pioneers who recognized, designated and analyzed the impact of social
differentiation , expansion of social groups, structure of the economy and other developmental
and environmental influences in the development of human personality
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
FR. VALENTINE MARIN
 Introduced sociology as a subject in the academe of the University of Sto. Tomas in 1896
 He initiated a course on Criminology
 This started the development of Sociology in the Philippines
Prof. A.E.W. SALT & Pres. Murray Bartlett
 Initiated the first organized course in sociology at the University of the Philippines in 1911.
UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
 The first to offer a major in sociology
XAVIER UNIVERSITY
 The first to offer a Ph.D. program in sociology
CLYDE HEFLIN
 Introduced sociology at Siliman University in Dumaguete
Dean CONRADO BENITEZ
 The first Filipino to teach sociology at the University of the Philippines
SERAFIN MACARAIG
 Teach sociology in UP.
 The first Filipino to obtain a Ph.D. in sociology from the university of winconsin
 Introduced the social problem orientation in the teaching of sociology
MODERN SOCIOLOGY
 Began only after world war ii
 Social research was then introduced
PHILIPPINE SOCIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
 An important milestone in the development of sociology in the philippines
 Filipino educators from U.P., Ateneo de Manila, and Siliman University organized this institution
PHILIPPINE SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
 Journal of Philippine sociological society
 Had sociologist and anthropologist as writer
PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCE COUNCIL
 Established in 1968
 Emphasized social science research
FR. FRANK SJ
 Published articles on Philippine Society and culture
 He founded the institute of Philippine culture at the Ateneo de manila
 It spearheaded research on economic development, modernization and problems of education
with the aim of understanding the Filipino way life

SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY
- It is the systematic analysis of the motivations and behavior of individual within a
group
- The study of social as a whole and of such social institution as the family, the church,
the branches of the government, the school ans the community
- The collection and ordering of facts in terms of a conceptual-theoretical model
which is subject to reconstruction as its application results in new different findings
GOALS OF SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY
 to obtain an understanding of the observable world.
 To understand aspects of this social world, one has to observe phenomena in relation to
particular point of time and place and realize how they were, how they are and why they have
or have not changed.
 To accumulate scientific knowledge, describing what it is or the reality that surrounds man
SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY PROCEDURE
1. DEFINING PROBLEM
- Selecting a topic for research and defining key concepts.
2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
- Familiarizing oneself with the existing theory and research on the topic
3. FORMING A HYPOTHESIS
- It is a proposition or an assumption stating what is to be resolved.
- It states the relationship between two or more phenomena
- It can be proven true or false by facts
SOCIAL PHENOMENA
- Observable facts or events in human society.
4. CHOOSING A RESEARCH DESIGN
- Selecting a method for study:
- a. Experiment
- b. case study
- c. survey
- d. field observation
- e. historical approach
5. COLLECTING THE DATA
- Collecting the information that will test the hypothesis.
- Gathering of information
- Done to meet the fundamental aim of sociological inquiry
6. ANALYZING THE DATA
- Working with and examining the data to shed light on the hypothesis.
- Involves answering questions or assumptions with facts that have been gathered or
it involves testing the hypothesis
- Interpretation of the data gathered
7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
- Summarizing the outcome of the study, indicating its significance, relating the
findings to existing theory and research, and identifying problems for future
research
- The result of the study
METHODS USED BY SOCIOLOGIST AND SOCIAL RESEARCHERS
A. EXPERIMENT
 - A research method the exposes subjects to a specific designed situation. By systematically
recording subjects’ reactions, the researcher can assess the effect of different variables.
- It offers the most effective technique for establishing a cause and effect relationship.
B. SURVEY
- A method of research using either questionnaires or interviews, or both, to learn how
people think, feel, or act.
- Good surveys use random samples and pre-tested questions to ensure high reliability and
validity.
- It is a procedure for gathering information from a large number of people .
- A scientifically conducted survey is a complex undertaking; it involve choosing a sample,
constructing and asking the right questions and analysing the data.
WAYS OF MAKING A SURVEY
- 1. Questionnaire
- Way or method to secure answers to questions which were written down
- Spaces are provided for the respondent’s written answers
- 2. Interview
- The researcher may interview subjects face-to-face or by telephone. It can be:
- 1. Structured or Directive
- it is a procedure in which carefully phased standard questions or schedule often with
multiple choice answers-are asked in a fixed order to provide systematic and comparable
data and hence facilitates analysis.
- Example: What purpose do you visit the library? (Multiple choices)
( ) To read news papers
( ) To refer books
( ) To borrow and return books
( ) To brows Internet
- 2. Unstructured or Nondirective
- It is a procedure in which neither the questions not the answers are predetermined, instead,
the researcher let the interviewee or respondent guide the flow of the interview. Here the
researchers do not seek answers to specific questions but to explore a bread or subtle
aspect of social life.
- Example: What are the facilities and services do you expect from your library?
Are you in favor of death Penalty? Why?
C. CASE STUDY
- Intensive study and examination of a person or a specific group, organization or
institution is carried out. It enables one to examine a particular subject in depth for
it involves examination of the subject over a long period of time. It is also known as
scientific biography, case history, case work or diary of development.
-
D. OBSERVATION
There are two ways of observation:
A. Participant observation or Field Observation
- A research method in which researchers deliberately involve themselves in the activity,
group, or community they are studying in order to get an insider’s view.
B. Detached observation
- The researcher enters the situation as a third party as he observes and records what he is
studying.
E. HISTORICAL APPROACH
- It is a procedure where historical materials, documents, government archives, historical
manuscripts, letters, newspapers, memories, diaries, biographies, etc. data pertaining to
acts ideas and events that shaped human behavior in the past are analysed. The aim is to
gain insights and understanding of present social realities in the context of what took
place
Example: Durkheim’s study on suicide
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES USED IN SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY
1. Qualitative Technique
- Involves the examination of data from observation, interviews and publications which are not
statistical in nature.
 The tools used include historical records, biographies, autobiographies, diaries, speeches,
editorials and videotapes.
2. Quantitative Technique
- Involves the use of statistics which deal with a mass of data and permit more precise
statements of their relationships.
- It involves the classification and enumeration of data analysis of the qauntitative
relationships involved, and assignment of numerical values to their relationship.
- The tools used include census and vital statistics, local, national, and international
reports, sampling measures of central tendency such as the mean, medial and
mode; measure of variability the negative or positive

MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

Theory
- Is a statement of how and why processes work or the world operates
- theories attempt to explain why groups of people choose to perform certain actions
and how societies function or change in a certain way.
The Importance of Theory
- like psychology, economics, and sociology, to follow theoretical perspectives as a
framework for understanding phenomena, such as the ways people form groups.
- Without theories, we'd just have a huge list of individual tendencies, or decisions
people make, or types of people, but we wouldn't have any way of organizing the
field. Theories help us see overall themes across many specific types of behaviors or
decisions in the social world.
1. Structural-Functional Theory
- This approach views society as a complex, but interconnected system, where each
part works together as a functional whole.
- studies how each part of the larger social world works together.
- Symbol of this is the:
Human body-you have arms, legs, a heart, a brain, and so on. Each individual body
part has its own neurons and system for working, but each part has to work
together for a fully-functioning structure, or system.
- What are the different structures, or systems
- government,
- businesses,
- schools, and
- families.
- We need all of these systems to work together for a fully-functioning society.
- Example:
- How would you apply the structural-functional approach or theory to sports?
- Basketball
- Soccer
2. Social Conflict
- This theory views society as a system of groups that are not equal, and therefore
consistently generate conflict and change.
- Social conflict theory emphasizes how social conflict motivates people and societies
to evolve over time.
3. Feminism
- It is a perspective that views society as traditionally unequal between men and
women and strives for equality between the sexes.
- Example
- Men and women are not paid equally, even with the same education and the same
job
- Women are less represented in the government
- Women are less likely to be business owners
4. Symbolic interactionism
- tends to focus on the language and symbols that help us give meaning to the
experiences in our life.
 - The central theme of symbolic interactionism is that human life is lived in the
symbolic domain. Symbols are culturally derived social objects having shared
meanings that are created and maintained in social interaction.
- Through language and communication, symbols provide the means by which reality
is constructed.
- Reality is primarily a social product, and all that is humanly consequential—self,
mind, society, culture—emerges from and is dependent on symbolic interactions for
its existence.
- Even the physical environment is relevant to human conduct mainly as it is
interpreted through symbolic systems.

CULTURE
ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORD CULTURE
 Came from the Latin word Cultura, meaning cultivation or tending
 Training development and refinement of mind, tastes and manners
DEFINITION OF CULTURE
CULTURE
 That complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities acquired by man as a member of the society. (Edward Taylor)
 Refers to the total and distinctive way of life or designs for living of any society
 It encompasses learned behaviors, beliefs attitudes and ideals characteristics of certain societies
 Human invention that has a fundamental role in population’s adaptation to its environment
(Weinsrein)
 It is the sum total of human creations – intellectual, technical, artistic, physical and moral
 It guides social life, the things generation must follow and to which they may eventually add.
KINDS OF CULTURE
1. Material Culture – refers to the physical or technological aspects of our daily lives, including
jewelry, art buildings, weapons, machines, clothing, hairstyles, etc.
2. Non-material Culture – refers to the group’s ways of thinking and patterns of behavior.
Generally, the non-material culture is more resistant to change than the material culture is.
ELEMENT S OF CULTURE
1. VALUES
 From the word Valere which means strong, vigorous
 It provides direction on what is good or bad and right or wrong
2. BELIEFS
 It embody people’s perception of reality and may include the primitive ideas of the universe as
well as the scientist’s empirical view of the world
 It is composed of fables, superstitions, proverbs, myths, folklore, theology, philosophy, art and
sciences
3. NORMS
 An idea in the mind of a member of a group put into a statement specifying what members
should do ought to do or expected to do under certain circumstances
 Rules or pattern of behavior that define what is expected , customary right or proper at a given
situation.
 Rules or group expectations of how one should behave or act in certain situations
 They define what behavior is required, acceptable or appropriate in particular situations
 It is usually in the form of rules, standards, prescriptions and socially shared expectations
 Pertains to society’s standards of propriety, morality, ethics & legality
TWO TYPES OF NORMS
A. Prescriptive Norms
 Those which are right, legal, ethical, good, proper, moral and appropriate
B. Proscriptive Norms
 Those which are unethical, wrong, bad, immoral, illegal, inappropriate and improper
4. FOLKWAYS
 Customs, habits & repetitive patterns of expected behavior
 Commonly known as the customs, traditions and conventions of society
 They are the general rules, customary and habitual ways and patterns of expected behavior
within the society where they are followed, without much thought given to the matter
 Refers to the norms that are looked upon by members of a society are not being
extremely important and that may be violated without severe punishment
Examples:
Eating three times a day with mirienda in the afternoon and they eat with their hands
Saying po at opo
Courtship & Dating
5. LAWS
 Formalized norms enacted by people vested with governmental power and enforced by political
and legal authorities designated by the government
 Are enforced by formal sanctions like fines, imprisonment or death
 They have the strong support of public opinion and tend to reinforced folkways and mores
 It is hard to enforced when these does not reflect folkways and mores
Example:
Philippine Constitutions
6. MORES
 Carry moral or ethical values and are the results of long established customs
 Special folkways which are important to the welfare of the people and their values
 They are social norms associated with strong feelings about what is right and what is true
 They are the must and should of a society
Examples:
Ten Commandments
Incest Tabos
Child abuse
Circumcision
Ear-piercing
7. LANGUAGE
 The most important element of culture
 It is the central feature of all human cultures
 It is the systematized usage of speech and hearing to convey, communicate or express feelings
and ideas
8. KNOWLEDGE
 The total range of what has been learned or perceived as true
 This body of information is accumulated through experience, study or investigation
KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE
A. Natural knowledge
 Refers to the accumulated facts about natural world, including both the biological and
physical aspects
B. Technological knowledge
 Pertains to the knowledge of nature which are useful in dealing with practical problems
like methods of acquiring food, dealing with diseases, means of transportation, tools etc.
C. Supernatural knowledge
 Refers to perceptions about the actions of gods, demons, angels or spiritual and natural
beings like witches, shamans or prophet who are held to posses supernatural powers.
D. Magical knowledge
 Refers to perception about methods of influencing supernatural events by manipulating
certain laws of nature.
9. SANCTIONS
 It is a system of reward and punishment to ensure that the norms are followed and
expectations obeyed
Rewards are positive sanctions for those who behave properly
Punishments are negative sanctions for those who behave improperly
 It may be formal or informal
Informal Sanction are gossip, unfavorable and favorable public opinion and giving or
withdrawing love or friendship
Formal Sanction are used for violations of norms in organizations or associations
10. TECHNOLOGY
  Refers to the techniques and know-how in processing raw materials to produce foods,
shelter, clothing, means of transportation and weapons
 It applies the principle of science and mechanics to the solutions of problems or to
accomplish a specific task.
ARTIFACTS – the material object that are produced by technology
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1. Culture is Learned
- Culture are acquired during the course of one’s life and not transmitted genetically
- Culture is derive from the family and other social groups through conditioning, imitation
suggestion, informal and formal instruction and mass communication
- The acquisition of culture follows certain principles of learning, reinforced through a system
of reward and punishment
2. Culture is a group product
- It is the result of a group’s Habits and experiences, passed on to succeeding generation for
posterity
3. Culture is shared
- Culture must be shared by groups of individuals
- We share cultural characteristics with segments of our population based on ethnicity,
religion or occupation
4. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation
- Only humans can transmit their acquired habits and knowledge to their offspring by formal
communication, mass communication, suggestion and by a system of reward and
punishment
- It is also transmitted by conditioning children to acquire attitudes essential in social life and
training them in accordance with expected pattern of behavior
- Man improves on what his preceding generation has accomplished. Culture may be
transmitted by formal communication, mass communication, suggestion and by a system of
reward and punishment.
5. Culture is patterned and integrated
- Culture is the product not of a single individual but of a collective.
- A unified or integrated culture is one where there is conformity between ideal norms and
actual behavior. The members biological, psychological and social need are met.
6. Culture is adaptive and maladaptive
- It is adaptive when used by man to make the environment viable for stable economy
- It is maladaptive when scarce resources are destroyed or depleted
7. Culture is compulsory
- Members of the society have to follow the group’s culture, if they wish to be in harmony
with one another
8. Culture is cumulative
- Each culture stores pertinent knowledge and passes new knowledge to the succeeding
generations while information which is no longer useful is slowly cast off.
- It is the group knowledge stored up in memories of men; in books and objects. This
knowledge is accumulated over a period of time from one generation to another generation.
9. Culture is Dynamic
- Culture is continually changing. No culture is in a permanent state. Today’s practices may
no longer be applicable in the future.
- Since culture is cumulative, it follows that culture is also dynamic. It is constantly changing.
No culture is ever in a permanent state. The practices of today will never be the same
tomorrow.
10. Culture is Diverse
- Each culture is different
- Individuals must avoid assuming that their way of doing things is the only right or practical
DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE
1. INNOVATION
 The introduction of a new or novel ideal or object to a culture
TOW FORMS OF INNOVATION
A. DICOVERY
 A disclosure of an aspect of reality
 Example:
The uncovering of the DNA MOLECULE is a discovery
B. INVENTION
 Occurs when items originate after studies and experimentation are made
2. DIFFUSION
 Refers to the process by which a cultural item is spread from group to group or society
to society
 It occurs through military conquests, exploration, influences of the mass media,
missionary work tourism
COMPONENTS OD CULTURE by John H. Bodley
1. What people think
2. What people do
3. Material things people produce
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE (an anthropological perspective)
1. Culture is topical
- Culture consist of everything on a list of topics or categories such as social, organization,
religion, or economy
2. Culture is Historical
- Culture is social heritage or tradition that passed on to future generation
3. Culture is behavioral
- Culture is learned, shared human behavior, a way of life
4. Culture is normative
- Culture is ideals, values or rules for living
5. Culture is Functional
- Culture is the way human beings solve problems of adapting to the environment or living
together
6. Culture is Mental
- Culture is a complex use of ideas or learned habits that inhibits impulses and distinguishes
people from animals
7. Culture is structural
- Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas , symbols or behavior
8. Culture is Symbolic
- Culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are shared by a society
TERRITORIES OF CULTURE
1. LOCAL CULTURE
- Is a manifestation of the way of life is a particular locality or community, sharing a distinct
identity different from other societies or communities
- It is the concrete, live experience of a particular community or the local narrative of
everyday life.
- It emphasize local identity
2. NATIONAL CULTURE
- It emphasizes national identity
3. GLOBAL CULTURE
- Transcends national boundaries and nation-state collective consciousness
LEVEL OF CULTURAL PARTICIPATION
1. Universals
- Which are the norms, values, beliefs, and conditioned emotional responses common to
members of the society
- They are necessary for the existence of a given society
- Traits and complexes which are common to and practiced by every normal adult member of
the society
2. Specialties
- These are the behavior expectation confined to a certain sub-groups
- These often require unusual skill or training and reflect the division of labor and hierarchy of
statuses in a culture
- These are not shared by total population
3. Alternatives
 - Behavior expectation which permit a certain range of choice in human behavior and specify
the tolerable variations in behavior.
- These are shared by some individuals but are not common to all members of a society or
even to all members of any one group.
RELEVANT CULTURE TERMS
1. Culture traits
- Are small unit
- It cannot be broken down into smaller units
- It is related to a particular need for a situation
Example:
Use of a cup, a nail, bottle, doll, or cross
Shaking hands, making the sign of the cross, saying po and opo.
2. Culture complex
- Cluster or combination of traits
- They are generally clustered , and its trait in the cluster derives meaning only in dynamic
relation with other traits
- The traits are functionally related to each other and revolve around themes such as family,
religion, politics, education, health, or leisure activities
3. Sub-culture
- Consist of smaller groups within a society that differ in action sand behavior
- Smaller groups which develop distinct norms, values, beliefs, special languages, and life
styles
- It is based on age, social class, occupational, political, educational, or religious interests or
inclinations, regions, nationality or ethnicity
- Based on age - the youth comprise the most prominent subculture, they have their own
dressing style and manner of speaking which set them apart from adults. They have their
own language, preferences and others.
- Based on ethnicity – among the various subcultures in the Philippines are the Tagalog,
Cebuano, Ifugao, Mangyan and others.
- Based on religion – subcultures are the Iglesia ni Cristo, El Shaddai, Church of the Latter-Day
Saints and others.
- The values and norms of these subcultures are diverse from the dominant or national
culture. For Muslims, polygamy is tolerable while for Catholic Filipinos, monogamy is the
norm.
4. Counterculture
- Are contra culture
- Results from the opposition and conflict between larger society and group
Example:
Gays, lesbian or homosexual
5. Idiocultures
- Culture created by every group in a society
- It is a system of customs, beliefs and knowledge created through group interactions
Example:
Editorial department of a publishing company
6. Culture shock
- Refers to the unpleasant or disoriented feeling one experiences when he goes to a new
environment
7. Ethnocentrism
- It is the tendency to regard one’s own culture as the best and better than those of others
- It literally means a belief that ones group is at the center of everything and all others are
scaled and rated with reference to it.
8. Xenocentrism
- The exact opposite of the ethnocentrism
- It is the belief that what is foreign is best
- The people reject their own culture or some part of their culture
9. Temporocentricm
- It is the belief that one’s own time is more important than the past or future
10. Cultural Relativism
 - Culture is relative
- No cultural practice is good or bad in itself
DIVERSITY OF CULTURE
- Refers to the wide range of differences in cultural patterns, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, forms
of organization and practical responses to the environment
FACTORS THAT PROMOTE CULTURAL DIVERSITY
1. Presence of social categories
This refers to a collective of persons who share common social characteristics like age, sex, and
religion
Example:
Children differ from that of the adolescents
2. Subcultures
3. Practical responses to the environment
Example:
How people harness the natural resources around them
Cultural Variability
- The presence of a great variety of solutions evolved by people from different societies

Philippine values
VALUES
 Etymologically, value came from the Latin word VALERE”, which means to be strong, to be
worth
 Those standards by which a group of society judges the desirability and importance of persons,
ideas, actions or objects
 Are shared conceptions of a beliefs in what are considered desirable or undesirable.
Ex. God stands for good
Devil stands for bad
 Something deserving of one’s best effort, something worth living for and if need be, worth dying
for.
Ex. “Filipino is worth dying for.”
 Principles or ideas in which groups and individuals may believe strongly and which guide their
respective behaviors;
 Principles by which man lives.
Ex. Equality, justice, fair play
 An enduring conception of the preferable which influence choice and action.
 Ex. Success is preferred over
 failure
honor over dishonor
life over death
 Ideals, customs, institutions of society toward which the members of the group have an affective
regard.
Ex. Ideals of freedom and democracy
solidarity of the family
 Refers to the utility of a thing, the environmental conditions at the time of evaluation
Ex. A thirsty person stranded on a hot desert would prefer food and water than all the wealth in
the world.
A person in the middle of the Pacific ocean would prefer a fifty-peso piece of Styrofoam for him
to float than a billion-peso
 That quality of anything which renders it desirable or useful. Worth implies intrinsic excellence
or desirability.
Ex. Water and air have intrinsic values
Values clarification processes
There are seven aspects of values that have to be clarify defined and presented in order to say what the
person has chosen is a value. These apects are within the three valuing process:
A. Choosing
1. Value is chosen freely.
2. It is chosen among alternatives and with consideration of the consequences of choice
B. Affirming/prizing
 3. There is a celebration; the person is happy for his choice
4. There is a public affirmation of thechoice.
C. Acting
5. The value must be acted upon. It must be evident in one’s behavior
6. Acting must be repeatedly done in some fashion to a variety of similar experiences.
7. Value should enhance and not impede the development of the emotional and spiritual well
being.
A. Theories on the origin or sources of values
1. The “inner man” or mentalistic theory of values- by William James
 Good and bad do not exist as good and bad per se.
 They are OUR constructions and are a product of each individual’s need and desires. The
goodness or badness of it is purely the product of each heart and mind.
2. The outer man or behavioral theory of values
 According to skinner, values come from your personal experience.
 You get punished or rewarded for things you did, and that reinforcement is what determines what
you’ll deem good and bad.
 Values are created by a never ending series of a combination of behavioral reinforcements and
extinctions.
3. The id, ego, superego theory of value and preferences – Sigmund Freud.
 According to Freud we have evolutionary-based instinctual drives:
 Id based drives – to prefer certain things; we develop over time a consciousness of ways to
interact with our external world to get what we want
 Ego based drives – we have a set of culturally and parentally induces should and should not
 Superego based drives – that spend a good amount of time in a tension – producing conflict
between what we value and what we prefer.
B. The labelling theory or cultural relativism theory of value
 According to this theory, things ideas, events, behavior are neither good nor bad per se. It is
society which labels them as either good or bad.
 Since people of different societies differ in beliefs, life situations and experiences, they have
different norms or standards or basis for what is valuable or not.
Classification of values
1. Economic values
Objects with material value.
Ex. Money, car, house
2. Behavioral values
Internalized guides to behavior
A. Instrumental values (Means) or the mode of behavior
Ex. Studying hard
B. Terminal Value (outcome/end) or the result of behavior
Ex. Knowledge and skills, good grades
3. Social values
Values arising from interpersonal relations
A. Prescriptive or thou shall values
B. Proscriptive or thou shall not values
4. Non-social or self-concern values
Ex. Taking a bath everyday, amicable disposition
4. Moral and spiritual value
Ethical values
Godly virtues
Categories of values
Founded on a holistic framework of universal need of man
Affection Respect Skills Enlightenment
Influence Wealth Well-being Responsibility
Benjamin franklin’s virtues or core values
Temperance silence order resolution
Frugality industry sincerity justice
Moderation cleanliness tranquillity chastity
humility
Filipino value orientation
1. Non-Rationalism
 Revolves around the idea that man has to adapt himself to nature outside of himself
  It involves an uncritical acceptance, reverence, and protection of traditions and rituals.
 Involves a belief in the supremacy of nature and forces outside of oneself like the belief
in ghost, spirits, gods or deities and other supernatural beings
 A non-rational person is traditional, fatalistic, dogmatic, superstitious, conformist,
unscientific
Filipino sayings bear non-rationalism
 Guhitngkapalaran o gihitngtadhana
 Paghindiukol ay hindibubukol
 NasaDiyosangawa, nasataoanggawa
 Angbuhay ay paranggulongngkapalaran, minsannasailalim, minsannasaibabaw.
 Dependence on espiritista, mangkukulam
 Reliance on amulets, gayuma, or anting anting, swerte o malas
2. Non-Rationalism
 Involves a belief that by systematic planning, studying and training, one can actively
control and manipulate his or her destiny.
Filipino saying bear resemblance to rationalism.
 Angmaniwalasasabi-sabiwalangtiwalasasarili
 Anglumakadngmabilis, kungmatinik ay malalim. Anglumamakadngmarahankungmatinik
ay mababaw.
 Kung anoangitinanim, siyamo ring aanihin
 Kapag may isinuksok, may madudukot
 Magandaangkinabukasan kung may pinag-aralan
 Walangkamalasansataong may kasipagan
 Kapag may katwiran, ipaglabanmo
3. Personalism
 Refers to the tendency to give due importance to intrapersonal and interpersonal relations
in working arrangement.
 Kinship whether by blood or rituals; friendship are considered in getting things done.( Fr.
Bulatao)
 Lies behing many charges of nepotism, favoritism, and graft and corruption in
government
Example:
Kaibigan Kamag-anak Comadre and compadre
Go-between Utangnaloob Hiya
Amor propio SIR Pakikisama
Nepotismo Areglo Pakiusap
lakad Palakasan system
4. Imprsonalism
 Refers to the tendency to eliminate the influence of friendship or kinship in working
relations.
 Behavior is standardized, depersonalized ir institutionalized
 Working relationship is based on merit and qualifications
Expressions in impersonalism
 Walangpersonalan, trabaholamang
 Walangmalakas, walangmahina
 Walangpalakasan
 Anghustisya ay parasalahat
 Walangmahirap, walangmayaman
5. Particularism
 Refers to the tendency of a person to center his or her concern on his or her sub-groups
made up of relatives friend colleagues, associates, religious affiliates or member of his or
he ethnic group
Examples
Tayo-tayo system Kamag-anak system Compadre system
Regionalism Fraternity and sorority Kapartido system
Kapatidsapananampalataya Kababayan Kapangkat
Kapatiran
6. Universalism
 Refer to the tendency to focus one’s attention and concern on the promotion of the
national and common weal.
  The emphasis is on the general welfare of the whole society.
Examples
 Kagalingangpambansa – public welfare
 Katarungangpanlipunan – social justice
 Pambansangkamalayan – national consciousness
 Pambansangpagkakakilanlan – national identity
 Sa batas, anglahat ay pantaypana\tay – equality under the law
 Pambansangpaglilingkod – public service.
7. Nationalism
 The advocacy of making one’s own nation distinct and separate from others in
intellectual, social, cultural, economic, political and moral matters.
8. Internationalism
 Rests on the belief in having friendly relations between and among nations for their
mutual and common benefit.
 It is the advocacy of making nations of the world as one global community, removing all
geographical, cultural, social and cultural barriers towards the community of nations and
making all people as citizen of the world.
General Filipino Values
Bahalana
 The fatalistic outlook can be viewed in two ways.
A. fatalistic resignation which represents withdrawal from engagement or crisis or a shirking from
personal responsibility.
B. dependence and deep abiding faith in the supernatural spirits which will take care of everything and
will provide good fortune for one’s struggle against difficulties
Utangnaloob
 Refers to a debt of gratitude which is difficult or almost impossible to quantify.
 The Filipino feels obligated to return a favor or held given to him.
Amor propio
 It is a feeling of high self- esteem and is shown in the sensitivity of a person to hurt feelings and
insults, real or imagined.
 This is manifested in hiya, utangnaloob and balat-sibuyas, predisposition, that is overly, sensitive
feelings.
Fatalism
 Refers to the belief that all events are naturally and supernaturally predetermined;
 The mental attitude of submission to the inevitability of the power of fate or the acceptance of
one’s fate with, stoicism or lethargy.
 Use of phrase such as itinalagangDiyos, iginuhitngtadhana, gulongngpalad, malas at napasubo.
SIR
 Refers to smooth interpersonal relationships, such as the use of polite language, soft voice, gentle
manner, euphemisms and ambiguous experession, all of which are intended to avoid. directness
or frankness
Use of euphemisms
 These are circumlocutory (indirect) remarks to avoid frankness.
 Example: kuwan. Marahil, tilanga, siguro, bakanga, and pipilitinko instead of direct “no” which
may hurt the feeling of another.
Pakikisama
 Refers to good public relations or the avoidance of open disagreement or conflict with others.
Hiya or shame
 Refers to a painful emotional of being disgraced or losing one’s face.
 Filipinos are shame-oriented, that is our major concern is social approval, acceptance, belonging
to the group.
Paggalang
 Respect toward elders and superiors.
 It is manifested in the use of po and opo when talking with elder
Pakikialam
 Refers to the tendency of the elders and superiors to be officious or to meddle in the business of
their children and subordinates, sometimes under the pretext of guidance and wisdom.
Tungkulinngpanganaysapamilya
 Refers to the responsibility of the eldest child in the family to act and think like the parents.
  Eldest son or daughter may postpone his or her marriage or remain single just to fill up the role of
his or her departed parents for his or her younger brothers and sisters.
Seguristaattutude
 Refers to the predisposition to ask or demand another of anything but that would demonstrate
assured success.
 Ex. Prendamunabagoutang, kasalmunabagosiping. Your credit is good but we need cash
Use of intermediary or go-between
 Refers to the use of a third party to intercede on one’s behalf in order to gain a favor or to assuage
(lessen) a bruise or avoid a direct quarrel between individuals or groups.
Gaya-gaya
 Refers to the Filipino imitativeness which gives rise to emphasis on façade, palabas, pakitang-
taopagyayabang.
Pagmamay-ari
 The tendency to place a high regard on possession and attainment.
 Expressed as a positive value, this results in thriftiness, to value education and value one’s home.
Pagkatitulado
 The Filipino looks up to people with high education. He values the acquisition of titles and
degrees to improve his/her lot.
Lack of sportsmanship
 The Filipino place high regard in victories or success in sports and other competitive endeavors.
 We fee disgraced and shamed once we lose or fail.
Filipino time
 An aphorism to indicate the Filipino attitude to being always late at an appointed time or place.
Manana habit
 Refers to procrastination, the disposition of shelving off responsibility to another day.
 The tendency to escape from duty and obligation as much as possible.
 It is manifested in the expressions, sakana, mamayana, or bukasna lang.
Ningas cogon tendency
 It refers to the Filipino attitude towards work which has semblance to cogon grass. The cogon
grass burns with engulfing lames at the start, but instantly dies down.
 The Filipino is full of energy and enthusiasm at the beginning of an endeavour but such
enthusiasm instantly ebbs down as the work progresses.
Hele-hele-bagoquiere or pakipot
 Refers to the behavior that a person initially refuses an offer even if he or she is subjected to more
prodding (aayaw-ayawpero gusto)
Delicadeza
 Conformity to the ethical practices or expectations of the group
Palabra de honor
 Means keeping one’s word or doing ehat has been promised. (Pagtupadsapangako)
Colonial mentality
 Refers to the mental attitude of preferring imported goods or ideas over locally made ones.
Compadre system
 Refers to the practice of choosing well-known or powerful affluent persons to act as godparents
(ninong-ninangs) in the wedding or baptism of one’s son or daughter
Lakad system
 Means to fix things for someone. It refers to the use of influential third party in getting things
done.
 It leads to palakasan system
Lagay system
 Refers to the practice of giving lagay or padulas or grease money to get what ones wants at the
earliest and fastest possible time.
Querida or kabit system
 Refers to the practice of keeping two or mores paramours, concubines, other-women, kabit or
mistress.
Kamag-anak system
 Refers to the practice in government wherein close relatives are appointed to juicy position with
or without the required qualifications and experiences.
Walangbigayan, walanglamangan mentality
 Lamangan is the practice of putting one over someone else.
 This negates the principles of brotherhood and equality.
Relax lang mentality
 Refers to the Filipino ideas where man has to work without anxiety assuring that he can twist the
situation in just a snap of the finger.
Pagkamatiisin
 Refers to a mental attitude of patient and silent suffering during times of crisis and hardships.
Baka-Sakali attitude
 Refers to the mental attitude of relying on swerte or tsamba in some of our undertakings.
Crab mentality
 Refers to the mental attitude of putting down other people to prevent them from reaching the top
or attaining success
Status consciusness
 Refers to tne Filipino predisposition to value their honor and status more than any thing else.
 For many of them, karangalan is far more important than material ofbject.
High regard for women
 Women are highly regarded and respected and relied upon when it comes to family, as well as
politics and business affairs.
Autoritativeness
 It refers to the patriarchal nature of the Filipino Family.
 The father is an authoritative figure who makes major decisions affecting the family.
Fiesta syndrome
 is the celebration in honor of the town’s patron saint highlighted by the preparation of sumptuous
 foods in every home.
 Many Filipinos even borrow money to spend for the fiesta.
Awa Mentality
 This refers to pitying someone in the name of charity to shield incompetence and irregularities.
Bata System
 It means a patronized individual, a portage, a close firend or one who you can call when need
arises.
LIST OF FILIPINO TRAITS AND CHARACTERISTICS, VALUES AND PRACTICES WHICH ARE
DISTINCTLY AND UNIQUELY FILIPINO.

YOU ARE A FILIPINO IF…

A. Traits and Characteristics
1. You are jovial, fun-loving and fiesta-loving
Some of the popular fiestas or festivals:
a) Ati-atihan Festival of KaliboAklan
b) Dinagyang Festival of Iloilo City
c) Moriones festival of Marinduque
d) Flores de mayo and Santacruzan
e) CArabao Festival of Pulilan, Bulacan
f) Pahiyas Festival of Sariaya and Lucban Quezon
g) Fertility Rituals of Obando, Bulacan
h) Turumba Festival at Pakil Laguna
i) Pagoda Sa Wawa ngBocaueBulacan
j) Penafrancia Festival in Naga City, CamarinesNorte
k) ParadangLetson in BalayanBatangas
l) Maskara Festival in Negros Occidental
m) Sinulog Festival of Cebu
n) Black Nazarene of Quiapo Manila
o) Lanzones Festival of Camiguin, Cagayan de Oro
p) Feast of San Clemente of Angono Rizal
q) Marian Procession of Intramuros
r) Grand Procession of BaliwagBualcan
s) Baragitan Festival of Palawan
t) Ana Kalang Festival of Nagcarlan Laguna
u) Balsa Festival of Matabungkay, Batangas
v) Araquio Festival of Nueva Ecija
w) Kaamulan Festival of Bikidnon
x) Edsa Celebration of EDSA Shrine
2. You are adventurist: Worlds largest population of OCW’s the citizens of the world
3. You have Pakiramdam (deep feeling, sensitivity)
 4. You are very spiritual. Transcendent, deep sense of kaba or premonition and kutob or hunch.
5. You are timeless. Measures time and not with hours and minutes but with feelings, no
definite time e.g.; umaga, tanghali, gabi, long Christmas, death, bidding, goodbye.
6. You are spaceless. Concept of space is numberless and boundless. Eg.;malayo or malapit, use
of one room bahay-kubo, expropriation, doing things anywhere.
7. You are hospitable, kind and full of desire to share with others what they have.
8. You are excellent at adjustments and improvisations. Ex. Pwedena.
9. You have a strong sense of familism and family ties
10. You have a strong belief in superstitions and the spirit of dead relatives
11. You never forget what you have experienced, the favour of sympathies you have received,
friendship shown to you. Ex. Utangnaloob
12. You tend to take revenge in subtle or more pronounced ways; hard to forget or to forget the
offender, vindictive, mapagtanim, pagbabayaranmoangginawamosa akin!
13. You are good in art and singing. Videoke addict
14. You like gossip and entertainment often more than intellectual activity.
15. You are fond of giving and attending parties.
16. You are less autonomous and more dependent. Concept of self is identified with your
family.
17. You are an over protective and sometimes intrusive parent.
18. You tend to spice your hard life with laughter, which is a kind of psychological therapy in
times of difficulties, problem and untoward incidents
19. You tend to use indirect communication and euphemism to avoid frankness.
20. You tend to show gaya-gaya, palabas, segurista
B. VALLUES ATTITUDES AND PREDISPOSITIONS
C. FILIPINO CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES
1. In the Filipino English
a) Frigidaire means refrigerator
b) For a while, means one moment please
c) You say open and close the light
d) Comfort room instead of rest room
e) Xerox instead of photocopy
f) Canteen instead of Cafeteria
g) Kodakan instead of take pictures
h) Colgate instead of toothpaste
i) Boose instead of Bus
j) Cutex instead of nail polish
2. Pagdisplayngmgalarawan, Diploma, plakesa living room
3. May larawanng last suffer sa dining room at display ngmalakingkahoynakutsara at tinidor
4. Nakataasangisangpaahabangkumakain
5. Paggamitngasinbilang toothpaste
6. Pagsasapinngdyaryooapapelsapawisanglikod
7. Paggamitngpanghilodnabato at tabosapaliligo
8. Paliligosakalyekapagbaha.

PERSONALITY
 Originated from the Latin word persona which means a theatrical mask worn by roman
actors in Greek dramas to project a role or false appearance
 the sum total of a person’s characteristic traits
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
 Refers to the development of all aspects of personality, the total development of
personality
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
1. GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
 Characterized by location, climate, topography and natural resources
2. BIOLOGICAL INHERITANCE
 TRANSFERRED FROM PARENTS TO OFFSPRINGTHROUGH THE MECHANISM
OF THE GENES FOUND IN THE CHROMOSOMES OF THE SEX CELLS
  Compose of the biological structures, psychological process, reflexes, urges, capacity,
intelligence, and traits such as pigmentation and stature
 These provide the raw materials or stuff from which personality is formed.
3. CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
 Refers to the learned ways of living, the norms of behavior– folkways, mores, law,
values, ideas and patterned ways of the group
4. SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
 Refers to the various groups and social interactions going on in the groups of which one
is a member

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The Oral Stage

- begins at birth.
- The child, of course, preoccupies himself with nursing, with the pleasure of sucking and
accepting things into the mouth.
- The mouth is the principal erogenous zone.
- An erogenous zone according to Freud was a particular part of the body where we seek
and gain pleasure from.
- The oral character who is frustrated at this stage, whose mother refused to nurse him on
demand or who truncated nursing sessions early, is characterized by pessimism, envy,
suspicion and sarcasm.
- The overindulged oral character, whose nursing urges were always and often excessively
satisfied, is optimistic, gullible, and is full of admiration for others around him.
- The stage culminates in the primary conflict of weaning
- The stage lasts approximately one and one-half years.

The Anal Stage

- At one and one-half years, the child enters the anal stage.
- The membranes of the anal region provide the major source of pleasurable stimulation.
- Toilet-training is a major issue in this time frame of a child’s life

The Phallic Stage

- is the setting for the greatest, most crucial sexual conflict in Freud's model of
development. In this stage, the child's erogenous zone is the genital region.
- occurs from ages three to six.
- It focuses on self-manipulation of the genitals as providing the major source of
pleasurable stimulation.
- As the child becomes more interested in his genitals, and in the genitals of others, conflict
arises.
- The conflict, labeled the Oedipus complex and The Electra complex in women
- the Oedipus conflict stems from his natural love for his mother,
- the Electra complex
Latency Period
- a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant.
- Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous
impulses.
- During the latency period, children pour this repressed libidal energy into asexual
pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships.
The Genital Stage
- the child's energy once again focuses on his genitals,
- interest turns to heterosexual relationships.
Freud's model of psychosexual development
Erogenous
Stage Age Range Consequences of Fixation
zone(s)
 Orally aggressive: Signs include chewing gum or ends
of pens.
Orally Passive: Signs include
Oral Birth- 1 year Mouth
smoking/eating/kissing/fellatio/cunnilingus[3]
Fixation at this stage may result in passivity, gullibility,
maturity and manipulative personality
Anal retentive: Obsession with organization or
Bowel and
excessive neatness
Anal 1-3 years bladder
Anal expulsive: Reckless, careless, defiant,
elimination
disorganized, Coprophiliac
Oedipus complex (in boys only according to Freud)
Phallic 3-6 years Genitals Electra complex (in girls only, later developed by Carl
Jung)
6-puberty Dominant (People do not tend to fixate at this stage, but if they do,
Latency
years sexual feelings they tend to be extremely sexually fulfilled.)
Puberty- Asexual
Genital beginning of interests Frigidity, potence, satisfactory relationships
life mature

THREE MAJOR SYSTEM OF PERSONALITY

Id
 comprises the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains the basic drives.
 The id acts according to the "pleasure principle", seeking to avoid pain or unpleasure
aroused by increases in instinctual tension.
 the most primitive of the three major forces
 the source of a number of drives and urges

Ego
 The Ego acts according to the reality principle; i.e. it seeks to please the id’s drive in
realistic ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bringing grief.
  The Ego comprises that organized part of the personality structure that includes
defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions
 prevails over the ID when a child becomes exposed to environmental constraints
the mediator between the Id and the superego
 it strives to delay the tension brought about by the Id

Super-ego
 The Super-ego aims for perfection.
 It comprises that organized part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely
unconscious, that includes the individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the psychic
agency (commonly called "conscience") that criticizes and prohibits his or her drives,
fantasies, feelings, and actions.
 the third psychic force
 the conscience which establishes what is right and what is wrong
 becomes the original moral foundation of behavior

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
1. CONSCIOUS
This includes our current thoughts
2. PRECONSCIOUS
This contains memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be brought to
mind if the need arises
3. UNCONSCIOUS
Thoughts, desires and impulses of which we remain largely unaware
THREE SELVES OF MAN
1. The self which the person thinks that he is
2. what others think about him
3. the true real self
Parts of Self according to Mead
1. "Me" is the social self and
- " is the organized set of attitudes of others which an individual assumes
- is the accumulated understanding of "the generalized other" . i.e. how one thinks one's
group perceives oneself etc.
- is self as object
- is the known
2. "I" is the response to the "Me.",
- I is the response of an individual to the attitudes of others,
- I is the individual's impulses.
- is self as subject;
- I is the knower ".

The Looking Glass Self

- The term refers to people shaping themselves based on other people's perception, which
leads the people to reinforce other people's perspectives on themselves. People shape
themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people's opinion on
themselves.
Three main components
There are three main components of the looking-glass self (Yeung, et al. 2003).
 1. We imagine how we must appear to others.
2. We imagine the judgment of that appearance.
3. We develop our self through the judgments of others.

Socialization
- is a process whereby individuals are made aware of behaviors that are expected of them
with regards to the norms, beliefs attitudes and values of the society inwhich they live.
- Socialization helps the individual to face realities of life, as a result of appreciate his
culture practices.
- It is a process, which begins at birth and continues unceasingly until the death of the
individual.

- an interaction process whereby a person's behavior is modified to confirm with expectations

held by members of the groups to which he belongs".

Types
1. Primary socialization
- Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions
appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.

2. Secondary socialization

- Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is appropriate behavior as a

member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with
teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary
socialization. eg. entering a new profession, relocating to a new environment or society.

3. Developmental socialization

- Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution or

developing your social skills.

4. Anticipatory socialization

- Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person

"rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

5. Resocialization

- Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes
accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human
life cycle.

- Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp

break with their past, and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms
and values.

An example might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the
military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. An
extreme example would be the process by which a transsexual learns to function socially
in a dramatically altered gender role.
6. Organizational socialization
 - Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learning the knowledge
and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role.

Agencies of Socialization

- are the groups of people, along with the interactions that occur within those groups, that
influence a person's social development.
- these agencies one finds a great deal of anticipatory socialization, in which the
individual plays at a role that he or she is likely to assume later in life.
- are the social institutions that form part of the passing on to the people the norms, values,
beliefs and attitudes.

Primary agencies

1. Family

 is the primary agency of socialization.

 the integral part of every individual upbringing
 one of the most important agencies of socialization.
 the family has the power to influence individual self-concept , emotions , attitude and
behavior.

parents therefore are the first persons who socialize the child.

 They are not only closely related, to him in the family system but physically also they are
more near to the child than others.
 The mother is the first of the parents who brings the process of socialization.
 It is from her that the earliest social stimuli to which a child is subjected, come.
 He responds to those stimuli by imitating them.
 With a wide age and experience gap separating the child from his parents, he cannot
understand fully the logic and nature of all that they transmit to him.

 From the parents he learns his speech and language. He is taught social morality. He learns
respect for persons in authority. In the family, he learns a number of civic virtues.

 The family is rightly called the cradle of social virtues. The child gets his first lessons in co-
operation, tolerance, self, sacrifice, love and affection in the family. The environment of a
family influences the growth of a child. The psychologists have shown that a person is what he
becomes in family.

2. Peer Group

 they are made of up people with similar age group and status in society.
 the group also set norms and values by which the individual must abide.
 tend to be the dominant agency of socialization in middle and late adulthood.
When children's peer groups are faced with conflict and social change, they
often organize themselves in gangs.

Secondary socialization

1. Schools

are the most important agency of socialization outside the family. Conflicts may arise
between parents and school personnel over what should be taught in schools.
 the second agency of socialization. In the school, the child gets his education, which moulds
his ideas and attitudes. A good education can make, the child a good citizen, while a bad
education can turn him into a criminal.

Education is of great importance in socialization. A well-planned education can produce

socialized persons.

2. Church

is a major agency of socialization because it embodies the moral principle in society. in

this respect, religion has its own set of norms, values and objectives that regulate the
conduct of its members.

3. mass media

 serve as a medium of communication is one of the agencies of socialization.

 individual are able to learn and adopted new lifestyle and behavior which at the end
becomes a convention in the society. Example is Fashion.

4. work place

DEVIANT BEHAVIOR
- refers to the behavior that does not conform to the norms
- behavior that in some way does not meet with the expectations of a group or of society as
a whole
- behavior that violates the norms
- Ii is relative – “what is deviant for one group may be acceptable to another group
- It is relative to many complex factor and conditions
1. Time
- what is considered deviant may vary in time
- Ex. Inventors, formulators of new Theories or discoverers like:
Galileo, Darwin, Freud-they were held in contempt by their contemporaries and were
censured or ridiculed but were later hailed as intellectual giants
Kinds of deviance
1. Primary Deviance
- Refers to a person’s behavior which violates or not conform to a prescribed norm of
conduct but is tolerated or concealed by others.
2. Secondary Deviance
- Refers to the behavior of a lifetime conformist.
3. Individual Deviance
- Refers to a violation against a group’s norm or subculture
4. Group deviance
- Refers to the act of members of a group to conform to the group norms but which
disagrees with the norms of the larger society.

Types of Deviant Behavior (Merton)

1. Conformist
- those who accept both the culturally approved goals, but disregard the institutionalized
means to achieve them
2. Ritualist
- those who give up the cultural goals but follow the prescribed norms, even if they get
only nothing in return.
3. Retreatist
- those who abandon both the cultural goals and the prescribed means to achieve them and
try to set up new norms
Crime
- a violation of any one of the specific types of norms that we call law
- an act committed or omitted in violation of a law
White collar crime
- crime committed by persons of respectability and high social status in the course of their
occupation
Delinquency
- refers to violation of laws on the part of young people usually 16-18 years of age and
under
RP’s leading Crime
1. physical injuries
2. theft
3. robbery
4. murder
5. homicide
6. rape
Categories of Crime
1. crime against person
- physical injuries
- murder
- homicide
2. Crime against property
- robbery
- theft
3. Crime against chastity
- rape
Robbery
- taking person’s property with the use
- of force, violence and intimidation
Theft
- Stealing or taking another person’s property secretly

Medicine
- one basic need of man to confront his illness
- most common are in the form of drug
Drug
- anything that frees one from a certain disease, either curing and preventing them
- any substance that brings about physical, emotional or behavioral change in a person
taking it
Drug abuse
- when the use of drugs lawful or unlawful, results in an individuals physical, mental,
emotional or social impairment
Drug addiction
- a state of physical or psychological need of a drug which stems from its continuous use
Most commonly abused drugs
1. Sedatives – depressants
- exert calming effects on the nervous system
- reduce anxiety and excitement
- serve as tranquilizer, used to ease hyperactive feeling like anxiety, excitement and
restlessness
a. Barbiturates
- common depressants
- derive from barbituric acid which is chemically prepared
- can cure insomnia, anxiety and epilepsy and high blood pressure
- important in surgery to relax the patient before and after the operation
- number one suicide drug
b. Tranquilizer
- medically prepared
- command high patronage particularly among older people and women
- taken to relieve the stresses and anxieties and to relax the muscles
- can cause death
2. Narcotics
- sleep inducing drugs
- relieve pain
- make one drowsy and relaxed
a. Heroin
- first synthesized from morphine, kind of opiate
- the user experience euphoria and later lethargic and stuporous
- It slows down the mental process causing the user to lose his appetite and sex drives
b. opium
- taken from the seed pods of the plant opium poppy
- usually smoked and can taken orally
- the effect is similar to heroin
c. Morphine
- main ingredient of opium
3. Stimulant
- called pep pills
- increase alertness and physical disposition
- overcome feeling of fatigue and extreme nervousness
a. cocaine
- taken from coca leaves
- taken in three ways, smoking, sniffing, and injecting intravenously
b. Amphetamines
- synthetic drugs taken to sustain the performance of athletes, astronauts and executives
and to keep certain people awake
- they are also used as weight reducer
4. Hallucinogen
- also called psychedelics
- distort the user’s perceptions, creating hallucinations
- no good effect so far
a. LSD
- a synthetic material taken from fungus growing in rye
- taken orally in capsule form, on a sugar cube, or licked from the back of a stamp
- it is one hundred times more powerful than cocaine or peyote
- one ounce of LSD provide enough drug for about 300,000 dosages
b. Marijuana
- common hallucination-producing drug
- favorite of drug users in the Philippines
- found in the flowering tops and leaves of an Indian hemp plant called cannabis sativa
c. peyote
- derived from a cactus plant
- consist of the button-like tops of a small narcotic cactus lophophora, which grow in the Rio
Grande region in the U.S. Mexico

Shabu
- a synthetic drug which has a stimulating effect on the nervous system and can damage
the brain

PROSTITUTION
- Performance of sexual acts with another person in return for payment of fee
- It is said to be the oldest profession
 - It is a sexual intercourse on a promiscuous and mercenary basis with emotional
indifference
- It is classified under crime against public moral
Forms of Prostitute
1. Female prostitute
Two sub-type:
a. explicit practitioner
- downright prostitute
b. implicit prostitute
- engaged in other profession which act as front like sauna bath, attendants, night clubs,
hostesses, waitresses, escorts and models
2. male prostitute
- much fewer in number
two classification
a. peer-delinquent subculture
- those boys from low-socio economic class who go into prostitution as a means of earning
money and they are not sexually gratified
b. gay subculture
- male prostitute who find prostitution as a welcome activity as it satisfies their longing for
male as sex partner
c. child prostitute
- covers a male child prostitute servicing an old male or female pedophile
Pedophile
- sexually attracted to children

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), formerly known as venereal diseases, infectious

diseases passed from one person to another primarily during sexual contact.

III COMMON STDS

1. Chlamydia
- caused by the Chlamydia trachomatis bacterium, is the most commonly transmitted STD
in the United States.
- According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 607,000
chlamydia infections are reported each year. But because chlamydia may not produce
noticeable symptoms, it often goes undiagnosed, and the CDC estimates that the true
incidence of chlamydia is nearly ten times the number of reported cases.
- chlamydia damages reproductive tissue, causing inflammation of the urethra in men and
possibly pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women.
- PID can cause chronic, debilitating pelvic pain, infertility, or fatal pregnancy
complications. Chlamydia infections are diagnosed by testing penile and vaginal
discharge for the presence of the bacteria.
2. Gonorrhea
- caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae, infects the membranes lining certain
genital organs
- gonorrhea is often symptomless, and men are more likely to develop symptoms than
women are. When present, symptoms may be similar to those of chlamydia and include
burning urination and penile or vaginal discharge.
3. Syphilis
- infectious disease caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum (see Bacteria) and
usually transmitted by sexual contact or kissing. Infection from contaminated objects is
infrequent, because drying quickly kills the organisms. A fetus carried by a woman with
syphilis may contract the disease, a condition called congenital syphilis

4. Human Immunodeficiency Virus

- infectious agent that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease that
leaves a person vulnerable to life-threatening infections. Scientists have identified two
 types of this virus. HIV-1 is the primary cause of AIDS worldwide. HIV-2 is found
mostly in West Africa. HIV belongs to the retrovirus family of viruses.
5. Crabs/Pubic Lice
- Crabs are a form of lice that live on the hair in the genital area and occasionally on other
course-haired areas of the body, such as the armpits or the eyebrows.
- They are usually spread by sexual contact, although they also can be transmitted by
infected linens and clothing.
- Symptoms include itching in the genital area and visible lice or eggs.
- You should know that crab lice are not the same as head lice, and that they almost never
infest the hair on the head. And the rumor that you have to shave off all your pubic hair if
you get infected? That simply isn't true.
6. Herpes/HSV
- Herpes is another viral STD.
- It comes in two forms, HSV1 and HSV2.
- HSV1 is most often associated with cold sores
- HSV2 is most often associated with genital sores. However, it is possible to transmit
herpes from the mouth to the genitals and vice versa.
- Herpes symptoms can be treated with anti-viral drugs, but the virus cannot be cured.
People with the herpes virus need to know that they can transmit the virus even when
they do not have any sores or other symptoms. Although using a condom can reduce the
risk of herpes transmission, condoms are not 100% effective since herpes is spread skin-
to-skin.

Abortion,
- Termination of pregnancy before birth, resulting in, or accompanied by, the death of the fetus.

Miscarriage
- abortions occur naturally because a fetus does not develop normally or because the
mother has an injury or disorder that prevents her from carrying the pregnancy to term.

Homosexuality, sexual orientation toward people of the same sex.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

GROUP
- assemblages or cluster of people
- composed of two or more persons who have something in common, are interacting with
each other, and are guided by a set of norms
HUMAN CLUSTERS WHICH DO NOT FORM SOCIAL GROUP
1. Aggregates
- number of persons in a cluster without interacting with each other
- they are basically unstructured
- they are in close physical proximity but do not interact with other
- they may look at each other and have a sign of complaint, but they are not concerned with
the feelings and attitudes of others
Example:
People standing in a street corner waiting for a jeep or bus
People riding in a bus.
2. Social Category
- members possess common identifying status characteristics but do not interact socially
Example:
Males and females
3. Collectivity
- temporary group
- clusters of people interacting with each other but the interactions are passing or short-
lived
Example:
Crowds and masses
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
- scientific study of society, culture and personality
- may be viewed as a process of bringing order and meaning into human social life
- has its root in social interaction
ORGANIZATION
-used by sociologist in two different ways:
- it is used to connote a relationship among people and secondly a kind of particular social
system called formal organization
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
- is an abstraction and cannot be seen but has to be inferred from the observation of human
behavior
- it refers to the interdependent network of roles and the hierarchy of statuses which define
the reciprocal expectations and the power arrangement of the members of the social unit
guided by norms
SOCIAL ATATUS
- refers to members’ positions or ranks in the hierarchy of power relation
ROLE
- refers to the sum total of behavior expectations and activities associated with a social
position which a holder is supposed to carry put and his or her actual performance
SOCIAL FUNCTION
- is a component of social organization
- refers to the results of action occur in relation to particular structure and includes the
results of the activities of individuals occupying particular statuses
TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
1. Primary Group
- small face-to-face structures such as the family and friendship group
- considered the building blocks of the larger society
- the members have a feeling of togetherness and belonging, are sympathetic with one
another
- WE is the usual expression
- The relationship is personal and intimate
- They are the initial groups that a person joins and they provide him or her with
experiences in social relations
- The nursery of human nature according to Cooley
Family – the basic primary group
2. Secondary group
- interactions among members are impersonal, business-like, contractual and casual
- members are numerous and widespread
- it is called secondary because the individual comes in contact with them later in life
3. Gemeinschaft
- developed by Ferdinand Toennis
- it is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and familism
- it is based on what Toennis calls the “natural will” of the members where they relate to
one another as total personalities
- the local equivalent, it is damay or bayanihan
- Damay and bayanihan – imply mutual helpfulness and the sharing of pleasure as well as
sorrow
4. Gesellschaft
- is a public life or the world itself
- it is characterized by impersonal, secondary, contractual and rationalized relationships
5. In-group
- the group with which the individual identifies and which gives him a sense of belonging,
solidarity, camaraderie and protective attitude toward the other members
 6. Out-group
- commonly viewed as the outsiders by the in-group
7. Informal group
- arises spontaneously out of the interactions of two or more persons
- it is unplanned, has no explicit rules for membership, and does not have specific
objectives to be attained
8 Formal Groups
- are one aspect of social organization
-deliberately formed and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined

Bureaucracy
- often associated with inefficiency, red tape delay or under the table arrangement
- a formal rationally organized social structure involving defined patterns of activity in
which every series of action is fundamentally related to the purpose of the organization
- it characterized by a division of labor based on specialization
Reference group
- the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself
psychologically
Social Organization
- the process of bringing order and meaning into human social life
- has it roots I social interaction
Social Structure
- an abstraction and cannot be seen but has to be inferred from the observation of human
behavior
- refers to the interdependent network of roles and the hierarchy of statuses which defines
the reciprocal expectations and the power arrangement of the members as well as among
the various parts
Social function
- is a component of social organization
- refers to the result of action that occur in relation to a particular structure and includes the
results of the activities of individuals occupying particular status

SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

Social Interaction
- a basic social process-a universal principle without which no social life is possible.
- The way an individuals or groups act or communicate with each other within social
context

Social Processes
1. Competition
- a form of opposition or struggle to secure a reward or a goal such as prize, material
object, position, leadership, prestige or power
- the focus is chiefly on the reward rather than on the competitor
- occurs between two individuals or group when the satisfaction of the needs or desires of
one is opposed to that of the other
- the scarcity of the object or the limited quantity of a good or service is the crucial factor
- the aim is to excel and surpass the opponent in order to achieve the goal
Kinds of Competition
a. Personal Competition
- involves direct face-to-face contact
- sometimes referred to as rivalry
b. Impersonal Competition
- involves a struggle between persons or groups not directly aware of each other
2. Conflict
- develop when the rules of competition are broken and the opponents become openly
antagonistic
- a struggle over values or claims to status, power, and scarce resources in which the
claims of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values but also to
neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals.
Kinds of Conflict
a. Person-to-person
- may be seen in spontaneous fights, duels, or hand to hand combat in war
b. between groups
- may be witnessed in riots, violent strikes, lynching or massacres
c. National and International
- shown in rebellion, revolution or war
Non violent Conflict
- cold wars and psychological warfare with a propaganda battles, espionage, economic
struggle between industrial giants and super powers
War
- the most violent and intense form of conflict
3. Cooperation
- as old as this world and is present in some degree in every group
- the central feature of social life
- a more specific aspect of human intercourse, one having to do with mutual air or an
alliance of persons or groups seeking come common goal or reward
Types of cooperation
a. formal Cooperation
-a deliberate contractual nature prescribing the reciprocal rights and obligations of
members
b. Informal cooperation
- characterized as spontaneous and involves mutual give and take
- commonly shown in primary group or Gemeinschaft
c. symbiotic cooperation
- a situation where two or more members of society live together harmoniously and are
supportive and interdependent, resulting in mutual self-interest
4. Differentiation
- the creation of interests resulting in individuals or groups needing or wanting different
things or service rather than the same thing
- one way to reduce or eliminate competition
- it is related to the division of labor
5. Accommodation
- refers to the fact of equilibrium between individual and groups and the rules of the game
which has to be followed, as a condition
- the conscious efforts of men to develop such working arrangement among themselves as
will suspend conflict and make their relations more tolerable and less wasteful of energy
6. Acculturation
- the process of changing to the way of life of the dominant group which is brought about
in socialization and education, specially in the borrowing of language and values
7. Assimilation
- implies he acceptance by a person or group of the cultural traits, attitudes and sentiments
of another
8. Amalgamation
- the intermarriage of person coming from different ethnic groups
COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR
- a form of social behavior in which the social conventions cease to guide social actions
and people collectively transcend, bypass, or subvert established institutional patterns and
structure
- it arises in out of the ordinary and unusual situations characterized by uncertainty and
feelings of crisis
- once believed to be highly emotional , irrational, and spontaneous, but recent researches
reveal that collective behavior is characterized by more caution and less emotion
Types of Collective Behavior
 A. Crowd
- said to be a transitory group of persons in an ambiguous and, to some degree unstructured
situation where participants do not have a clear and pre-existing knowledge of how to
behave but feel that something can be done
Milling
- the aimless restless movement of the members which may take the form of both physical
and verbal activity
Rumor
- unverified information accepted as truth about certain things, which becomes revised,
distorted, and condensed or expanded as it is transferred from one person to another
Types of crowd
1. Casual Crowd
- s a spontaneous, loosely organized and very momentary type of grouping whose
members come and go
2. Conventional Crowd
- characterized by established regular ways of behaving, depending upon the time and
place of performance and order of activities
3. Acting crowd
- an active, volatile group of excited persons whose attention is focused on a controversial
or provocative issue which arouses action, if not indignation
Common motivation
a. rage
b. fear
c. hate
Demonstration, mobs and riots
- crowd motivated by hate, fear and anger
Mob
- a crowd focused on a target that is resented or seen as a source of frustration
Riots
- similar to mob, but are diffused in their activities.
- They are loosely outburst between groups and are random destructive behavior occurring
in several places and tending to express general resentment
4. Expressive Crowd
- characterized by rhythmic activity, intense emotional contagion, and emotional release
B. Audience
- form of institutionalized crowd
- usually passive and are controlled by certain cultural codes
C. The Mass
- diffused collectivity
- made up of a member of disparate individuals, each responding independently to the
same stimulus
D. Disaster Behavior
- the type of behavior elicited in times of disasters
E. Public
- dispersed collectivity and includes the elementary process of milling and rumor
- a dispersed group of people interested in and divided about an issue, engaged in
discussion of that issue with a view to registering a collective opinion which is expected
to affect the course of action of some decision-making
F. Public Opinion
- the collective product of the discussion and arrival at a decision in public opinion which
is the result of interaction vis-a-vis an issue
G. Mass Communication
- organized communication through organizational structure
- it is directed toward a relatively large audience during a short period of time or even
instantly
Agencies of Mass Communication
1. News Paper
 - a channel for disseminating information to a large number of person
- it relays to the public the news, comments, and opinions
2. Radio
- a powerful medium as it can reach a wide and extensive audience since it can beam its
program over an area of several miles
3. Television
- it is unique because of the use of both sight and sound in conveying ideas to the people
4. Motion Picture
- primarily for entertainment, but at the same time are informative and instructional
H. Social Movements
- an interrelated and coacting unity of persons with some degree of organizational
continuity aimed to promote or to resist change in the society of which it is a part

Family Planning
- choosing the number of children in a family and the length of time between their birth
- is a more encompassing phrase that refers to the process of making decisions about when
and how many children to have, and choosing strategies to achieve these goals.
Birth Control or Contraception,
- deliberate prevention of pregnancy using any of several methods.
Family Planning Methods
A. Barrier Methods
- provide physical barriers that keep the sperm from entering the uterus.
a.1. male condom h
- (also called a prophylactic) is a thin sheath made of latex, or less commonly, animal
membrane, that fits over an erect penis.
- The condom is inexpensive, easy to use, does not require a prescription, and has no known
side effects.
- Male condoms made of latex also protect users against sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs)
a.2. female condom
- available since 1994 in the United States
- is an elongated polyurethane sac with a ring on each end. One ring is inserted into the vagina,
while the other ring remains outside, partially covering the external genital organs.
a.3 diaphragm
- is a shallow, molded cup of thin rubber with a flexible rim.
- Before intercourse, spermicide must be placed inside the cup and around the inside of the rim
of the diaphragm. The woman then inserts the diaphragm into her vagina so that it covers the
cervix (the opening of the uterus into the vagina).
- Diaphragms come in various sizes to fit the cervix. They are available only from health care
professionals who ensure that the device fits properly. In typical use, the diaphragm is about 82
percent effective in preventing pregnancy.
a.4. cervical cap
- is smaller than a diaphragm and fits directly onto the cervix where it is held in place by
suction. It must be fitted by a health care professional and also used with a spermicide.
- When used with spermicide, the cervical cap, like the diaphragm, is about 82 percent effective
in preventing pregnancy.
B. Spermicides
- are jellies, creams, foams, suppositories, tablets, or films that contain a sperm-killing chemical.
They can be purchased without a prescription
- used alone must be inserted into the vagina before each act of intercourse and a woman should
not douche for six to eight hours after intercourse.
- In typical use, spermicides are effective in preventing pregnancy 70 percent of the time. -
They may cause an allergic reaction such as irritation of the vagina or penis.
- Spermicide can also kill some STD organisms.
C Intrauterine Device
- a small plastic device inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy.
- It may also contain an insert with the hormone progesterone or a partial copper covering.
- IUDs work either by interfering with the ability of sperm to fertilize an egg or preventing a
fertilized egg from implanting in the lining of the uterus.
- An IUD must be inserted and removed by a health care professional
- In typical use, the IUD is 96 percent effective in preventing pregnancy
D. Hormonal Contraceptives
- deliver doses of female sex hormones that interfere with ovulation (maturation and release of
an egg from the ovaries) and affect the condition of the uterine lining to prevent fertilized eggs
from implanting in it.
c.1. Birth control pills
- or oral contraceptives, were first approved for use in the United States in 1960.
E. Surgical Sterilization

Vasectomy is performed in a doctor’s office or clinic using local anesthesia. Two small incisions
are made in the scrotum (the sac below the penis that contains the testes), and the vasa deferentia
(singular, vas deferens), the ducts that carry sperm from the testes to the penis) are cut and the
ends tied off to prevent sperm from reaching the penis
Tubal ligation is a more complicated procedure performed under general or spinal anesthesia or
local anesthesia with a sedative. The Fallopian tubes are blocked or cut and tied to prevent eggs
from descending from the ovary to encounter sperm.

F Natural Family Planning

- also called fertility awareness, relies on abstinence from sexual intercourse during the most
fertile phase of a woman’s menstrual cycle. This period ranges from five days before ovulation
to two days after ovulation
f.1 basal body temperature method,
- a woman takes her temperature at the same time each morning before getting out of bed. In
most women, body temperature rises about one degree on the day of ovulation and stays raised
for several days.
f.2. cervical mucus method
- requires a woman to monitor the consistency of her cervical mucus. Mucus that is clear, wet,
and sticky or elastic indicates fertility.
f.3. Billings ovulation method
- devolp by John and Evelyn Billings
- the method guides the women to identify their fertile (unsafe) and infertile (safe) days for
sexual contact.
- It also guides to identify what days leads to the birth of a baby boy and the day when it will
probably lead to the birth of a baby girl
- Note that the woman’s fertility is compared to a soil. No seed will germinate when it is dry;
water makes the soil moist, the water is absorbed by the seed then it starts to germinate. By
contrast, the sperm survives if nourished by a mucus, otherwise it will naturally die
f.4. Rhythm method
- easy to use when the woman’s cycle is regular. When the woman’s cycle is irregular, rhythm
method is ineffective unless it is combined with the mucus symptom
- the cycle of the woman varies; it varies in length that the longest and the shortest cycle should
be determined

The shortest cycle is 28 days.

The normal longest cycle is 30 days.
How is the first unsafe day and the last unsafe day determined?
For the first unsafe day: subtract 14 form number of cycle and from the difference, subtract 5.
To illustrate: 28-14= 14+5=9; therefore 9 is the first unsafe day

For the last unsafe day: Subtract 14 from the cycle of 28 days and from the difference, add 3.

To illustrate: 28-14=14+3=17; therefore day 17 is the last unsafe day after menstruation began.
Avoid sexual contact from the first unsafe day until the last unsafe day because ovulation may
occur of those days.

G Withdrawal
Withdrawal (coitus interruptus) is the deliberate removal of the penis from the vagina before
ejaculation so that sperm is not deposited in or near the vagina. This method of contraception is
not recommended, because drops of fluid secreted by the penis when it first becomes erect can
contain enough sperm to cause pregnancy. In addition, a man may not withdraw in time. The
penis should not be reinserted into the vagina after ejaculation because sperm may remain in the
urethra. In typical use, withdrawal is effective in preventing pregnancy 76 percent of the time. It
does not protect against STDs.
H Abstinence
Abstinence is the avoidance of any sexual activity that could cause pregnancy. This includes
intercourse and other sexual activities in which semen may come in contact with the vulva
(external female genitals) or vagina. Abstinence is completely effective in preventing pregnancy
as well as STDs, and it poses no health risks.

Gender and Development (GAD) –develop in 1980

- Focuses on the socially constructed basis of differences between men and women and
emphasizes the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations
THEORIES OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
1. Social Learning Theory
- Parents are distributors of reinforcement, reinforce appropriate gender role bhavior
2. Cognitive-Development Theory
- This is from Kohlberg’s specualtios about gender development
- Children begin the process of acquiring gender-appropriate behavior
STAGE CHARACTERIZED BY
Sensori-motor Differentiate self from objects
(Birth-2yrs.) Recognizes self as agent of action and begins
to act intentionally
Pre-operational Larns to use language and to represent objects
(2-7 years) by images and words.
Formal operational Becomes concerned with the hypothetical,
(11 years and up) the future and ideological problems
3. Gender Schema Theory
- Helps a child to develop gender identify and formulate as appropriate gender role
- Shcema – is a mental blueprint for organizing information, and children develop and
formulate an appropriate gender.
Culture
 The distinctive patterns of ideas, beliefs, and norms which characterise the way of life and
relations of a society or group within a society
Gender Ideologies
 Attitude toward men and women role
 define rights and responsibilities and what is ‘appropriate’ behavior for women and men.
 They also influence access to and control over resources, and participation in decision-
making.
 These gender ideologies often reinforce male power and the idea of women’s inferiority.
Traditional Gender Ideology
 Maintain that men sphere is work and women sphere is the home
 The implicit assumption is that men have a greater power than women
Egalitarian Gender Ideology
 Maintains that power is distributed equally between men and women and that each group
identifies equally with the same spheres.
Transitional
 It is acceptable for women to devote energy to both work and family domains but women should
proportionally more responsible for the home and men should focus proportionaly more their
energy on work
Gender Analysis
 The systematic gathering and examination of information on gender differences and social
relations in order to identify, understand and redress inequities based on gender
 Gender analysis is a valuable descriptive and diagnostic tool for development planners and crucial
to gender mainstreaming efforts.
Gender Roles or Harvard framework
- focuses on describing women’s and men’s roles and their relative access to and control over
resources.
- The analysis aims to anticipate the impacts of projects on both productive and reproductive
roles.
- It takes the household, rather than the breadth of institutions, as the unit of analysis and
tends to assume that women are a homogeneous category.
Social Relations Analysis
- This approach seeks to expose the gendered power relations that perpetuate inequities. This
analysis moves beyond the household to include the community, market, and state
institutions and so involves collecting data at all these levels.
- It uncovers differences between women, divided by other aspects of social differentiation
such as class, race and ethnicity.
- The aim is to understand the dynamics of gender relations in different institutional contexts
and thereby to identify women’s bargaining position and formulate strategies to improve this.
Gender Discrimination
 The systematic, unfavourable treatment of individuals on the basis of their gender, which denies
them rights, opportunities or resources
Gender Division of Labor
 The socially determined ideas and practices which define what roles and activities are deemed
appropriate for women and men
Gender Equality
 Gender equality denotes women having the same opportunities in life as men, including the ability
to participate in the public sphere
Gender equity
 denotes the equivalence in life outcomes for women and men, recognising their different needs
and interests, and requiring a redistribution of power and resources
Gender Mainstreaming
 An organizational strategy to bring a gender perspective to all aspects of an institution’s policy
and activities, through building gender capacity and accountability
Gender Needs
 Shared and prioritised needs identified by women that arise from their common experiences as a
gender
Gender Planning
 The technical and political processes and procedures necessary to implement gender-sensitive
policy
Gender Relations
 Hierarchical relations of power between women and men that tend to disadvantage women
Gender Training
 A facilitated process of developing awareness and capacity on gender issues, to bring about
personal or organisational change for gender equality
Gender Violence
 Any act or threat by men or male-dominated institutions, that inflicts physical, sexual, or
psychological harm on a woman or girl because of their gender
Intra-household Resource Distribution
  The dynamics of how different resources that are generated within or which come into the
household, are accessed and controlled by its members
National Machineries for Women
 Agencies with a mandate for the advancement of women established within and by governments
for integrating gender concerns in development policy and planning
Patriarchy
 Systemic societal structures that institutionalise male physical, social and economic power over
women
Sex
 refers to the biological characteristics that categorise someone as either female or male
 a biological concept
Gender
 refers to the socially determined ideas and practices of what it is to be female or male
 one of the uniersal dimensions on which status differences are based
 is a special construct specifying the socially and culturally prescrobed roles that men and women
are to follow
Social Justice
 Fairness and equity as a right for all in the outcomes of development, through processes of social
transformation
WID
 The WID (or Women in Development) approach calls for greater attention to women in
development policy and practice, and emphasizes the need to integrate them into the
development process
Women’s Empowerment
 A ‘bottom-up’ process of transforming gender power relations, through individuals or groups
developing awareness of women’s subordination and building their capacity to challenge it
Women’s Human Rights
 The recognition that women’s rights are human rights and that women experience injustices
solely because of their gender