2

RELATION AND FUNCTION

●•If one set (say A) is finite and other (say B) infinite then A × B is an
1 infinite set.
●•Ordered pair: A pair of elements grouped together in a particular order. ●•Relation: A relation R from a non-empty set A to another non-empty set
The ordered pair is represented as (a,b). B is a subset of the Cartesian product A×B obtained by describing a
●•In ordered pair if (a, b) = (x, y), then a = x and b = y. • relationship between the first element x and the second element y of the
ordered pairs in A×B. i.e. R ⊆ A×B.
●•Cartesian product of sets: Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted
by A×B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a,b) such that a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
i.e., A×B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
●• Analogously we can define n-fold Cartesian products as:
A1 ×A2 ×···×An = {(a1,a2,...,an) | (a1 ∈ A1), (a2 ∈ A2), ···, (an ∈ An)}.
●• If all the sets in a Cartesian product are the same, then we can use an
exponent: A2 =A×A, A3 = A×A×A, etc. In general: An = A×A× ... ×A. (up to n ●•A relation R in A and B is written as aRb or R(a, b) if, and only if
times). (a, b) ∈ R and a ∈ A, b ∈ B. Similarly B × A is a relation in B and A written as
bRa or R(b, a) iff (b, a) ∈ R and a ∈ A, b ∈ B.
Note: R×R ={(x, y) : x, y ∈ R} represents the coordinates of all the points in 2-D
space and R×R×R = {(x, y, z): x, y, z ∈ R} represents the coordinates of all the ●• A (binary) relation on A is a subset of A×A. (A relation on A means a
points in 3-D space. Here (x, y, z) is called an ordered triplet.• subset R of A × A).
●•Properties of Cartesian Product: For three sets A, B and C ●• If n(A) = p and n(B) = q then the total number of relations from A to B is
2pq and total non-empty relations is 2pq – 1. (see §-16)
1. n(A×B) = n(A) n(B) (see §-1)
●•Domain and Range of Relation: For a given relation R(a, b) or aRb, the
2. A × B ≠ B × A, when A ≠ ∅ and B ≠ ∅. (see §-2)
set of first components in the ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation
3. A × B = ϕ, if either A or B is an empty set. (see §-3) and the set of second components in the ordered pairs is called the range of the
relation.
4. A×B = B×A if and only if A= B, or A= ϕ, or B= ϕ. (see §-4)
●•In aRb where a ∈ A and b ∈ B, the domain of R ⊂ A and the range of
5. A × (B∪C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C) (see §-5)
R ⊂ B.
6. (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C) (see §-6)
●•Co-domain of Relation R: The set of all second elements in a relation R
7. A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C) (see §-7) from a set A to a set B is called the range of the relation R and the whole set B
is called the co-domain of the relation R. Note that range ⊆ co-domain.
8. (A∩B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C) (see §-8)
(see §-17)
9. A × (B – C) = (A × B) – (A × C) (see §-9) ●•A relation R in a set A is called Empty Relation, if no element of A is
10. (A × C) ⊆ (B × C) Iff A ⊆ B. (see §-10) related to any element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A. (see §-18)

11. If A ⊂ B and C ⊂ D, then (A × C) ⊂ (B × D) (see §-11) ●•If each element of A is related to every element of A then relation R in set
12. (A×B) – (C×D) = (A×(B – D))∪((A–C)×B) (see §-12) A is called Universal Relation, i.e., R = A × A. (see §-19)
13. (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D) (see §-13) [Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes called trivial
relations]
14. If n(A∩B) = n then n[(A×B)∩(B×A)] = n2 (see §-14)
●•If (x, y) ∈ R then y is called image of element x under a relation R.
15. If A ⊆ B then (A × B) ∩ (B × A) = A2 (see §-15)
 3 4
Types of Relations
●•Inverse of a relation: Inverse of Relation R is the opposite or reciprocal of
the Relation (R). It is denoted by R-1. This means if R is the relation from A to B
then R-1 will be another relation from B to A. i.e., R− 1 = {(b, a) : (a, b)∈R}.
e.g., If R = {(x1, y1), (x2, y2)} then R− 1 = {(y1, x1), (y2, x2)}.
Thus Domain of R = Range of R-1 and Range of R = Domain of R-1.
●•Reflexive Relation: A relation R on set A is called reflexive if we have
aRa ∀ a ∈ A. Here (a, a) ∈ R for every element a of A. e.g.,
1. On set A = {a,b} the relation R = {(a, a),(b, b)} is reflexive.
2. (i) A relation ‘≤ ’, ‘≥’ and ‘=’ on any set of numbers are reflexive.
(ii) Relation ‘being the same height as’ is Reflexive because everything is ‘the
same height as’ itself.
(iii) Relation ⊆ on any collection of sets [e.g., {φ, {3},{3,4}}] is reflexive.
Therefore relation ⊆ on power set of any set is reflexive. (see §-20)
(iv) Relation ‘<’ and ‘>’ on any set of numbers is not reflexive.
●•Total No. of Reflexive Relations on a set with n elements = 2n(n-1). (see §-21)
●•Transitive Relation: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if and only
if for any a, b, c ∈ A, whenever (a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R. i.e., a
relation R is transitive iff aRb, bRc then aRc.
●• Relations ‘≤’ , ‘≥’ and ‘=’ on any set of numbers are transitive.
●•Symmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if and only
if whenever (a, b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R for any a, b ∈ A. (i.e., A relation R is
symmetric iff, aRb, then bRa)
●•(i) Relation ‘ = ’ on any set of numbers is symmetric.
(ii) Relation ‘<’, ‘ >’, ‘≤ ’ and ‘ ≥’ on any set of numbers is not symmetric.
●•Number of Symmetric Relations on a set with n elements = 2n(n+1)/2. (see §-22)
●•Total number of Reflexive and Symmetric Relations on a set with n elements
is given by = 2n(n-1)/2. (see §-23)
●•Total number of Reflexive or Symmetric Relations on set of n element is
given by: 2n(n-1) + 2n(n +1)/2 – 2n(n –1)/2 (see §-24)
●•Equivalence Relation: A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence
relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Examples: (i). Relations "is equal to" on the set of numbers, (ii). "has the same
birthday as" on the set of all people, (iii). "is similar to" and "is congruent to"
on the set of all triangles, (iv). "has the same absolute value" on the set of real
numbers, (v). "has the same image under a function" on the elements of the
domain of the function, (vi). "has the same cosine" on the set of all angles and
(vii). “identical” are equivalence relation.
●•The empty relation R on a non-empty set X (i.e. a R b is never true) is not
an equivalence relation, because although it is vacuously symmetric and
transitive, it is not reflexive (except when X is also empty)
●•Equivalence class: The subset of A which includes all elements that are
equivalent to each other is called an equivalence class.
i.e., “the equivalence class of a, denoted by [a], consists of the set of all b in A
such that a and b are related to each other by equivalence relation”. We call an
equivalence relation between any two elements if they are reflexive, symmetric
and transitive. i.e., [a] = { b E A : (a, b) ∈ R } (see §-25)
●•The equivalence relation partitions the set S into mutually exclusive
equivalence classes such that: (see §-26)
(i). Every element is in one and only one equivalence class
(ii). The intersection of two classes is empty
(iii). The union of all classes is the entire set
●•Function: A function f from a set A to a set B is a special type of relation
for which every element of set A has one and only one image in set B. (In other
words, no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the same first element.)
●•Given a relation in x and y, we say “y is a function of x” if for every
element x in the domain, there corresponds exactly one element y in the range.
●•If f: A→B is a function then set A is the domain, set B is co-domain and set
{f(x):x ∈ A } is the range of f. Range is a subset of codomain.
●• If (a, b) ∈ f, then f (a) = b, where b is called the image of a under f and a is
called the pre-image of b under f. The set of images is range of function.
●•Every function is a relation but every relation is not necessarily a function.
 5 6

●• To find when a relation is called a function consider following figure. ●•Odd Function: Let f (x) be a real valued function of a real variable. Then f
is odd if in the domain of f we have f (–x) = – f (x) or f (x) + f (–x) = 0.

●•Increasing function: A function f is said to be increasing if whenever

a > b, then f(a) ≥ f(b). Further a function is said to be strictly increasing if
a > b, then f (a) > f (b). The graph of an increasing function looks somewhat
like this:
Fig (i): For each x in the domain, there is only one corresponding y in the range.
Hence this relation is a function.
Fig (ii): This relation is not a function as element ‘d ’ in x is not mapped to y.
Fig (iii): This relation is a function as for each value of x in the domain has only
one corresponding y value.
Fig (iv): This is not a function as for x = a, there are two range elements p and q. ●•Types of functions:
●• One-to-one/ Injective function: A function f : X → Y is defined to be
●•If a graph satisfies following two conditions then we can call it a function
one-one (or injective), if the images of distinct elements of X under f are
otherwise not.
distinct. The function f1 and f4 in Fig. (i) and (iv) are one-one or injective.
1st condition:– “All the elements of A should be mapped with the elements of
i.e., For every x1, x2 ∈ X, a function f is injective if f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2.
B”. That means graphically, for every input in its domain, function must give or
or For every x1, x2 ∈ X, a function f is injective if x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f(x1)≠ f(x2).
provide the corresponding output.
2nd condition:– “Elements of set A should be uniquely mapped with the ●•If a set A contains ‘n’ distinct elements then the number of possible distinct
elements of set B”. This means that, for any input x, we must have one and only functions from A to A is nn and out of these n! are one-one.
one output.

●•The best way to check if y = f(x) is a function is to draw a line parallel to

y – axis and see that it cuts the graph at one point. If it cuts at two or more
distinct points, this means, for one value of x, we are getting more than one
outputs. And hence it will not be a function.
●•A function which is entirely increasing or decreasing in some entire domain
is one-to one.

●•Into function: If there exists at least one element in the codomain Y which
is not an image of any element in the domain X, then f is into. Fig (ii) & (iii).

●• Real valued function: A function which has either R or one of its subsets as
its range is called a real valued function.
●•Even Function: Let f (x) be a real valued function of a real variable. Then f is
even if in the domain of f we have f (x) = f (–x). Geometrically, the graph of an
even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
●•A polynomial function of even degree is always into function.
●• Onto (or Surjective) function: A function f : X→Y is said to be surjective
or onto, if every element of Y is the image of some element of X under f, i.e.,
for every y ∈ Y, there exists an element x in X such that f (x) = y. The function
f1 and f4, shown in Fig. (i) & (iv) are onto. (see §-27)
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●•A function f : X → Y is onto if and only if the Range of f = co-domain. ●•If ‘f’ and ‘g’ are real valued functions with domains as A and B
respectively, then both f and g are defined in A∩B.
●•A one - one function defined from a finite set to itself is always onto but if
1. The domain of f + g, f – g and f.g is also A ∩ B.
the set is infinite then it is not the case.
2. The domain of (f /g) is {x | x ∈A ∩ B, g(x) ≠ 0}.
●•A function will either be onto or into.
●•Composition of f and g: Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions.
●•For a finite set X, a function f : X → X is one-one iff f is onto and f : X → X
is onto iff f is one-one. (This is not true for infinite set)

●• Bijective/ (One-One & Onto) function: A function f :X→Y is bijective if

and only if f is both one-one and onto. See f1 in Fig (i). (see §-28)

●•Many-one function: A function f : X → Y is defined to be many-one, if

more than one distinct elements of X under f have same image in Y. The
functions f3 and f4 in Fig. (iii) and (iv) are many-one.
●•A function can either be one-one or many-one but not both.
●•A continuous function which has at least one local maxima or local minima is
many-one.
Then the composition of f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as the function
gof : A → C given by gof (x) = g(f (x)), ∀ x ∈ A. (see §-29)
●•For the product ‘gof’ of two functions f and g, the range of f must be a
subset of the domain of g. Similarly ‘fog’ of two functions g and f, the range of
g must be a subset of the domain of f.

●•The range of a constant function is always a singleton. ●• If f and g are one-to-one then the function (gof) is also one-to-one.

●•A constant function may be one-one, many-one, onto or into. ●• If f and g are onto then the function (gof) is also onto.

●•Two functions ‘f’ and ‘g’ are identical iff their domains and ranges are equal ●•The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f and g are two
and functions of elements belonging to common domain are equal. bijections and gof is defined then gof is also a bijection.

●•Algebra of real functions: Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real ●•The composite of functions is not commutative, i.e. gof ≠ fog.
functions, where X ⊂ R and α be a scalar real number then ∀ x ∈ X:
●•The composite of functions is associative i.e. For three functions f, g and h :
(i) (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), fo(goh) = (fog)oh.

(ii) (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x), ●•Inverse of a Function: A function f : X → Y is invertible iff f is bijective
(one-one and onto). (see §-30)
(iii) (α f) (x) = α f (x),

(iv) (fg) (x) = f(x). g(x),

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(v) (x) = , provided g(x) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
 9 10
𝑓(𝑥)
●• The inverse of a bijective function f : X→Y, is the function g : Y→X, (ii) Rational functions: Rational functions are of the type , where f(x)
𝑔(𝑥)
holding the property: f(x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x. and g(x) are polynomial functions of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0.
●•A function f : X → Y is invertible if there exists a function g : Y → X such 2𝑥+1 2𝑥+1
E.g., f(x)= = . Its domain is all x except x = 2 and x = −1.
that gof = IX and fog = IY. 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)

●•The inverse of a bijection is unique. It means that;

1. If f : X→ Y is a bijection, and g : Y→ X is its inverse, then fog = IB and
gof = IA, where IA and IB are the identities of A and B respectively.
2. The graphs of f and g in this case are the mirror images of each other in the
line y = x. i.e., (f –1) –1 = g –1 = f
3. The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.
4. If f and g are two bijections such that f : A→ B and g : B→ C, then the
inverse of gof also exists and (fog) –1 = f –1og –1 (iii) Exponential Function: Function of the form f(x) = ax where a > 0 is
called exponential function.
●•Important functions:
f(x)= ax = ex lna (a > 0, a ≠ 1, x ∈ R) is called an exponential function
(i) Polynomial function: A function f : R → R is said to be polynomial function because the variable x is the exponent. It should not be confused with power
if for each x in R, y = f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...+ an xn, where n is a non- function g(x) = x2 in which variable x is the base.
negative integer and a0, a1, a2,...,an ∈ R and an ≠ 0. We call f a polynomial
function of degree n. For f (x) = ex domain is in R and range is R+.

(iv) Logarithmic Function: A function y = loga (x), x > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1, is

called Logarithmic Function.
Domain of any polynomial is (−∞,∞). If an ≠ 0 in polynomial then n is its degree.
For example, f(x) = −2x5+3x+√3 is a polynomial of degree 5.
If n = 1, then f(x) = mx + b and is a linear function.
If n = 2 then f(x) = ax2 + bx + c and the function is quadratic.
If n = 3 then f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d is a cubic function.
Graph of polynomial functions for degree n = 2,3,4 is shown. A polynomial
function is always continuous.
 11 12
x
Since y = a is monotonic (i.e. either increasing or decreasing) then it passes |𝑥|
horizontal line test. Thus, it has inverse function. To find this function we use (ix) Signum Function: f(x) = is called the Signum Function.
𝑥
algorithm for finding inverse. 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
Interchange x and y to get x = ay. i.e., y = loga(x). It is defined by f (x) = { 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
Function y = loga(x) is called logarithmic function. Its domain is (0, ∞) and range −1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
is (−∞, ∞). Since y = log a(x) is inverse of y = ax so their graphs are symmetric
Domain = R and Range = {–1, 0, 1}. The function is not continuous at x = 0.
about line y = x.
The graph of the Signum Function is given in the figure (i).
(v) Identity function: The real valued function f : R → R defined by y = f (x)= x
for each x ∈ R is called the identity function. Here the domain and range of f are
R. The graph is a straight line as shown in figure (i). It passes through the origin.

(vi) Constant function: A function f: R → R defined by y= f (x) = c, x ∈ R
where c is a constant is called a constant function.. Here domain of f is R and its
range is {c}. The graph is a line parallel to x-axis as shown in the figure (ii).
(vii) Absolute Value Function (or Modulus Function): An Absolute Value
Function or Modulus Function |x| is defined as:
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
y=|x|={ The graph is given in figure (iii).
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
The domain of f(x) = |x| is R and Range is R+ ∪ {0}.
Basic Properties of |x|:
(x) Greatest integer function or Step up Function: This function assumes
the value of the greatest integer, less than or equal to x and hence is called
Greatest integer function. It is denoted by f(x) = [x], x ∈ R. The graph of the
function is shown in figure (ii). From the definition of [x], we can see that
[x] = –1 for –1 ≤ x < 0
[x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1
[x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3 and so on. e.g., [1.999] = 1; [2.01] = 2

(i). | | x | | = | x | Properties of greatest integer function:

(ii). | x | > a ⇒ x < a or x < – a if a ∈ R+ and x ∈ R if a ∈ R– (i). [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1
(iii). | x | < a ⇒ – a < x < a if a ∈ R+ and no solution if a ∈ R– ∪ {0} (ii). x – 1 < [x] ≤ x
(iv). | x + y | < | x | + | y | (iii). [x + m] = [x] + m if m is an integer
(v). | x – y | > | x | – | y |
(iv). [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1
(vi). | x/y | = | x | / | y |, y ≠ 0
(v). [x] + [–x] = 0 if x is an integer, and
The properties given in (iv) & (v) can be put in one compact form namely,
[x] + [–x] = – 1 if x is not an integer.
|x| – | y | ≤ | x + y | ≤ | x | + | y | and | xy | = |x| |y|
 13
●•Binary Operation (∗): A binary operation ∗ on a set A is a function ∗ from
A × A → A. We denote ∗ (a, b) by a ∗ b.
●•Addition, subtraction and multiplication are binary operations on R, the set of
real numbers. Division is not binary on R, however, division is a binary
operation on R–{0}, the set of non-zero real numbers.
●•Addition and multiplication on N, the set of natural numbers are binary
operations. But subtraction ‘–‘ and division are not since (4∗5) = 4 – 5 = –1 ∉ N
and (4∗5) = 4/5 = 0.8 ∉ N.
●•A binary operation ∗ on the set X is called commutative, if a∗b= b∗a, for
every a, b ∈ X
●•A binary operation ∗ on the set X is called associative, if a∗(b∗c) = (a∗b)∗c,
for every a, b, c ∈ X
EXAMPLES AND PROOFS
●•Identity element for binary operation: An element e ∈ A is the identity
element for binary operation ∗ : A × A → A, if a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀ a ∈ A. The
identity element of (A, *) if it exists, is unique.
Note: (i) Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but zero is not identity
for the addition operation on N, as 0 ∉ N. In fact the addition operation on N
does not have any identity.
[For any a ∈ R, there exists ‘– a’ in R such that a + (– a) = 0 = (– a) + a. Here
‘0’ is called the identity for the addition operation: R × R → R]
(ii) One is identity for the multiplication operation on R.
1 1 1
[For any a ≠ 0 in R, we can choose ‘ ’ in R such that a × 𝑎 = 1 = 𝑎 × a. Here
𝑎
1
‘ ’ is called the identity for the multiplication operation: R × R → R]
𝑎
●•Iinvertible element for binary operation: An element a ∈ A is invertible
for binary operation ∗ : A × A → A, if there exists b ∈ A such that a ∗ b = e = b
∗ a where, e is the identity for the binary operation ∗. The element b is called
inverse of a and is denoted by a–1. •
 1 2
EXAMPLES & PROOFS (c) Now assume that when B = ϕ (or A = ϕ), let A×B ≠ ϕ ≠ B×A
Let x, y ∈ A× B
§-1. Show n(A×B) = n (A). n (B) where A and B are finite sets. ⇒ x, y ∈ A× ϕ (as B = ϕ by assumption)
⇒ y ∈ ϕ which is a contradiction.
Proof: There are n(A) choices for the first ordered pair and, for each of these, ⇒ A× ϕ must be empty … (5)
n(B) choices for the second ordered pair. Therefore n(A×B) = n(A) . n(B) Similarly assume A = ϕ and let A×B ≠ ϕ ≠ B×A.
Let x, y ∈ A × B
§-2. Show A×B ≠ B×A if A ≠ ∅ and B ≠ ∅. i.e. For non-empty sets A and B ⇒ x, y ∈ ϕ × B (as A = ϕ by assumption)
Cartesian product is not commutative. ⇒ x ∈ ϕ which is a contradiction.
Proof: If A and B are non-empty sets. Let there be an element x such that x ∈A ⇒ ϕ × B must be empty … (6)
and x ∉ B and let there be an element y ∈ B, then (x, y) ∈ A×B and (x, y) ∉ B×A Thus from Eq. (4) and (5) A×B = ϕ = B×A … (7)
(As x ∉ B). ⇒ A×B ≠ B×A when A ≠ ∅ and B ≠ ∅. From equations (1), (4) and (7) it is proved that;
A×B = B×A if and only if A = B, or A = ϕ, or B = ϕ.
§-3. Show that A× ϕ = ϕ ×A= ϕ.
§-5. Show A×(B∪C) = (A×B) ∪ (A×C)
Proof: Using contradiction method. Let A×ϕ ≠ ϕ and let (x, y) ∈ A× ϕ.
Now, by definition of Cartesian product, y ∈ ϕ, which is a contradiction. Proof: We have (x,y) ∈ A×(B ∪C)
Therefore, the set A× ϕ must be empty … (i) ⇔ x ∈ A and y ∈ B∪C
Now let ϕ×A ≠ ϕ and consider (x, y) ∈ ϕ × A. ⇔ x ∈ A and (y ∈ B or y ∈ C)
Then, by definition of Cartesian product, x ∈ ϕ, which is a contradiction. ⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and y ∈ C) by a distributive law
Therefore, the set ϕ × A must be empty … (ii) ⇔ (x,y ∈ A×B) or (x,y ∈ A×C)
Therefore from Eq. (i) and (ii) A×ϕ = ϕ×A = ϕ ⇔ x,y ∈ (A×B) ∪ (A×C).
Therefore A×(B∪C) = (A×B) ∪ (A×C).
§-4. If A and B are sets, A×B=B×A if and only if A= B, or A= ϕ, or B= ϕ.
Proof: We argue by contradiction using the definition of Cartesian product: §-6. Show (A∪B)×C = (A×C) ∪ (B×C)
(a) Assume A = B (To prove A×B = B×A) Proof: We have x,y ∈ (A∪B)×C
⇒ A×B = A×A (As A = B by assumption) ⇔ x ∈ A∪B and y ∈ C
= B×A … (1) ⇔ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and y ∈ C
(b) Assume A×B = B×A and considering A and B are non-empty sets. ⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ C) or ((x ∈ B and y ∈ C) by distributive law
Let x ∈ A. Since B ≠ ϕ, there exists an element y ∈ B, ⇔ (x,y ∈ A×C) or (x,y ∈ B×C)
⇒ x, y ∈ A×B ⇔ x,y ∈ (A×C) ∪ (B×C).
⇒ x, y ∈ B×A (as A×B = B×A by assumption) Therefore (A∪B) × C = (A×C) ∪ (B×C).
⇒ x∈B
⇒ A⊆B … (2) §-7. Show A×(B∩C) = (A×B)∩(A×C)
Similarly let y ∈ B. Since A ≠ ϕ, there exists an element x ∈ A.
⇒ x, y ∈ A×B Proof: We have x,y ∈ A×(B ∩ C)
⇒ x, y ∈ B×A (Since A×B = B ×A) ⇔ x ∈ A and y ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ y∈A ⇔ x ∈ A and (y ∈ B and y ∈ C)
⇒ B⊆A …(3) ⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) and (x ∈ A and y ∈ C) by distributive law
From Eq. (2) and (3) we get A = B … (4) ⇔ (x,y ∈ A×B) and (x,y ∈ A×C)
⇔ x,y ∈ (A×B) ∩ (A×C).
Therefore A × (B∩C) = (A×B)∩(A×C).
 3 4
§-8. Show (A∩B)×C = (A×C)∩(B×C)
Proof: We have (x,y) ∈ (A∩B)×C
⇔ x ∈ A∩B and y ∈ C
⇔ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) and (y ∈ C)
⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ C) and (x ∈ B and y ∈ C)
⇔ (x,y ∈ A×C) and (x,y ∈ B×C)
⇔ x,y ∈ (A×C) ∩ (B×C).
Therefore (A∩B)×C = (A×C)∩(B×C).
§-9. Show A×(B–C)= (A×B)– (A×C)
Proof: Let (x,y) ∈ A×(B – C)
⇔ x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ (B – C)
⇔ x ∈ A ∧ (y ∈ B ∧ y ∉ C)
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∉ C)
⇔ x,y ∈ A×B ∧ x,y ∉ A×C
⇔ x,y ∈ (A×B – A×C)
⇔ A×(B – C) = (A×B – A×C)
§-10. Prove that (A×C) ⊆ (B×C) iff A ⊆ B and C≠ ∅.
Proof: Part I: Assume A×C ⊆ B×C, and prove A ⊆ B.
Let x,y ∈ U. Then for any C≠ ∅ in U let y ∈ C.
Let x∈A
⇒ x,y ∈ (A×C) for some y ∈ C
⇒ x,y ∈ (B×C) (as A×C ⊆ B×C by assumption)
⇒ x ∈ B and y ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ B by removing clauses
⇒ A ⊆ B.
Part II: Assume A ⊆ B, then prove A×C ⊆ B×C.
Let x,y ∈ A×C
⇒ x ∈ A and y ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ B and y ∈ C by assumption
⇒ x,y ∈ B×C
⇒ A×C ⊆ B×C.
Therefore (A×C) ⊆ (B×C) iff A ⊆ B and C≠ ∅.
§-11. If A ⊂ B and C ⊂ D, then prove that: A×C ⊂ B×D
Proof: Let (x,y) ∈ A×C
⇒ x ∈ A and y ∈ C
⇒ x∈B and y∈D (as A ⊂ B and C ⊂ D)
⇒ x,y ∈ B×D ⇒ A×C ⊂ B×D
§-12. Prove (A×B) – (C×D) = (A×(B–D))∪((A–C)×B)
Proof: Let x,y ∈ (A×B) – (C×D)
⇔ (x,y ∈ A×B) ∧ (x,y ∉ C×D) Definition of Set Difference
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B) ∧ ¬ (x ∈ C ∧ y ∈ D) Defin. of Cartesian Product
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B) ∧ (x ∉ C ∨ y ∉ D) De Morgan's: Law of Negations
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B ∧ x ∉ C) ∨ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B ∧ y ∉ D)
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ C ∧ y ∈ B) ∨ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B ∧ y ∉ D) Associative law
⇔ (x ∈ (A–C) ∧ y ∈ B) ∨ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ (B–D)) Defin. of Set Difference
⇔ (x,y ∈ ((A–C)×B) ∨ (x,y ∈ (A×(B–D))
⇔ x,y ∈ (A×(B–D))∪((A–C)×B) Definition of Set Union
Therefore (A×B) – (C×D) = (A×(B–D))∪((A–C)×B)
§-13. Prove that (A×B)∩(C ×D) = (A∩C)×(B∩D).
Proof: Let x,y ∈ (A×B)∩(C ×D)
⇔ x,y ∈ A×B and x,y ∈ C ×D
⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) and (x ∈ C and y ∈ D)
⇔ (x ∈ A and x ∈ C) and (y ∈ B and y ∈ D) commutativity and associativity
⇔ x ∈ (A∩C) and y ∈ (B∩D)
⇔ x,y ∈ (A∩C)×(B∩D).
Therefore (A×B)∩(C ×D) = (A∩C)×(B∩D)
§-14. If n(A∩B) = n then prove n[(A×B)∩(B×A)] = n2
Proof: Given n(A∩B) = n.
We have to evaluate n[(A×B)∩(B×A)]
We know (A×B)∩(C×D) = (A∩C)×(B∩D)
Hence (A×B)∩(B×A) = (A∩B)×(B∩A) [Putting C = B and D = A]
⇒ n[(A×B)∩(B×A)] = n[(A∩B)]×n[(B∩A)]
i.e., n[(A×B)∩(B×A)] = n×n = n2
§-15. If A ⊆ B then (A × B ) ∩ (B × A) = A2
Proof: We know (A×B)∩(C×D) = (A∩C)×(B∩D)
Hence (A×B)∩(B×A) = (A∩B)×(B∩A) [Putting C = B and D = A]
⇒ (A×B)∩(B×A) = (A∩A)×(A∩A) [As A ⊆ B]
⇒ (A×B)∩(B×A) = A×A = A2
 5 6

§-16. If n(A)= p and n(B)= q then the total number of relations from A to B §-19. Example of Universal relation:
is 2pq and total non-empty relations is 2pq – 1. (i) Suppose A is a set of all natural numbers and B is a set of all whole
numbers. The relation between A and B is universal as every element of A is in
Proof: Given n(A) = p and n(B) = q elements,
set B.
So the number of elements in A×B = n(A×B) = pq.
(ii) Consider relation R = {(a, b) : |a – b| ≥ 0}. This is the whole set A × A, as
We know any subset of A×B is a relation from A to B.
all pairs (a, b) in A×A satisfy |a – b| ≥ 0.
Hence total number of relations from A to B is the total number of subsets of
A×B. We can find the total number of subsets of A×B in 2 ways;
(i) For each of the n(A×B) ordered pairs (i.e., pq pairs) in A×B there are two §-20. Relation on power set of a set is Reflexive.
possibilities, either the ordered pair belongs to the relation or it doesn’t. Any relation on the set of subsets of { a, b} is given by R = P(S) x P(S)
i.e., R = {(φ, φ), (φ,{a}), (φ,{b}), (φ,{a,b}), ({a},{a}), ({a},{b}),
So the total number of relations from A to B is 2×2×2×···×2 (pq terms) = 2pq.
({a},{a,b}), ({b},{b}), ({b},{a, b}), ({a,b},{a,b})}.
(Similarly, if n(A) = p, then the number of relations on A is 2p·p.= 2p2) Here we see that R is reflexive as for every element x of the set of subsets
Out of total relations (2pq) there is one empty relation included in this. {φ, {a}, {b}, {a,b}} we have (x, x) ∈ R.
Hence total number of non-void subsets or relations = 2pq −1
(ii)The possible subsets of A×B is given by its power set. §-21. Number of Reflexive Relations on a set with n elements is : 2n(n-1).
Number of subsets of power set = C0pq + C1pq + C2pq + …….. + Cpqpq = 2pq.
Proof (i): Let A = {1,2,3,….,n}. Here n(A) = n
Number of non-void subsets = C1pq + C2pq + …….. + Cpqpq = 2pq −1
Universal relation on A is = A×A as is given in following table;
Thus, for A = {1, 2, 3) & B = {x, y, z}, we have pq = 3×3 = 9
Number of possible relations (non-void subsets) =29− 1 = 511.

§-17. Examples of Domain, Co Domain and Range

There are n2 ordered pairs in universal relation on A.

and These ordered pairs can be classified into;
(i) Diagonal ordered pairs i.e., (a,a) type of pairs = total n pairs.
(ii) Non diagonal ordered pairs = total (n2 –n)
Since diagonal ordered pairs must lie in Reflexive Relation, hence they can be
selected in only one way.
Remaining non-diagonal ordered pairs, which are (n2 –n) in number, may or
may not be in the relation.
Since, each non-diagonal elements have two options either it will be selected or
not selected in Relation. Hence the number of ways in which (n2 –n) elements
§-18. Example of Empty relation: can be selected = 2×2×…×2 upto (n2 –n) terms. = 2(n2 –n)
Total number of Reflexive Relations on set A having n elements is;
Here R= φ ⊂ A×A. Consider a relation R on set A={1,2,3,4,5} defined by = No. of ways of selecting diagonal ordered pairs × No. of ways of selecting
R = {x,y : x y = 12}. This is the empty set, as no pair (x, y) satisfies the condition non-diagonal ordered pairs
x – y = 10.
= 1 × 2n2 – n = 2n(n –1)
 7 8
Proof (ii):
Let n(A) = n.
Then total number of elements (or pairs) in (A×A) = n×n = n2.
Total Reflexive (a,a) pairs in (A×A) = n. There is only one way of selection i.e.,
all pairs are to be taken into account together.
The number of pairs other than Reflexive pairs in (A×A) = (n2 – n) and each of
these have 2 ways of selection (either pick or do-not pick).
So total number of Reflexive Relations in A = No. of ways of selecting Reflexive
pairs × No. of ways of selecting non-Reflexive ordered pairs.
= 1 × 2n2 – n = 2n(n-1).
§-22. Number of Symmetric Relations on a set with n elements : 2n(n+1)/2.
Proof (i): Let A = {1,2,3,….,n}. Here n(A) = n
Universal relation on A is = A×A as is given in following table;
There are n2 ordered pairs in universal relation on A.
These ordered pairs can be classified into;
(i) Diagonal ordered pairs i.e., (a,a) type of pairs = total n pairs.
(ii) Non diagonal ordered pairs = total (n2 –n)
Each diagonal elements have two options either it will be selected or not selected
in Relation. Hence the number of ways in which n elements can be selected =
2×2×…×2 upto n terms. = 2n
All (n2 – n) non- diagonal ordered pairs are divided in form (a,b),(b,a). There are
(n2 – n)/2 ordered pairs having (a,b) and (n2 – n)/2 ordered pairs having (b,a).
Therefore there are (n2 – n)/2 Symmetric pairs i.e., (a,b),(b,a) together and the
number of ways of selection = 2×2×…×2 upto (n2 –n)/2 terms. = 2(n2 –n)/2
Total number of Symmetric Relations on set A having n elements is;
= No. of ways of selecting diagonal ordered pairs × No. of ways of selecting
non-diagonal ordered pairs
= 2n × 2(n2 –n)/2
= 2(n2 +n)/2
= 2n(n +1)/2
Proof (ii): Let n(A) = n. Then n(A×A) = n2.
Total (a,a) type of pairs in (A×A) = n and each of these have 2 choice of
selection (either pick or do-not pick).
So number of ways they can be selected = 2n.
The number of pairs other than (a,a) type of pairs in (A×A) = (n2 – n).
Out of these, half are ordered pair (a,b) and other half ordered pairs (b,a).
Now for a symmetric relation (a,b) and (b,a) must exist together.
Hence we have (n2 – n)/2 Symmetric pairs. with 2 choices (pick or not pick).
So number of ways of teir selection = 2(n2 –n)/2
Hence total number of Symmetric relations = 2n × 2(n2 – n)/2 = 2(n2+n)/2 = 2n(n+1)/2
§-23. Reflexive and symmetric Relations on a set with n elements is given
by: 2n(n-1)/2.
Proof (i): Let A = {1,2,3,….,n}. Here n(A) = n
Universal relation on A is = A×A as is given in following table;
There are n2 ordered pairs in universal relation on A.
These ordered pairs can be classified into;
(i) Diagonal ordered pairs i.e., (a,a) type of pairs = total n pairs.
(ii) Non diagonal ordered pairs = total (n2 –n)
Since diagonal ordered pairs must lie in Reflexive Relation, hence they can
be selected in only one way.
Now there are (n2 – n) non- diagonal ordered pairs which are divided in form
(a,b),(b,a). There are (n2 – n)/2 ordered pairs having (a,b) and (n2 – n)/2
ordered pairs having (b,a).
Therefore there are (n2 – n)/2 Symmetric pairs i.e., (a,b),(b,a) together and
the number of ways of selection = 2×2×…×2 upto (n2 –n)/2 terms. = 2(n2 –n)/2
Total number of Reflexive and Symmetric Relations on set A having n
elements is;
= No. of ways of selecting diagonal ordered pairs × No. of ways of selecting
non-diagonal ordered pairs
= 1 × 2(n2 –n)/2 = 2(n2 – n)/2 = 2n(n –1)/2
 9 10
§-24. Total Reflexive or Symmetric Relations on set of n element is given by:
2n(n-1) + 2n(n +1)/2 – 2n(n –1)/2
Proof: Let A = {1,2,3,….,n}. Here n(A) = n
Universal relation on A is = A×A as is given in following table;
There are n2 ordered pairs in universal relation on A.
These ordered pairs can be classified into;
(i) Diagonal ordered pairs i.e., (a,a) type of pairs = total n pairs.
(ii) Non diagonal ordered pairs = total (n2 –n)
(a) Finding total Reflexive Relations on A:
Total Reflexive (a,a) pairs in (A×A) = n. There is only one way of selection i.e.,
all pairs are to be taken into account together.
The number of pairs other than Reflexive pairs in (A×A) = (n2 – n) and each of
these have 2 ways of selection (either pick or do-not pick). So total number of
Reflexive Relations in A = No. of ways of selecting Reflexive pairs × No. of
ways of selecting non-Reflexive ordered pairs
= 1 × 2n2 – n = 2n(n-1).
(b) Finding total Symmetric Relations on A: Each diagonal element has two
ways of selection (either it will be selected or not selected) in Relation. Hence
the number of ways in which n elements can be selected;
= 2×2×…×2 upto n terms. = 2n
All (n2 – n) non- diagonal ordered pairs are divided in form (a,b),(b,a). There are
(n2 – n)/2 ordered pairs having (a,b) and (n2 – n)/2 ordered pairs having (b,a).
Therefore the number of Symmetric type of ordered pairs [i.e., (a,b),(b,a)
together] in A×A = (n2 – n)/2 and each of these pairs can be selected in two ways
(either pick or don’t pick)
So the number of ways of selection = 2×2×…×2 upto (n2 –n)/2 terms.
= 2(n2 –n)/2
Therefore on set A having n elements
Total number of Symmetric Relations = No. of ways of selecting diagonal ordered
pairs × No. of ways of selecting non-diagonal ordered pairs
= 2n × 2(n2 –n)/2
= 2(n2 +n)/2 = 2n(n +1)/2
(c) Finding total Reflexive and Symmetric Relations on A: Here to have
Reflexive Relation, diagonal ordered pairs can be selected in only one way.
From (b) above we got the number of Symmetric pairs in non-diagonal ordered
pairs in A×A = 2(n2 –n)/2
Total number of Reflexive and Symmetric Relations on set A having n
elements = No. of ways of selecting diagonal ordered pairs × No. of ways of
selecting non-diagonal ordered pairs
= 1 × 2(n2 –n)/2 = 2(n2 – n)/2 = 2n(n –1)/2
Total Reflexive or Symmetric Relations on A = R ∪ S = R + S – R∩S
= 2n(n-1) + 2n(n +1)/2 – 2n(n –1)/2
§-25. Examples of Equivalence Classes;
(i) Suppose X was the set of all children playing in a playground. Then if ~ was
an equivalence relation for ‘of the same age’, one equivalence class would be
the set of all 2-year-olds, and another the set of all 5-year-olds.
(ii) If X was the set of all polygons, and the equivalence relation ~ was defined
as ‘ with the same number of sides’, examples of equivalences classes would
be the set of all triangles, the set of all quadrilaterals, the set of all pentagons,
etc.,
(iii) If X is the set of all integers, we can define the equivalence relation ~ by
saying ‘a ~ b if and only if ( a – b ) is divisible by 9’. Then the equivalence
class of 4 would include -32, -23, -14, -5, 4, 13, 22, and 31 (and a whole lot
more).
§-26. Example (i): Let A={0,1,2,3,4} and a relation R on A defined as
follows: R ={{0,0},{0,4},{1,1},{1,3},{2,2},{3,1},{3,3},{4,0},{4,4}}. We see
that R is an equivalent relation. For finding distinct equivalence classes of R
we see that; [0] = Set of all elements in R related to 0 = {0,4}
[1] = Set of all elements in R related to 1 = {1,3}
[2] = Set of all elements in R related to 2 = {2}
[3] = Set of all elements in R related to 3 = {1,3}= [1]
[4] = Set of all elements in R related to 4 = {0,4}= [0]
So there are only three equivalent classes; [0], [3], [2].
i.e., {{0,4},{1,3},{2}} is the set of equivalence classes of A under R. The
digraph of R is
 11
where three sub-graphs of the digraph represent the equivalence classes. We
further observe that A = {0, 4} ∪ {1, 3} ∪ {2} = {0,4,1,3,2}= {0,1,2,3,4} and
so {0, 4}, {1, 3} and {2} is the partition of A induced by R.
Example (ii): Show that R = {(a, b) : a ∈ Z, b ∈ Z, (a − b) is an even integer} is
an equivalence relation on Z and let us find out equivalence classes. Here;
1. a − a = 0 is an even integer. ⇒ (a, a) ∈ R. Therefore, R is reflexive.
2. Let (a, b) ∈ R. Then a − b is an even integer.
Now b − a = − (a −b) is also an even integer
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R and so R is symmetric.
3. Let (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R. ⇒ (a – b) and (b – c) both are even integers.
⇒ a − c is an even integer, [as (a − b) and (b − c) both are even]
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R. [as a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) is even]
Thus, (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R and so R is transitive.
Hence R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive and so is an equivalence relation.
The elements of the equivalence class of a ∈ Z are a + 2k, k = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ….
Thus,
[0] = { …, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …},
[1] = { …, −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, …},
[2] = { …, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …} = [0],
[3] = { …, −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, …} = [1],
Proceeding similarly, we note that there are only two equivalence classes
{ …, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …} = E0 (say)
And { …, − 5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5,7, …} = E1 (say).
We also note that Z = E0 ∪ E1 and E0 ∩ E1 = ϕ.
The equivalence classes E0 and E1 are blocks of the partition and so {E0, E1} is a
partition of the set of all integers.
§-27. Example of Surjective Function: A function f: N→N, f(x) = x + 2
is surjective.
But f : R→R, f(x) = x2 is not surjective as the range in R consists of negative
integers and we cannot find a real number whose square is negative.
§-28. Example of Bijective Function: A function f :R→R defined by f(x) = 2x–3
is a bijective function.
Here f is injective because if f(x1) = f(x2), then 2x1 – 3 = 2x2 – 3 ⇒ x1 = x2.
And f is also surjective because 2x – 3 = y ⇒ x = (y + 5)/3 ∈ R and f(x) = y.
Since f is both surjective and injective, we can say f is bijective.
§-29. Composit function Example If f(x) = x+2 and g(x) = 2x+1, then
(fog)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(2x+1) = 2x + 1+ 2 = 2x + 3 and
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x+2) = 2(x + 2) + 1= 2x + 5.
§-29. Example of Inverse Function: A Function f : Z→Z, f(x) = x + 5, is
invertible since it has the inverse function g : Z→Z, g(x) = x − 5. A Function
f : Z→Z, f(x) = x2 is not invertiable since this is not one-to-one as (−x)2 = x2.