Fuel 254 (2019) 115617

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Full Length Article

The effect of the injection pressure on single cylinder diesel engine fueled T
with propanol–diesel blend
Mehmet Şen
Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Department of Automotive Technology, 14100 Bolu, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the impact of fuel injection pressure on the exhaust emissions, combustion characteristics and
Injection pressure engine performance of a single-cylinder diesel engine fueled with 15%propanol-85%diesel blend (Pro15) was
Alcohol investigated. The engine was run at three fuel injection pressures (190, 210, and 230 bar) under two engine loads
Propanol (brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of 2 bar and 4 bar) at two engine speeds (1800 rpm and 2400 rpm). The
Combustion
results confirmed that the increased pressure of injection caused to decrease the advance of injection. The
Diesel engine
increase in the ignition delay at high injection pressure for Pro15 was obtained less than those of low and
original injection pressures. The combustion duration of Pro15 was shorter compared to petroleum-based diesel
fuel. Increasing the injection pressure reduced the combustion duration slightly. The lowest brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) was found at low injection pressure for both engine loads at 2400 rpm. Also, the addition of
propanol to petroleum-based diesel fuel generally resulted in a decrease in smoke opacity and NOx emissions.

1. Introduction
Internal combustion engines are one of the important sources of
environmental pollution due to the presence of over 380 million ve-
hicles worldwide [1]. Diesel engines have a wide usage area due to their
durability and efficiency. Approximately 2.9 kg of greenhouse gas
emissions is generated by the burning of 1-liter diesel fuel [2]. There-
fore, the harmful effects of the emissions of diesel engines on the en-
vironment and human health and the decreasing oil reserves in the
world have increased the search of alternative fuels for diesel engines
[3,4]. Alcohols, which can be used as an appropriate diesel fuel additive
due to their liquid phases and high oxygen content, reduce diesel ex-
haust emissions and oil dependency [5].
In alcohols, low-carbon alcohols containing three or less carbon
atoms as a mixture of diesel fuels improve combustion behaviours and
exhaust emissions due to their high oxygen content [6]. Many studies
on the use of short-chain alcohols as fuel additives for diesel engines
have shown that methanol and ethanol have greater affinity for water
and there is miscibility problem with diesel fuel over a wide tempera-
ture range. Additional additives must be used to eliminate the mis-
cibility problems of these alcohol blends [7,8]. Using higher alcohols as
a diesel fuel additive is more suitable because of their better fuel sta-
bility, higher energy and cetane number, less hygroscopic behavior [9].
Therefore, higher alcohols, in particular butanol [10] and pentanol [11]
have been the most commonly studied. Propanol can be mixed with a
large proportion with diesel fuel without any separation for a long time
because of their better miscibility [12]. In short chain alcohols, pro-
panol which has the highest heating value and highest cetane number
improve combustion behaviours and exhaust emissions due to their
high oxygen content [9]. Also, vaporization heat of propanol is less
about 3.4 times than that of diesel, therefore propanol blends may
cause less nitrogeneoxides (NOx) emission [7]. However, there is in-
sufficient study in the literature on the use of propanol in diesel en-
gines. Balamurugan and Nalini [13] reported that the fuel blends ob-
tained by mixing 4–8% propanol with neat diesel resulted significant
improvements in engine performance and emission parameters. Hazar
and Uyar [14] examined the effects of addition of propanol (2%, 8%,
12% and 16% v/v) to diesel engine emission. They reported that hy-
drocarbon (HC), carbonmonoxide (CO) and smoke density decreased
while NOx increased. Yoshimoto et al. [15] investigated a diesel engine
performance using a blend of rapeseed oil mixed with propanol-butanol
as fuel. They found that the alcohol addition to the diesel fuel mixture
up to 40% caused a stable combustion.
However, in the case of the use of an alternative fuel such as alco-
hols in a diesel engine, it may be necessary to make some changes in the
engine operating parameters to reduce emissions or improve engine
performance. Fuel injection pressure and timing are important oper-
ating parameters affecting the emission, combustion and performance
characteristics of compression ignition engines. The impact of injection
pressure on diesel engine with various alcohol-diesel blends has been

E-mail address: sen_m@ibu.edu.tr.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.115617
Received 15 March 2019; Received in revised form 29 May 2019; Accepted 6 June 2019
Available online 11 June 2019
0016-2361/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Şen Fuel 254 (2019) 115617

investigated by some researchers. Payri et al. [16] reported in their Table 1

study that delayed fuel injection did not significantly affect NOx emis- Specification of test fuels.
sions and smoke opacity, but resulted in higher HC and CO emissions Properties Diesel Fuel Propanol*
and BSFC. Canakci et al. [17] investigated the impact of fuel injection
pressure of methanol-diesel fuel blend on the emission, combustion and Cetan Number 58.8 12
Density (kg/m3) 831.5 803.7
performance characteristics of diesel engine at different loads. Test
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 43.2 30.6
results indicated that NOx and carbondioxide emissions increased with Kinematics Viscosity (mm2/s) 2.4 1.74
the increase of injection pressure, whereas smoke, HC and CO emissions Oxygen (wt%) 0 26.6
decreased. Can et al. [18] examined the effect of ethanol-diesel fuel Hydrogen (wt%) 13.4 13.4
blends with different mixing ratios on emissions at full engine load and Carbon (wt%) 86.6 60.0

using varied fuel injection pressures. They reported that increasing the
* Data taken from Ref. [9].
pressure of injection of a diesel engine operated with ethanol-diesel fuel
blend reduced smoke density and CO emissions while increasing NOx
thermal value, as the propanol content in the blend increases too much
emissions.
the ignition delay prolonged and combustion performance deteriorates
As the result of the literature review, it has been observed that the
and the specific fuel combustion increases. Therefore, propanol ratio
effect of the injection pressure on the exhaust emissions, engine per-
was selected as 15%. Pro15 fuel was prepared by mixing 15% (v/v) of
formance and combustion characteristics of the diesel engine has not
Merck brand 99.8% purity propanol to the commercial eurodiesel fuel
been studied systematically when using diesel and propanol blends. To
(Pro0) supplied from Shell Company. The basic properties of the diesel
overcome this deficiency in the literature, the need for further in-
fuel and propanol were presented in Table 1.
vestigation of this topic is obvious. For this purpose, the effect of in-
In order to see the effects of injection pressure, the start of injection
jection pressure on the exhaust emissions, combustion characteristics
(SOI) was changed by replacing the washer thickness adjusting the
and engine performance of a single-cylinder diesel engine fueled with
tension of the injector spring. To detect the opening pressure of the
propanol–diesel blend was investigated in this study.
injector, the fuel injector pressure tester was used. It was found that SOI
is 210 bar with using the original injector (washer thick-
ness = 1.16 mm), SOI is 190 bar when the thickness of the washer was
2. Materials and methods
reduced to 1 mm and SOI is 230 bar when the thickness of the washer
was increased to 1.27 mm. However, the tests were carried out at two
The engine test bench used in the experiments consisted of diesel
different BMEP to see the effect of the engine load. High load was se-
engine (Lombardini LD350 7.5 HP at 3600 rpm, direct injection, single
lected BMEP of 4 bar which is the maximum value achieved when the
cylinder, compression ratio of 20.3), dynamometer (Kemsan 15 kW)
engine is operated with Pro15 fuel. Also BMEP of 2 bar was preferred to
and torqmeter (Kistler 4550A). The cylinder pressures were measured
represent low loads. In order to see the effect of engine speed, the en-
with piezoelectric sensor (Kistler 6052C) and were recorded at 0.1
gine was operated at 2400 rpm, where the maximum torque was ob-
crank angle (CA) degree intervals with encoder (Kistler 2614B). Kistler
tained and operated at 1800 rpm for low engine speed. The engine was
4065B sensor was used for measuring the fuel line pressure. NiCr-Ni
run for a while to stabilize engine parameters before test data is saved.
thermocouple was used to measure exhaust temperature. Fuel con-
The following formulas were used in the calculations:
sumption measurements were carried out by Ohaus PA4102 scales with
a readability of 0.01 g. Data from the sensors were transferred to the ̇ . 3600
mfuel
computer via the data acquisition system (Kibox). Mobydick 5000 BSFC (g/kWh) =
Pe (1)
system was used for measuring NOx emission in the range of 0–5000
with 1 ppm accuracy and smoke opacity in the range of 0–100 with
0.1% accuracy. The experimental scheme is given in Fig. 1. Pb
BTE (%) = . 100
Although the positive effect of oxygen content of propanol on ̇ . LHV
mfuel (2)
combustion performance, because of the low cetane number and low

Fig. 1. The experimental scheme.

2
M. Şen Fuel 254 (2019) 115617

Fig. 2. Determination of the injection and combustion parameters.

k dV 1 dP straightlines and FLP lines overlap is SOI. The change in the AOI for
HRR (J/CA°) = P + V
k − 1 dθ 1 − k dθ (3) different fuel, load and engine speed are shown in the Fig. 4. It is ob-
served that the injection time and injection pressure increase as the load
Determination of the injection and the combustion parameters are
and engine speed increase. In addition, for both load at 1800 rpm, the
shown in Fig. 2. The combustion duration (CD) is the difference be-
residual fuel pressure in the pipe between the pump and the injector is
tween the crank angles at which 5% (start of combustion) and 95% (end
higher. Addition of propanol in each case increased the residual fuel
of combustion) of the total heat release occurs. The SOI is crankshaft
pressure slightly. This was thought to be due to the decrease in density
angle at which the fuel line pressure reaches the injector opening
and viscosity with the addition of propanol [19].
pressure. Difference between SOI and start of combustion is ignition
As shown in Fig. 4, while the AOI was reduced by the increase of the
delay (ID). The difference in crank angle between the top dead center
engine speed, it did not change much with the increase of the load. As
(TDC) and the SOI is called the advance of injection (AOI).
the injection pressure increased for each case, the AOI reduced. High
viscosity, density and bulk module of the fuel cause rapid rise in fuel
3. Results and discussions
line pressure, so that the injector reaches the opening pressure more
quickly [4]. As the Pro0 fuel has a higher viscosity and density, start of
3.1. Injection characteristics
injection of Pro0 is earlier than Pro15 in all test conditions. 0.1–0.2
degrees difference was observed in the injection pressure of 190 bar in
Fig. 3 shows the fuel line pressure (FLP) respect to CA at different
the AOI between Pro0 and Pro15 fuels, while 0.2–0.3 degrees at 210 bar
engine speeds (1800 rpm and 2400 rpm) and engine loads (2 bar and
and 0.7–0.8 degrees at 230 bar.
4 bar) for Pro0 and Pro15. The opening pressures of the injector are
shown as straight lines in the Fig. 3. Crank angle where these

Fig. 3. The variations of fuel line pressure.

3
M. Şen Fuel 254 (2019) 115617

Fig. 4. The variations of advance of injection.

Fig. 5. The variations of HRR.

3.2. Combustion characteristics
The heat release rate (HRR) of the test fuels according to the dif-
ferent engine speeds and loads are shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 6 shows the
ignition delay (ID) values of the Pro0 and Pro15 fuels. Premixed and
controlled combustion phase are obviously noticeable in Fig. 5. In ad-
dition, it can be seen that, propanol blends are ignited later than the
diesel fuel and a high HRR peak is achieved by the fact that oxygen
content of propanol and the fuel accumulated in the cylinder during the
ID period quickly burns.
Increased oxygen content by addition of propanol causes better
combustion process, especially in the course of the controlled com-
bustion phase [7]. In many studies, it has been reported that ID and
HRR peak values increases with the addition of alcohol [7,17,19]. As
the load increased, the heat released in the premixed combustion phase
did not change much, while the heat released in the controlled com-
bustion phase has increased. However, as the engine speed increases,
combustion has shifted towards to the top dead center (TDC), which is
why the maximum engine torque is at 2400 rpm.
Due to the low cetane number of propanol, long ID values were

Fig. 6. The variations of ignition delay.

4
M. Şen
Fig. 7. The variations of combustion duration.
obtained for Pro15 in each case as shown in Fig. 6. The rise of injection
pressure provided better atomization, also by the reduction of the AOI
the fuel injected closer to the TDC exposed to a warmer cylinder en-
vironment and evaporated easier [20]. Therefore, the increase in ID at
230 bar injection pressure for Pro15 was obtained less than that of in-
jection pressures of 190 bar and 210 bar. It is seen that in the Fig. 6, the
increase of engine speed causes a long ID, while the increase of the
engine load reduces the ID slightly.
The change of the combustion duration of the test fuels with respect
to engine speed and load is shown in Fig. 7. The combustion duration of
Pro15 fuel was shortened approximately 3 degrees for BMEP of 2 bar, 5
degrees for BMEP of 4 bar compared to diesel fuel. It was noticed that
increasing in the ID shortened the combustion duration because of the
fuel accumulated during ID period was burned quickly in the cylinder
[21]. The prolongation of the combustion duration was already ex-
pected due to the increase in the fuel delivered to the cylinder with the
increase in load.
The graphs in Fig. 8 show the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) of the
test fuels in terms of different engine loads and engine speeds. It is
observed that the EGT changes are similar to the combustion duration
changes. The exhaust temperature was increased with the prolongation
of the combustion duration due to the fact that a portion of the heat
release moves away from TDC [22]. Also, the oxygen content in the
Pro15 fuel allows the fuel to burn faster, thereby reduced the com-
bustion duration and exhaust temperature compared to Pro0.
3.3. Performance parameters
The effects of propanol addition and injection pressure on the BSFC
are shown in Fig. 9 at different BMEPs and engine speeds. The BSFC
values were found to be high due to the LHV value of propanol was low
compared to the diesel fuel. The BSFC decreased with increasing BMEP
and engine speed. This is due to an increase in the heat released in the
controlled combustion phase as the BMEP increases and shift of the
combustion towards to the TDC when the engine speed increases, as
explained in the HRR section. This is better understood by the BTE
Fig. 8. The variations of exhaust temperature.
5
Fuel 254 (2019) 115617
graphs given in Fig. 10 which are useful for indication of how much
heat energy is turned into mechanical energy.
The Pro0 and Pro15 fuels have showed almost similar tendencies in
changes of load, engine speed and injection pressure. At 1800 rpm and
low BMEP, increased injection pressure reduced the BSFC while de-
creased injection pressure increased the BSFC. The lowest BSFC value
was obtained at the original injection pressure at 1800 rpm and high
BMEP. Although the BSFC values for both engine loads at 2400 rpm
were quite close to each other, the lowest BSFC values were reached at
injection pressure of 190 bar for both test fuels. As shown in Fig. 10,
BTE values were quite close to each other, although the BSFC values of
propanol were higher than that of the diesel fuel. This is due to better
combustion depending on the increased fuel oxygen content with the
addition of propanol [23].
3.4. Exhaust emissions
The effects of injection pressure, engine speed and load on NOx
emission are given in Fig. 11. NOx formation highly depends on fuel
oxygen content, high cylinder temperatures during combustion and
duration of combustion. As expected, the increase of engine load for the
same engine speed increased the NOx due to the increase in the amount
of fuel injected. Increasing the engine speed from 1800 rpm to
2400 rpm reduced the NOx emissions. NOx emission slightly decreased
with increase in injection pressure. As shown in Fig. 6, the ignition
delay decreased with increasing injection pressure and also the pre-
mixed combustion phase was shortened as shown in Fig. 5. Thus, lower
combustion temperatures and pressures and HRR peaks resulted in
lower NOx emissions. There was a slight decrease in NOx due to the
cooling effect during the evaporation of the alcohol at low load for both
engine speeds. At high load NOx is increased a little with the addition of
alcohol due to the increase of oxygen content which causes better
combustion. It is seen that the NOx emission has a similar tendency with
the combustion duration (Fig. 7) and EGT (Fig. 8).
Smoke opacity variations according to engine speeds and engine
loads are shown in Fig. 12. Smoke opacity increases when the air taken
M. Şen Fuel 254 (2019) 115617

Fig. 9. The variations of BSFC.

Fig. 10. The variations of BTE.

into the cylinder or air locally in the cylinder are insufficient [24]. Due
to the oxygen content of propanol, Pro15 fuel has lower smoke opacity
than that of diesel fuel. While the amount of air is not changed for the
same engine speed, the need for oxygen increases at higher loads due to
the injection of more fuel to the combustion chamber. Therefore, the
increase in BMEP increased the smoke opacity. However, the addition
of propanol to diesel fuel further reduced the smoke opacity at BMEP of
4 bar compared to BMEP of 2 bar. In addition, for the same loads, the
smoke opacity increased at engine speed of 1800 rpm. As the injection
pressure is increased the smoke opacity slightly reduces due to the
smaller diameter of the injected fuel particles and better mixing of the
fuel with air.
4. Conclusions
In this experimental study the effect of fuel injection pressure on the
exhaust emissions, combustion characteristics and engine performance
of a single cylinder diesel engine fueled with propanol–diesel fuel blend
was examined. The following conclusions were obtained:
1. AOI decreased with the increasing engine speed, but did not change
much with the increasing load. As the injection pressure increased,
the AOI decreased.
2. Injection delay increased with using Pro15. The increase in ID at
high injection pressure for Pro15 was obtained less than those of the
low and original injection pressures. The increase in engine speed
caused a long ID, while the increase in the engine load reduced the
ID slightly.
3. The combustion duration of Pro15 fuel was shorter compared to
diesel fuel. Increasing the injection pressure reduced the combustion
duration a little.
4. The BSFC increased when Pro15 fuel was used due to the low
heating value of propanol. The BSFC decreased with increasing
engine load and speed. At 1800 rpm, the lowest BSFC was obtained
at the original injection pressure under high load. At 2400 rpm, the
lowest BSFC was obtained at low injection pressures for both engine
loads.
5. In all cases except at 2400 rpm low engine load, the highest NOx
emission was obtained at the original injection pressure. Propanol
addition decreased the NOx at low load for both engine speeds but
increased a little at high load.
6. Smoke opacity decreased with the use of Pro15 fuel. The addition of
propanol to diesel fuel further reduced the smoke opacity at high
load compared to low load.

Fig. 11. The variations of NOx.

6
M. Şen Fuel 254 (2019) 115617

Fig. 12. The variations of smoke opacity.

Acknowledgement [12] Atmanlı A. Comparative analyses of diesel–waste oil biodiesel and propanol, n-
butanol or 1-pentanol blends in a diesel engine. Fuel 2016;176:209–15.
[13] Balamurugan T, Nalini R. Experimental investigation on performance, combustion
This research was supported by Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, and emission characteristics of four stroke diesel engine using diesel blended with
Research Project Foundation, Bolu, Turkey (Project Number: alcohol as fuel. Energy 2014;78:356–63.
2018.18.03.1299). [14] Hazar H, Uyar M. Experimental investigation of isopropyl alcohol (IPA)/diesel
blends in a diesel engine for improved exhaust emissions. Int J Automot Eng
Technol 2015;4(1):1–6.
References [15] Yoshimoto Y, Onodera M, Tamaki H. Performance and emission characteristics of
diesel engines fueled by vegetable oils. SAE Technical Paper; 2001.
[16] Payri F, Benajes J, Arregle J, Riesco JM. Combustion and exhaust emissions in a
[1] Ağbulut Ü, Sarıdemir S. A general view to converting fossil fuels to cleaner energy
heavy-duty diesel engine with increased premixed combustion phase by means of
source by adding nanoparticles. Int J Ambient Energy 2019:1–6.
injection retarding. Oil Gas Sci Technol 2006;61(2):247–58.
[2] Ağbulut Ü, Sarıdemir S, Durucan G. The impacts of ethanol-gasoline blended fuels
[17] Canakci M, Sayin C, Ozsezen AN, Turkcan A. Effect of injection pressure on the
on the pollutant emissions and performance of a spark-ignition engine: an empirical
combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled
study. Int J Anal Exp Finite Elem Anal 2018;5(4):50–9.
with methanol-blended diesel fuel. Energy Fuels 2009;23(6):2908–20.
[3] Keskin A. Two-step methyl ester production and characterization from the broiler
[18] Can Ö, Çelikten I, Usta N. Effects of ethanol addition on performance and emissions
rendering fat: the optimization of the first step. Renewable Energy
of a turbocharged indirect injection diesel engine running at different injection
2018;122:216–24.
pressures. Energy Convers Manage 2004;45(15–16):2429–40.
[4] Emiroğlu AO. Experimental examination of performance, exhaust emission and
[19] Rakopoulos DC, Rakopoulos CD, Papagiannakis RG, Kyritsis DC. Combustion heat
combustion behaviours of a CI engine fuelled with biodiesel/diesel fuel blends.
release analysis of ethanol or n-butanol diesel fuel blends in heavy-duty DI diesel
Sakarya Univ J Sci 2018;22(5):1274–81.
engine. Fuel 2011;90(5):1855–67.
[5] Şen M, Emiroğlu AO, Keskin A. Production of biodiesel from broiler chicken ren-
[20] Sayin C, Ozsezen AN, Canakci M. The influence of operating parameters on the
dering fat and investigation of its effects on combustion, performance, and emis-
performance and emissions of a DI diesel engine using methanol-blended-diesel
sions of a diesel engine. Energy Fuels 2018;32(4):5209–17.
fuel. Fuel 2010;89(7):1407–14.
[6] Emiroğlu AO, Şen M. Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of
[21] Emiroğlu AO, Keskin A, Şen M. Experimental investigation of the effects of turkey
various alcohol blends in a single cylinder diesel engine. Fuel 2018;212:34–40.
rendering fat biodiesel on combustion, performance and exhaust emissions of a
[7] Muthaiyan P, Gomathinayagam S. Combustion characteristics of a diesel engine
diesel engine. Fuel 2018;216:266–73.
using propanol diesel fuel blends. J Inst Eng (India): Ser C 2016;97(3):323–9.
[22] Emiroğlu AO, Şen M. Combustion, performance and exhaust emission character-
[8] Kwanchareon P, Luengnaruemitchai A, Jai-in S. Solubility of a diesel–biodiese-
izations of a diesel engine operating with a ternary blend (alcohol-biodiesel-diesel
l–ethanol blend, its fuel properties, and its emission characteristics from diesel
fuel). Appl Therm Eng 2018;133:371–80.
engine. Fuel 2007;86(7–8):1053–61.
[23] Keskin A. The effect of cottonseed oil methyl ester-eurodiesel fuel blends on the
[9] Kumar B, Saravanan S. Use of higher alcohol biofuels in diesel engines: a review.
combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a direct-injection diesel
Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2016;60:84–115.
engine. J Faculty Eng Archit Gazi Univ 2018:1–18.
[10] Doğan O. The influence of n-butanol/diesel fuel blends utilization on a small diesel
[24] Keskin A. Experimental investigation of the effect of cottonseed oil biodiesel
engine performance and emissions. Fuel 2011;90(7):2467–72.
eurodiesel mixtures on combustion, performance and emissions at full load. Afyon
[11] Campos-Fernandez J, Arnal JM, Gomez J, Lacalle N, Dorado MP. Performance tests
Kocatepe Univ J Sci Eng 2017;17:797–809.
of a diesel engine fueled with pentanol/diesel fuel blends. Fuel 2013;107:866–72.