Topic 2 - Radar Systems

11/8/2014 Topic 2 - Radar Systems
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TOPIC 2
RADAR SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
This topic covers a variety of subjects including the characteristics of radar systems, pulse analysis,
methods of modulation, pulse rate generators, telemetry, frequency diversity, electronic attack, and
millimeter wave radar systems. The most important characteristics of radar signals are the radio
frequency (RF), pulse repetition frequency (PRF), pulse duration (PD), and antenna scan characteristics
(discussed in topic 1). The selection of a radar transmitter for a millimeterwave radar system is governed
by many of the same factors that influence the selection of any other radar transmitter. Such factors
include peak and average power, PRF, PD, RF stability, and bandwidth.
RADAR SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
All radar systems have certain characteristics or parameters that distinguish them from other radars.
These parameters can be divided into the following three categories:
http://reocities.com/jasonlemons/radar/topic2.htm 1/37
Measurable characteristics
Descriptive characteristics
Additional intercept characteristics
MEASURABLE CHARACTERISTICS
Measurable characteristics are those parameters that can be measured and are used to identify a
particular radar. Measurable characteristics include RF, PRF, pulse repetition interval (PRI), PD, and
scan rate/period.
Radio Frequency
Radio frequency (RF) is a prime factor that controls many capabilities of a radar system. The RF of the
radar can determine the radar range, the use of the radar, the size of components, the antenna and
waveguide (i.e., the power requirements), and the propagation characteristics. The RF of a signal of
interest
(SOI) is the first important characteristic to determine. RF is measured in hertz (Hz), and for a radar is
expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). RF is typically measured by comparison with a stable
frequency source, called the zerobeat method or by a direct reading from a calibrated dial or frequency
counter.
Determining the RF of a radar’s SOI allows the intercept operator to immediately estimate the type and
use of an intercepted radar signal. As a general rule, the lower RFs are used for earlywarning radar, and
the higher RFs are used for other radar systems including missile tracking and control, fire control,
navigation or surface search, target acquisition, and precision radars.
The RF of an SOI determines the physical size of an antenna. If the RF is known, the following
assumptions may be made:
High frequencies originate from small antennas and are used at shorter ranges.
Low frequencies originate from large antennas and are used at longer ranges.
The designed operating RF range of the radar and corresponding antenna size are prime factors in
installation requirements. For example, there are very few airborne radar systems operating at RFs below
3000 MHz because the size requirement of the antenna would be too large for most aircraft. The standard
frequency bands that radars operate in are shown in table 21.
Table 21.— Standard Radar Frequency Bands
BAND FREQUENCY (MHz)
A 0250
B 250500
C 5001000
D 10002000
E 20004000
F 40005000
G 50006000
H 60008000
I 800010000
J 1000020000
K 2000040000
Pulse Repetition Frequency
The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of a radar system is the number of pulses generated in one second,
measured in pulses per second (pps). Once the radar emits a transmitted pulse, a sufficient length of time
must elapse to allow any echo signals to return and be detected before the next pulse can be transmitted.
Therefore, the longest range at which targets are expected determines the rate at which the pulses are
transmitted. If the PRF is too high, echo signals from a target might arrive after the transmission of the
next pulse and ambiguities in range might result. Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next
pulse are called second time around (or multiple time around) echoes. The range at which targets appear
as second time around echoes is called the maximum unambiguous range (MUR). Therefore, the PRF
determines the MUR.
To calculate the MUR of a radar, remember that RF energy travels at the speed of light (about 162,000
nautical miles (NMs) per second). For ease of computation, reduce the velocity of the pulse by half. This
compensates for the twoway travel of the RF pulse and equates to approximately 81,000 NMs per second.
For example, to find the MUR expressed in nautical miles (NMs) of a radar with a PRF of 400 pps, use the
following formula:
81000 81000
MUR = = 203 NMs
PRF 400
For another example, use a PRF of 3371 pps.
81000
MUR = = 24 NMs
3371
Notice the great difference in the MUR in the two examples. This calculation is theoretical while the
actual, or effective, range of a radar is determined by a variety of other factors that include weather, radar
antenna height, and average power output of the radar. The PRF versus range relationship of radars is
shown in table 22.
Table 22.— Relationship of PRF Versus Range
PRF PROBABLE RANGE CAPABILITY
Low Under 350 pps Long Range
350 to 1000
Medium Medium Range
pps
High Over 1000 pps Short Range
When the system antenna is rotated at a constant speed, the beam of energy strikes a target for a relatively
short time. During this limited time, a sufficient number of pulses of energy must be transmitted in order
for a signal to return that will be detected by the radar. For example, an antenna rotating at 10 seconds
per revolution (SPR) and having a PRF of 800 pps will produce about 22 pulses for each degree of antenna
rotation. Therefore, the rotational speed of the antenna determines, in part, the lowest PRF that can be
used.
A low PRF has the advantage of permitting very high peak power with reasonably low average power.
Another advantage of using a low PRF is that it extends the effective range of the radar. A disadvantage of
a low PRF is the ease with which a small return may be lost. With a PRF of 60, the grass (noise level) along
the baseline of the scope may be larger than the return. In these instances, small target echoes may be lost.
Pulse Repetition Interval
The pulse repetition interval (PRI) is the reciprocal of the PRF. It is the time between the start of one pulse
and the start of the next pulse. It can be measured from any point on the first pulse to a like point on a
consecutive pulse and is expressed in microseconds (µsec). Therefore, it is the length of time that includes
the transmit and the receive time of a radar. PRI and PRF have a reciprocal relationship, as shown in the
following formula:
1 1
PRF = and PRI =
PRI PRF
In figure 21, three evenly spaced pulses occur in 0.003 seconds, thus one pulse occurs in 0.001 seconds, the
PRI. The PRF is the inverse of the PRI and in this example is 1000 pps.
Figure 21.— PRI/PRF relationship.
The PRI provides the electronic intelligence (ELINT) operator with a precise measurement for describing
specific modulation and multiple pulse characteristics. For example, we may use analysis equipment to
determine a radar is operating with a PRF of 1249.123 pps. The reciprocal of this, the PRI, is 800.5617. As
a measurement of time, or in comparing or describing time relationships as they pertain to radar, use the
PRI.
Pulse Duration
The pulse duration (PD) is the time, usually measured in m sec, required by the radar to transmit a burst
of energy (the pulse). The PD is also considered the "ontime" for the transmitter. The PD is one of the
least reliable of all parameters by which a radar is identified. This is due to the bandwidth limitation of the
recorder that precludes an accurate representation of the pulse shape. The PD measurement is made at
the half power point of the leading edge of the pulse to the half power point on the trailing edge. See figure
22. The distance between the trailing edge of a pulse and the leading edge of the next pulse is the receive
time, or listening time, for the echo return.
Figure 22.— Pulse duration.
The power output of a radar is proportional to its PD. The pulse contains the power necessary to
propagate the RF energy through space. Consequently, the longer the PD, the greater the average power
and the farther the RF can travel in space. The PD determines two important parameters—range
resolution and theoretical minimum range. The shorter the PD the better the range resolution. The PD
versus range relationship is shown in table 23.
Table 23.— Relationship of PD Versus Range Capability
PULSE PROBABLE RANGE
DURATION (m ) CAPABILITY
Narrow Under 1 Short Range
Medium 1 to 4 Medium Range
Wide Over 4 Long Range
RANGE RESOLUTION
Range resolution is the ability of a radar to distinguish between two targets that are close together at the
same azimuth and elevation. Any smaller separation causes the returns from the targets to combine and
appear to the radar as a single return. To find the range resolution, convert the speed of RF energy,
162,000 NMs per second, to 328,000,000 yards per second. RF energy then travels at approximately 328
yards in 1 µsec, or 164 yards for oneway travel of the pulse. To find the range resolution of a radar, use
the following formula:
Range resolution = PD (in µsec) x 164 yards
For example, determine the range resolution of a radar that has a PD of 3 µsec.
Range resolution = 3 x 164 = 492 yards
This means that two targets at the same bearing would have to be at least 492 yards apart to appear as two
distinct targets on the radar scope. If the two targets were closer than 492 yards, they would appear as one
target.
THEORETICAL MINIMUM RANGE
The theoretical minimum range is the minimum distance separating the target and the radar from which
energy, reflected from the target, will not arrive at the radar while the antenna is still connected to the
transmitter. While the transmitter is firing pulses, the radar receiver is unable to receive echoes. A short
amount of time elapses between the pulse being transmitted and the duplexer switching the antenna back
to receive echoes. This time is called the recovery time. The total time in which the receiver is unable to
receive the reflected pulse is equal to the PD plus the recovery time. Any reflected pulses from a close
target returning before the receiver is connected to the antenna will be undetected. Most modern radar
systems are designed with very short recovery times. Range resolution and minimum range are closely
related parameters, since both are a function of the PD and, for practical purposes, the method for
determining the theoretical minimum range is the same as range resolution.
Scan Rate/Scan Period
The scan rate is the angular rate at which the antenna beam is moved through a scan volume while
performing various functions. Usually the scan rate is expressed in either Hz or in revolutionsperminute
(RPM). The scan period is the time, usually in seconds, for example, seconds per sector (SPS) and SPR, for
one complete scan cycle and is the reciprocal of the scan rate. The particular use for which a radar is
designed determines the type of scan it uses. Thus, the scan type and scan rate parameters of a radar are
the foremost characteristics that identify the general function or purpose of a radar.
Scan rate or scan period is the speed at which the RF beam is moved about the scan pattern. The slower
radar antenna scans provide more pulse returns and improved detection capability. However, a slow
illumination (scan) rate means a longer time between observations of the target. This can result in
inaccurate target position prediction or tracking. However, if the time between target illuminations is
reduced, the energy directed on the target is also reduced, and the probability of detection is decreased.
DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS
Descriptive characteristics are nonparameter data that define, modify, or otherwise clarify the measurable
characteristics. Some descriptive characteristics include platform, modulation type, scan type,
polarization, and user. Descriptive characteristics of a radar are used by the analyst to determine other
aspects of the radar. For instance:
Modulation and scan type determines whether nozero values are expected for the PRF, the PD, scan
period, or the illumination rate.
Polarization and platform type provide the only means to discriminate between different emissions.
Platform
The term platform describes the normal operating environment of an emitter. Table 24 contrasts
common platform types.
Table 24.— Common Platform Type Characteristics
PLATFORM DESCRIPTION
TYPE
Fixed Landbased Exhibits a steady azimuth and a constant

signal strength.
Mobile Landbased May vary in azimuth and signal strength over
several minutes.
Airborne Associated with aircraft and missiles.
Characterized by rapid changes in the emitter
azimuth and fluctuations in signal strength.
Shipborne Exhibits slow changes in azimuth and signal

strength, similar to mobile landbased emitters.
Modulation Type
The modulation type employed by a transmitter can be very helpful in establishing a radar's use and
purpose. The overall modulation type of common radars is pulsed. Depending on the complexity of the
radar system, any number of different things could be happening to the pulse train. There are two basic
types of modulation—interpulse and intrapulse. These will be discussed in detail later. Familiarity with
the different modulation types can assist in emitter identification.
Scan Type
Scan type is a good indication of the probable function of the radar. Knowledge of the type of scan
employed by a radar provides valuable information about the purpose of a radar. With the application of
suitable processing techniques, it is possible to determine the scan type, duration of illumination, and scan
mode, and, hence, make a reasonable estimate of the function of the radar.
Polarization
Polarization refers to the orientation of the electromagnetic wave with respect to the earth. There are
several types of polarization including horizontal, vertical, circular, or elliptical. Horizontal and vertical
polarization is selfexplanatory. Circular polarization is an electromagnetic wave whose electric field wave
spirals about the magnetic wave. Polarization by itself has little meaning, yet it can be an important
parameter. It is sometimes the only means of telling one type of radar from another. Polarization can also
be a misleading parameter due to changes that can occur during propagation. Polarization is determined
by comparing signal strength from horizontal and vertical antennas. If there is more than 3 decibels (dBs)
difference in signal strengths, the signal is determined to have the polarization of the antenna from which
the strongest signal is obtained.
User
The term user denotes the country or countries that use a particular type of emitter. In most cases, this
can be determined by line of bearing (LOB), signal parameters, or by identification of the platform from
which a signal emanates.
ADDITIONAL INTERCEPT PARAMETERS
There are several other intercept parameters that do not come under the headings of descriptive or
measurable characteristics. These characteristics are time of intercept, bearing, signal strength, and
antenna beamwidth.
Time of Intercept
The time of intercept (TOI) is very useful in correlating intercepts. Collectors often use it to determine if
the signals intercepted by different sites represent different signals or multiple intercepts of the same
signal. TOI can also be used in an analysis of radar systems supported by several emitters. The up and
down times of the signal reveal the relationships between the functions performed by various emitters in
supporting the overall operation of the system. TOI is an important characteristic that should be
measured with maximum accuracy.
Bearing
The bearing measurement indicates the direction of arrival of the signal of interest. Bearing is the azimuth
measurement to a target where the greatest signal strength is detected. There are a number of ways of
determining bearing, depending on the measurement equipment available and the radiation pattern of the
transmitted signal. A number of bearing measurements, each from a slightly different location, results in
LOBs that hopefully intersect in some general area, establishing the approximate location of the
transmitting antenna.
Signal Strength
Because so many factors affect signal strength, this parameter can be misleading. If all the factors are
known, it is possible to determine the power of the transmitter. To measure signal strength, take a reading
of the attenuation setting of the receiver in dBs, or read the field strength meter. Factors that affect these
readings and, thus, the measurement of signal strength are as follows:
Distance between the receiver and the transmitter
Propagation characteristics
Relative positions of the receiving and transmitting antennas
Respective radiation patterns of the receiving and transmitting antennas
Beamwidth
Beamwidth (BW) is the area, in degrees, filled with RF energy in both the horizontal and vertical plane.
The BW is measured between the halfpower (3dB) levels. Radars with wide beams are normally
associated with early warning and air search. Radars with narrow beams are normally associated with fire
control, weapons guidance, navigation, and surface search. Radar frequency and the size and shape of the
radar antenna determine the beamwidth.
There are at least two factors that make BW measurement difficult. One factor is that collectors are
usually not within the main beam of the target emitter. It is usually impossible to determine the exact
geometry between the intercept site and the main beam. The second factor is that the target emitter is
usually scanning. Unless the defining parameters of the scan are precisely known, it is only possible to
estimate the beamwidth.
As a radar beam scans across the target, the time that the beam illuminates the target is called the lobe
duration (LD). It is timed by a stopwatch and is expressed in seconds. In the case of a circular scanning
radar, the BW, if not known, can be estimated by multiplying the LD by 360 degrees, and dividing the
result by the SPR. When the BW is estimated in this manner, the result is called the detectable BW. The
following formula is used:
LD x 360 degrees
BW=
SPR
For example, the BW of a radar with a scan rate of 20 SPR and an LD of 1 second is:
1 x 360
BW = BW = 18 degrees
20
The quality of the LD measurement depends on many factors, such as operator skill, signal strength, speed
of emitter rotation, emitter beamwidth, and whether side and back lobes are present.
Beam Pattern
In addition to the main beam or major lobe, all radar systems possess, to some degree, many smaller
beams. These beams are called minor or side lobes. See figure 23. The presence of minor lobes can often
be detected with intercept equipment, particularly when the radar is located near the intercept platform.
These minor lobes may cause the reception of weak signals when the scanning antenna is not pointed at
the intercept station. Decreasing the gain of the receiver usually eliminates the reception of minor lobes.
Figure 23.— Major and minor lobes.
In radar design, the choice of radiation patterns to be used is dependent upon the angular accuracy
requirements and the volume of space to be searched. The greater the angular accuracy required in any
plane, the narrower the beamwidth in that plane must be. Radar systems requiring high accuracy in both
bearing and elevation use a narrow, symmetrical beam. Radar systems requiring accurate angular
information in one plane and wide coverage in the other plane use a fan beam, narrow in one plane and
wide in the other. It is characteristic of air search radar systems to have beams that are fanned in the
vertical plane to have wide vertical coverage, while height finders usually have a beam that is narrow
vertically and fanned horizontally.
PULSE ANALYSIS
Pulses can be used to convey information, control equipment, or provide a burst of energy that can be used
to detect the presence of objects. Without pulses, data communications, radar, and television would be
impossible. The pulse is a short burst of energy before and after which there is a rest. Imagine an electrical
circuit equipped with a key or switch and supplied by a direct current (DC) power source such as a
battery. The switch is open, closed, and quickly reopened. At the instant the switch is closed, the voltage
applied across the circuit is suddenly stepped from zero voltage to the full battery voltage. At the instant
the switch is reopened, the voltage applied across the circuit is stepped from a full battery voltage back to
zero. A sudden, short change in the level of voltage (or current) such as this constitutes an electrical pulse.
The IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic terms defines a pulse as "…a wave that
departs from a first nominal state, attains a second nominal state, and ultimately returns to the first
nominal state." The nominal state can be either another amplitude level as seen in the top trace of figure 2
4 or the signal can be switched off entirely as seen in the bottom trace of figure 24.
Figure 24.— Possible presentations of a pulse.
Methods for generating pulses range from the simple to the complex, depending on how closely the
transmitted pulse must approximate an ideal pulse. The ability to accurately reproduce a transmitted
pulse from a received signal depends on the bandwidth of all devices through which the signal passes. Any
exclusion of components will change the shape of the pulse.
Pulses have various shapes including rectangular, square, sawtooth, double, exponential, stepped, cosine,
squared, and bandwidth limited. In fact, about the only restrictions on the variety of pulse shapes are
those needed for a given pulse shape, and those imposed by the ability of circuits to produce them. Some of
the standard pulse shapes in wide use in electronics and communications are illustrated in figure 25.
Figure 25.— Pulse types.
For purposes of illustrating pulse measurement, the square wave is shown in two extremes in figure 26.
Figure 26 view A represents the ideal square pulse. For reasons to be discussed, this pulse is never quite
realized in practice. Figure 26 view B represents a pulse of a square wave that is left after severe
distortion from phase shift and loss of high frequency components. In actual practice, the ideal square
wave encountered is not perfectly square. However, it is not as distorted as the one shown in figure 26
view B, but it is a compromise somewhere in between. The following terms explain measurement
technique:
Pulse amplitude
Leading edge/trailing edge
Pulse rise time
Pulse decay time
Pulse duration measurement
Pulse period
Duty cycle
Figure 26.— Pulse duration measurement.
PULSE AMPLITUDE
Every wave has some amplitude that describes its voltage, current, or power. The peak amplitude of a
pulse is the absolute value of the difference between the largest and smallest level of voltage, current, or
power. This is illustrated in figure 26 view A as the height measured from the base of the pulse to its top.
LEADING EDGE/TRAILING EDGE
The major portion of the rise of a pulse as indicated in figure 26 view B is termed the leading edge. The
leading edge of a pulse is the portion of the pulse during which the amplitude is increasing. The major
portion of the decay of the pulse, as indicated in figure 26 view B, is termed the trailing edge. The trailing
edge of a pulse is the portion of the pulse during which the amplitude is decreasing.
PULSE RISE TIME
Associated with the leading edge of a rectangular pulse is the rise time. The amplitude of a practical pulse
does not rise instantaneously as it would with an ideal pulse. Some finite amount of time is required for the
pulse to reach its maximum amplitude. To avoid difficulty in determining the exact points at which a pulse
begins to increase in amplitude and ceases to increase in amplitude, the measurement of the rise time of a
pulse is taken at points that represent ten percent of rise time to ninety percent of rise time.
PULSE DECAY TIME
Associated with the trailing edge of a rectangular pulse is the decay time. Just as no practical pulse can
instantaneously rise to the peak amplitude, no practical pulse can instantaneously drop from the peak
amplitude to zero. The decay time of a pulse is measured between the points representing ninety percent of
the decay time to ten percent of the decay time.
PULSE DURATION MEASUREMENT
In looking at the ideal rectangular pulses in figure 26 view A, notice it would make little difference
whether the PD were measured near the top, near the bottom, or somewhere in between. With practical
pulses in figure 26 view B, it would make a great deal of difference where the pulse duration is measured.
PD is the time interval between the first and last instants at which the amplitude reaches a stated fraction
of the maximum pulse amplitude. Looking at both the ideal and the practical pulse compared in figure 27,
the only place at which the duration is identical is at the fiftypercent amplitude point. For this reason, the
duration of a pulse is specified as the value measured at a point equal to fifty percent of the peak
amplitude of the pulse.
Figure 27.— Comparison of ideal versus practical pulses.
PULSE PERIOD
The period of a pulse is the time required to complete one cycle or until the pulse repeats itself. The period
of the pulse may be measured between identical points on adjacent leading edges as indicated in figure 26
view B or between identical points on adjacent trailing edges, or between any other pair of identical points
on adjacent pulses. Note that the period of a pulsed waveform is also the interval between repetitions of
the pulse, or the PRI.
DUTY CYCLE
Duty cycle is the ratio of the active or "on" time to the duration of the specified period, usually the total
period of one cycle. This relationship is expressed as the ratio of the PD to the PRI. Duty cycle may be
expressed as a rational number, a decimal fraction, or a percentage. The duty cycle is used to calculate
both the peak power and average power of a radar system. The formula for the duty cycle expressed as a
percentage is:
PD x 100
DC =
PRI
Given a PD of .5 µsec and a PRI of 780 µsec, what is the duty cycle?
.5 x 100
DC = = .64%
780
PULSE MODULATION METHODS
Pulses have individual characteristics with respect to height, width or duration, repetition rate, formation
time, decay time, shape, and displacement from normal occurrence. The characteristics may be used
singly, or in combination, to provide a wide variety of pulse modulation methods adaptable to the
transmission of intelligence in many forms and degrees of complexity. The fact that in pulse modulation
energy is transmitted only for short intervals, makes possible the use of high peak power in the carrier and
the use of certain equipment to generate carriers of high frequencies. The transmission bandwidth
depends upon pulse shape, as well as pulse range, and the method and degree of modulation. When high
frequency carriers are used, the bandwidth can be much greater.
The various pulse modulation schemes differ from conventional amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM) because modulation is applied to a train of pulses rather
than to a sinewave carrier. The pulse train has the same characteristics of amplitude, frequency, and
phase just like a sinewave carrier. Modulation of these characteristics provides three basic types of pulse
modulation, pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse frequency modulation (PFM), and pulse position
modulation (PPM). A fourth parameter, the PD, can also be modulated providing pulse duration
modulation (PDM). These four types of modulation, as depicted in figure 28, can be used for either
interpulse modulation (pulse to pulse) or intrapulse modulation (within a pulse). A fifth type of
modulation, pulse code modulation (PCM), is only used with interpulse modulation. Pulse modulation is
valuable for applications that require multiplexing for transmission of many types of data, in short periods
of time, on a common carrier.
Figure 28.— Pulse modulation methods.
INTERPULSE MODULATION
Interpulse modulation is applied to a radar signal that is transmitted at intervals that are varied from the
uniform, fixed PRI of conventional radar, a pulse constant radar. A pulse constant radar is a radar that
the nominal PRI value does not vary (remains constant) for significant periods. The pulse constant radar
may employ several PRIs, operating on each PRI for a period of time before switching. Interpulse
modulation offers several advantages for the radar including reduction of range ambiguities, elimination
of blind speeds, and improvement of antijamming characteristics. There are several approaches to this
technique.
Staggered PRI
A staggered pulse train is a train of pulses wherein two or more precise interpulse intervals are alternated
in a patterned or random sequence. Figure 29 illustrates the difference between a staggered train and a
nonstaggered train. Staggered PRIs are usually used to reduce blind speeds. Types of staggered PRIs
include the following:
Simple sequence. The total number of staggered PRIs in a sequence is seven or less and the pattern is
easily discernable.
Complex sequence. The total number of staggered PRIs in a sequence is more than seven.
Random sequence. The staggered PRIs occur in a nonpredictable, nonrepetitive order.
Pseudorandom sequence. The staggered PRI sequence repeats itself after a period of time. This time
period can be from several seconds to several days.
Figure 29.— Staggered versus nonstaggered PRI.
Sliding and Stepping PRF
A sliding PRF pulse train has a continuously varying (increasing or decreasing) PRF between minimum
and maximum PRF limits. Upon reaching a limit, the PRF will normally jump to the other PRF limit and
repeat the variation again. Modern radars do not use PRF sliding but use discrete PRF steps in several
sizes. However, the effect is very similar. Sliding and stepping PRF can be used to reduce main bang
eclipsing. Main bang eclipsing occurs when a target return arrives at the radar at the same time that a
pulse is being transmitted. When this occurs, the antenna is connected to the transmitter and no echo can
be received.
Jittered PRI
A jittered PRI is a pulse train where the PRI value is switched randomly within the bounds of a maximum
and a minimum PRI value and where there is a variation in the starting time of each successive pulse
relative to the time it would start if the pulse train occurred at regular intervals. The PRI is bounded
between a maximum and a minimum value but can assume any value between these limits. The two types
of jitter are intentional and unintentional. Intentional jitter is divided into two categories, pseudorandom
and pulse frequency modulation (PFM), which will be discussed later. Using jittered PRI prevents range
gate stealers from locking onto the PRF. Jitter can also be used to resolve range ambiguities.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
In pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), the pulses vary in amplitude from pulse to pulse in accordance
with some type of waveform (figure 28 view A). PAM is like AM, with the pulse train being modulated
instead of the sinewave carrier.
Pulse Frequency Modulation
In pulse frequency modulation (PFM), the PRF varies with some respect to the modulating waveform. In
the example shown in figure 28 view B, the PRF is greatest when the amplitude of the modulating signal is
greatest. PFM is very similar to FM in many of its characteristics.
Pulse Position Modulation
In pulse position modulation (PPM), the positions of the pulses within the pulse train vary (figure 28 view
C) with respect to some point of reference (constant point). In PPM, the modulation causes the position of
the pulse along the time axis to vary about its unmodulated position. PPM is like PM. PPM uses the
narrowest pulses of any modulation scheme. The bandwidth of the PPM spectrum is correspondingly
larger than that of any other type of modulation with the same informationhandling capacity. However,
PPM has considerable noise improvement over PAM as random noise greatly distorts the amplitude of a
pulse but alters its timing very little.
Pulse Duration Modulation
In pulse duration modulation (PDM), the duration of each pulse in a pulse train is varied according to the
amplitude of a modulating waveform. See figure 28 view D. The PD is varied by modulating the position
of the pulse trailing edge while the leading edge remains fixed. Thus, all pulses in a train start at fixed
intervals but end at times determined by the modulation on their trailing edges. PDM can also occur in
conjunction with the changes of the PRF of a signal. If the PRF is changed to a higher rate, the PD
becomes shorter.
Pulse Group Modulation
Pulse group modulation is applied to a pulse train. A pulse group repetition interval (PGRI) is a pulse
train in which there are groups of closely spaced pulses separated by much longer times between these
pulse groups. PGRI is normally defined by the number of pulses per group (PPG) and the number of pulse
groups per second (PGPS).
Optimum range resolution of a radar requires short pulses while optimum speed resolution requires a
long pulse. One way of optimizing both is to transmit a burst of short pulses instead of a single pulse. The
range is dependent only on the average power that is proportional to the number of pulses in a burst.
Longer range requires more pulses within a burst. The maximum unambiguous range is determined by
the burst repetition interval. Pulse group modulation can be used to eliminate blind speeds in a
conventional radar. However, one of the more common uses of pulse group modulation is missile guidance.
INTRAPULSE MODULATION
Modulation on the pulse (MOP) radar uses an intentional change in the frequency or phase of the carrier
of a pulse while the pulse is being transmitted. Intrapulse modulation techniques make it possible to
simultaneously maximize the target range, the range resolution, and the velocity resolution of the radar
set. Thus, instead of the pulse being a burst of RF energy at a given carrier frequency, the pulse is a burst
of RF energy at a carrier frequency that varies in phase, frequency, or amplitude. Use of this technique
spreads the frequency spectrum making it significantly harder to jam. Intrapulse modulation is the
transmitter technique and pulse compression is the receiver technique.
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is more complex than those previously mentioned in this section. In PCM
there is a train of coded bits of information. Each coded bit represents an instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating waveform. In a PCM system, the intelligence modulates a sequence of bits made up of a group
of pulses instead of modulating a sinewave or pulse train. These pulses are assigned a number, and they
are spaced at regular intervals. The coding function of the PCM system is accomplished through the
absence of any combination of these pulses. The information provided by the transducer determines the
absence or presence of pulses that, in turn, can be decoded at the receiving end. See figure 210.
Figure 210.— Pulse code modulation.
Amplitude Modulation On The Pulse
Amplitude modulation on the pulse (AMOP) is a change of amplitude during the transmission of a pulse
and is seen when pulse characteristics are analyzed. There are two types of AMOP, intentional and
unintentional. Intentional is used by many identification, friend or foe (IFF) signals as an identification
code. It may be used to apply a binary number to the transmitted pulse for the purpose of identification by
the receiving set. Unintentional is common and may be seen when two signals "beat" together and the beat
frequency produces AMOP. The presence of multipath can also cause unintentional AMOP. Multipath
pulses appear to be very distorted and are easily recognized.
Frequency Modulation On The Pulse
Frequency modulation on the pulse (FMOP) is a change of frequency during transmission of a pulse. The
two most common forms are linear frequency changes and discrete frequency steps. Additionally, many
stateoftheart radars are being designed with nonlinear frequency changes within the pulse. FMOP has
two primary uses for changing the frequency on the pulse—movement of the position of transmitted beam
or pulse compression techniques.
Phase Modulation On The Pulse
Phase modulation on the pulse (PMOP) is a signal that has a constant peak amplitude through the
duration of pulse, but the phase angle relative to that of the continuous carrier is switched at regular
intervals or in a set pattern. This type can have as few or as many phase changes as are necessary for the
intended use. Phase changes are used as a coding format in pulse compression systems such as those that
use Barker code, Taylor codes, linear recursive sequences (LRSs), pseudorandom sequences, etc. These
codes enable the system’s receiver to have a better signaltonoise ratio (SNR) and a higher probability of
target detection at maximum range.
RADIO FREQUENCY MODULATION
RF modulations are characterized as two basic types, intrapulse and interpulse. Regardless of the type of
RF modulation, if the receiver’s bandwidth is less than the signal’s RF excursion, part of the signal will be
lost.
INTRAPULSE RADIO FREQUENCY MODULATION
Intrapulse RF modulation is intentional change in the frequency or phase of the carrier of a pulse while
the pulse is being transmitted. The way in which the frequency changes defines the intrapulse RF
modulation technique being used (e.g., linear and nonlinear, frequency stepping, frequency shift keying
(FSK)). The primary uses of intrapulse RF modulation are pulse compression and electronic beam
steering. Pulse compression is a technique that both increases the radar's detection capabilities and
improves the range resolution. Electronic beam steering is a technique used with array antennas (and
conventional antennas with array feeds) to control the position of the radar beam as a function of the
transmitted frequency. The following are examples of intrapulse modulation:
Linear Frequency Modulation on the Pulse (LFMOP). LFMOP, also known as chirp, is a commonly
used form of RF modulation. The RF is swept (increasing or decreasing) over the duration of the
pulse. This is used for pulse compression technique and for beam steering.
Nonlinear Frequency Modulation on the Pulse. In this form the RF is not swept in a straight
increasing or decreasing order. This type is used for pulse compression with enhanced performance.
Intrapulse Frequency Steps. This is a form of RF modulation with discrete RF changes. The
intrapulse stepping can be of unequal amounts and can be in either the positive or negative
direction, or both directions over a single pulse.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK). This type is similar to intrapulse RF stepping. The primary
differences between FSK and RF stepping are the magnitude of the frequency shift or step and the
intended use of the modulation. FSK can be used to convey information, with each frequency
denoting a different value (e.g., for missile guidance), or to encode a pulse for pulse recognition or
pulse compression (e.g., Barker code).
INTERPULSE RADIO FREQUENCY MODULATION
Interpulse RF modulation is a change in carrier frequency on a pulsetopulse or pulse grouptopulse
group basis. This form of RF modulation differs from intrapulse in that the RF modulation takes place
between pulses rather than on or during the pulse. Interpulse RF modulation may be used for electronic
protect (EP), to support electronic scanning, or to reduce range ambiguities. Common forms of interpulse
RF modulation are RF hopping, RF sliding, and interpulse chirp. These forms are explained as follows:
FREQUENCY HOPPING. Frequency hopping is a technique where the pulsed carrier frequency is
changed in discrete RF steps on a pulsetopulse or pulse grouptopulse group basis. The frequency
change may follow a pattern or be random.
RADIO FREQUENCY SLIDING. Interpulse RF sliding (also known as RF sweeping) is a
continuous increase or decrease in RF between upper and lower RF limits over a given interval. RF
sliding can be either unidirectional or bidirectional.
INTERPULSE CHIRP. Interpulse chirp is a Doppler technique that can be used for highresolution
mapping or to remove low Doppler returns from the clutter rejection region. The RF is swept
continuously between two frequencies, unlike intrapulse chirp where the entire RF sweep occurs
within a single pulse. The RF change in interpulse chirp covers many pulses in a single sweep period.
COHERENT CARRIER RADAR
The Doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may be used in a pulse radar to determine the
relative speed of a target or to separate desired moving targets from stationary objects (clutter). A radar
that uses the Doppler frequency shift as a means of discriminating moving from fixed targets is called a
moving target indication (MTI) or a pulse Doppler radar. The two are based on the same physical
principle, but there are recognizable differences between them. The MTI radar usually operates with
ambiguous Doppler measurement (blind speeds) but with unambiguous range measurement (no second
timearound echoes). The opposite is true for a pulse Doppler radar. Its PRF is usually high enough to
operate with no blind speeds but at the expense of range ambiguities.
A simple continuous wave (CW) radar consists of a transmitter, receiver, indicator, and antennas. By
adding a power amplifier and modulator to turn the amplifier on and off for the purpose of generating
pulses, the radar becomes a pulsed radar. An MTI coherent radar has a small portion of the oscillator
power diverted to the receiver to take the place of the local oscillator where it acts as the coherent
reference needed to detect the Doppler frequency shift. By coherent it is meant that the phase of the
transmitted signal is preserved in the reference signal.
A coherent carrier radar is a radar, either CW or pulsed, that pays particular attention to the phase or
frequency stability of the transmitted energy and where some use is made of the carrier phase information
to process target returns. The term coherent carrier means the frequency and phase of a signal have a
fixed relationship to the frequency and phase of the reference signal. In general, coherent carrier radar
systems incorporate special highly stable transmitter and receiver designs to achieve advanced
performance capability. In most radar systems, there is a certain degree of unintentional modulation
present on the carrier wave or pulse of the radar signal. In coherent carrier techniques, there is a lower
than normal degree of unintentional modulation present. This enables the radar to acquire and track
targets in heavy clutter where targets are obscured by nonmoving reflecting surfaces. The degree to which
coherent processing techniques are used varies from application to application because the cost of a
coherent system is high. Coherent systems can make very accurate speed measurements, reject clutter,
and improve the probability of detection.
The basic functioning of a coherent radar system is the same as that of a noncoherent system. However,
the requirement for coherency places more stringent requirements on the subsystems and components.
Coherent radar typically incorporates more elaborate signal processing schemes. In coherent carrier
radar, a portion of the transmitted signal is stored for a time equal to the PRI. This reference signal is the
distinguishing feature of the coherent carrier technique. Each target return travels over two signal paths
in the receiver. One copy is sent through a delay line circuit and the other copy is sent to the phase
detector and canceler unit. The copy sent through the delay line is used to compare with the return
signal’s phase. The path through the delay line is timed so that the target return appears at the end of the
delay line just as the return from the next pulse arrives at the canceler circuit. The copy sent to the phase
detector is forwarded to the canceler circuit for comparison with the previous return signal. Several types
of systems that use coherent waveforms are CW Doppler, pulsed Doppler, and MTI.
CW DOPPLER RADAR
A CW Doppler radar uses a single antenna since the necessary separation between the transmitted and
received signals is accomplished by the frequency difference between the transmitted and Doppler shifted
return signals. The transmitter and receiver are coupled through the antenna since the receiver requires a
small amount of the transmitted signal for a reference. In the radar receiver, the Doppler shifted return
signal is mixed with a portion of the transmitted signal, and the lower sideband, or beat frequency, is
bandpass filtered to produce the output, which is the Doppler frequency. Some isolation is required
between the transmitter and the receiver, except when the CW radar operates with relatively low power or
insensitive receivers.
PULSED DOPPLER RADAR
A pulsed Doppler radar uses PRFs that are high enough to provide an adequate sampling rate for Doppler
frequencies and processing techniques that directly measure the target speed. Generally, this system
includes the following:
Doppler filter banks
High PRFs (1000 pps and higher)
Stable local oscillator (STALO) master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA)
Pulsed Doppler radars have range ambiguities due to the high PRFs. The high PRFs create multipletime
around echoes; as much as 50 percent of the target echoes may arrive at the receiver while the radar is
transmitting. This also results in a reduction in detection probability. Doppler frequencies are also
ambiguous and are dependent upon the PRF.
MOVING TARGET INDICATION RADAR
Radar receivers using MTI techniques can distinguish the returns from moving targets and stationary
objects. With conventional radar presentations, the returns from moving targets can be masked by
unwanted returns called clutter, because the radar display becomes so congested with clutter that the
returns from moving targets are impossible to detect. An MTI radar uses a reference oscillator to
maintain coherence. The MTI system detects moving targets by comparing the phase of successive target
returns. Successive returns from moving targets exhibit pulsetopulse phase characteristics. A target
moving toward the radar will have a range that contains successively fewer cycles of phase in the round
trip propagation path. Conversely, a target moving away from the radar will have a range that contains
successively more cycles of phase in the roundtrip propagation path. Returns from stationary objects are
eliminated during processing and are not displayed.
PULSE RATE GENERATORS/TIMERS
Radar timers, sometimes called pulse rate generators or synchronizers, are used to define a time
relationship between radar components. Pulse stability is essential to the operation of a radar system, and
some timers produce pulses with more stability than others. Pulse rate (or PRF) is roughly related to the
design range of the radar. In general, a low PRF rate indicates long range while a high PRF indicates
shorter range radars. Some pulse rates characteristically signify the type of pulse generation device used
and, in some cases, indicate the intended use of this distinct characteristic. The function of timing control
may be accomplished as a separate "timer" unit or as an integral function of the transmitter. Older radar
timers that are not very stable are the power line synchronization, rotary spark gap, and selfexcited
oscillator. Newer radar timers that are much more stable are the delay line and crystal controlled.
POWER LINE SYNCHRONIZATION
In many of the early varieties of radars, there was no need to use a discrete pulse rate, nor was there a
need to maintain a specified stability at this pulse rate. In order to simplify the circuitry, some early radars
used the alternating current (AC) power line frequency as a source of timing for pulse generation.
European equipment to be operated on 50cycle power lines often used 50 or 100 pps. U.S. equipment,
built with pulse rates derived from 60cycle power lines, operated with 60 to 120 pps. Airborne
applications sometimes exhibit 400 or 800 pulse rates derived from the 400cycle AC power supply. Wide
variations in pulse rate stability can be expected. More stable pulse rates could be expected from fixed
stations operating from a large power grid encompassing extensive areas of the country. Mobile units with
independent power sources, particularly airborne units, can be expected to be highly unstable in pulse
rate.
ROTARY SPARK GAP
The rotary spark gap is outdated and probably not used anymore. This system uses an electric motor that
operates a commutating device to produce pulsed signals. The major characteristic by which this system
can be recognized is the erratic pulse jitter.
SELFEXCITED OSCILLATOR
Many radars have been built using variations of the selfexcited oscillator. The particular output pulse
frequency is determined by the values of inductance and capacitance in the oscillator circuit. The basic
operation is similar to the operation of a crystalcontrolled timer. However, the selfexcited oscillator uses
an unstable tuned circuit to generate a timing signal. Some selfexcited oscillator timers can be tuned to
provide some PRF diversification. This is usually limited to approximately 10 percent variation. For
instance, a radar designed for 500 pps might have a spread from about 450 to 550 pps.
DELAY LINE
In this system, pulse interval is determined by the transit time of an acoustical pulse from a transmitting
transducer to a receiving transducer. A column of mercury can be used for the medium of this delay;
however, it would only be useful as a landbased radar. Often the delay is made of a block of fused quartz,
and the delay interval is the transit time of an acoustical pulse in the quartz between transducers. The
quartz crystal is carefully designed and cut so that the total delay introduced is equal to the desired PRI.
Delay lines require temperature compensation for PRI stability and are used in electronically controlled
ovens. The delay line type of pulse generating circuit has a very stable pulse interval as well as a stable
stagger ratio. In a system where multiple PRFs are desired, the delay line works very well. Having two or
more delay lines allows a radar to have staggered PRFs or to change PRFs as desired.
CRYSTALCONTROLLED OSCILLATORS
Crystalcontrolled pulse rate generators provide highly stable PRFs and have wide usage as master timing
elements in radar systems. The use of crystalcontrolled modulators dates back many years. Crystal
controlled PRFs offer stability and provide more precise range determination.
A crystal is a piezoelectric material, such as quartz, which is mechanically stressed, in a viselike holder.
The quartz crystal, cut to precise dimensions, is placed between two metal plates then sealed in a small
container. When subjected to an electrical charge, extremely stable sinusoidal oscillations result. Factors
that govern the rate of oscillation are the physical dimensions of the crystal, placement of the electrodes on
the crystal, and to a lesser extent, environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity.
When a radar set uses a crystal source for a timer, the PRF remains constant for that radar, normally for
the life of the crystal. Each individual crystal provides a unique value, unique enough to be traced to the
emitter. This property is the basis for radio fingerprinting. By closely measuring all parameters associated
with a radar, then associating the radar to a particular location, aircraft, or ship, the emitter can be
correlated to the emission platform. Crystalcontrolled PRFs also help the intercept operator to identify a
particular radar in a dense electromagnetic environment.
Normally crystals fall into three broad ranges of distance measurement: kilometers (kms), nautical miles
(NMs), and yards (yds). Emitters using crystals cut to these ranging distances can often be characterized
as to their probable function by the category into which the crystal falls. As an example, an emitter using
the nautical mile crystal, 80,905 kilohertz (kHz), is assumed to be serving in a navigational role, while an
emitter using the 2000 yard crystal, 81,932 kHz, is almost certainly associated with a naval firecontrol
system. Finally, a kilometer value crystal is generally associated with tactical weapons or nationwide
integrated defense systems. An important note to remember is that each crystal will have a different value,
deviating slightly from the model frequency.
Crystals are usually designated by the range marks they generate vice the frequency of the crystal. Table
25 shows the crystal frequency for some common Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) crystals.
Table 25.— Crystal Frequency For Some Common CIS Crystals
Crystal Frequency
Range Marks
(kHz)
.25 NM 323.649
1NM Model A 80.912
1NM Model B 80.882
.125 KM 1198.5971
.5 KM 299.67
1 KM 149.908
2 KM Model A 74.82
2 KM Model B 74.919
2 KM Model C 74.995
2 KM Model D 74.98
2000 yds 81.938
Range Marks
Crystal circuitry is used in radars to provide a stable PRF timing generation and a method of establishing
range marks (kilometer, nautical mile, yards). Range marks appear on the target indicator display, usually
a cathode ray tube (CRT), of the radar system. They designate specific distances so that when a return is
received, the distance to the target can be determined by its relation on the screen to the range markings.
Since it may not be practical for a radar system to use a PRF in the range of 80,905 pps, the PRF can be
changed. To change the PRF, a radar system uses divider circuits to take the highfrequency crystal and
convert it to a usable PRF. This divider circuitry is called the crystal countdown. Before we discuss the
crystal countdown, let's first learn how range marks are established.
The first item to consider for a radar using crystal control is the range marks desired. The range marks
desired determine the frequency the crystal should produce. To make range measurements, for example in
kilometers, the time required for a radar pulse to travel one kilometer and return should be determined.
The following formula is used:
C
XTAL FREQ =
2 x range mark
299.7925 x 106m/s
XTAL FREQ = = 149896.25 Hz
2 x 1000
"C" is the approximate speed of light or 3 x 108 meters/sec (more precisely 299.7925 x 106). Range marks
in kilometers is desired, so use 1000 meters. And to allow for the travel and return time of the pulse, use 2
x range mark.
To establish kilometer range marks, a crystal would have to be cut to emit approximately 149896.25 Hz.
The reciprocal of this XTAL FREQ would be the XTAL PERIOD, or the time required for the pulse to
travel and return from a one kilometer distance.
1
= XTAL PERIOD
XTAL FREQ
1
= XTAL FREQ
XTAL FREQ
1
= 6.67 µsec
149896.25 Hz
Using the XTAL PERIOD, a target at 10 kms would have a 66.7 m sec return time, a target at 20 kms 66.7
µsec after that, and so on. A crystalcontrolled oscillator can be used to introduce artificial calibration
pulses into the radar display at the desired ranges (i.e., 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 kms). If the range marks were
desired at 5km intervals, these calibration pulses must be inserted 33.4 µsec apart.
Crystal Countdown
A countdown is a whole number value that equates to the sum of the prime factor values of a radar's
divider circuits used in generating the PRF from the parent crystal frequency. More than one countdown
sequence can be employed with a crystal to provide multiple PRFs, a scheme employed in fire control and
surfacetoair missile systems.
The PRFs generated directly by this crystal would not be within a realistic range for radar operation. For
example, consider the PRF associated with the 1km crystal, 149896 Hz or 149896 pps. The MUR would be
only 1000 meters:
299.7925 x 106
MUR = = 1000 meters
2 x 149896
However, to maintain the crystal stability and accuracy and at the same time generate 1000meter range
marks, count down the crystal frequency by the appropriate amount to provide the desired PRF.
There are two fairly simple means of counting down a crystal frequency: one is by amplitude processing
and threshold setting, the other, the most common method, is divider circuits. The larger the countdown,
the lower the PRF. If the divider circuit is too large, stability problems will creep back into the radar
system. The common countdown circuits are count down by 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7. If a countdown is obtained
that is other than a factor of these, the countdown is probably done in one large countdown. Countdowns
by 3 and 25 are two of the highest known countdowns to date.
To find the countdown, find out the PRF. If an intercepted radar or analyzed tape of a radar reveals a
1249 PRF that is very stable, then it is probably crystal controlled. Then, using common crystals such as 1
km, 2 km, .5 km, figure out the total countdown using the following formula:
XTAL FREQ
TOTAL COUNTDOWN =
PRF
149900
TOTAL COUNTDOWN = = 120.016 = 120 for 1 km
1249
299790
TOTAL COUNTDOWN = = 240.024 = 240 for .5 km
1249
74948
TOTAL COUNTDOWN = = 60.007 = 60 for 2 km
1249
NOTE: The total countdown cannot be fractional, it must be an integer.
The signal probably comes from one of these crystal values since each one can be counted down to give this
PRF. To obtain a probable countdown sequence, factor each total countdown into component parts. There
will be intermediate PRFs with each division. An example is as follows:
For 1 km crystal:
149900 Hz ÷ 5 = 29980 Hz
29980 ÷ 4 = 7495 Hz
7495 ÷ 3 = 2498.33 Hz
2498.33 ÷ 2 = 1249.16 Hz
If we multiply all of the divisors together (i.e., 5 x 4 x 3 x 2), the total will equal the original dividend or the
total countdown. The factoring sequence used is only one possibility, as any total factoring of the total
countdown of 120 would work just as well.
A PRF in the range of 1249 pps may not be a desired operating PRF. For instance, if a 625 PRF is desired,
add another divisor stage, or divide by 2, and the PRF would be 624.58 pps. Remember that multiplying
the divisors equals the total countdown, which would now be 240.
Taking another example, an intercepted radar has a very stable 312 PRF. What countdowns would be
possible from a 2 km crystal?
Now factor the 240:
74948 Hz ÷ 5 = 14989.6 Hz
14989.6 ÷ 3 = 4996.5 Hz
4996.5 ÷ 4 = 1249.1 Hz
1249.1 ÷ 4 = 312.3 Hz
Multiply the divisors by themselves, 5 x 3 x 4 x 4 = 240.
Given the range marks desired (5 km) and the MUR (400 km) of a radar, find the crystal to be used and
the possible countdown and the total countdown. First solve for the crystal frequency, which gives the
calibration range marks.
C
XTAL FREQ =
2 x range marks

= = 29979 Hz
10000
Then find the PRF that equates to the MUR (desired range):
C
Rmur =
2 x PRF
299.7925 x 106
400 x 103 =
2 x PRF
PRF = 800 x 103 = 299.7925 x 106
PRF = 374.74 pps
Now find the total countdown:
XTAL FREQ
TOTAL COUNTDOWN =
PRF
29979
= = 79.999 or 80
374.74
Factor 80 and find a countdown sequence:
29979 ÷ 5 = 5995.8 pps
5995.8 ÷ 2 = 2997.9 pps
2997.9 ÷ 2 = 1498.95 pps
1498.95 ÷ 2 = 749.475 pps
749.475 ÷ 2 = 374.7375 pps
To check the countdown sequence multiply 5 x 4 x 4 = 80.
One common problem with countdown systems is that if one of the countdown circuits malfunctions, a
different pulse rate is generated; however, the new pulse rate will also be very stable. When this happens,
the total system divides the crystal frequency less than normal. Be aware of this common malfunction
when studying a known radar with new parameters. It is often possible to figure which divisor has
malfunctioned. An example of this is as follows. Assume in the previous problem that the first divisor
circuit (5) malfunctions and does not divide. What would be the new PRF?
299790 ÷ 4 = 7494.75 pps
7494.75 ÷ 4 = 1873.6875 pps
TELEMETRY
The word telemetry is derived from the Greek words "tele" meaning from afar and "meter" meaning to
measure. The modern version of the term is the science of measuring a physical quantity at some remote
or inaccessible location (a missile in space) and transmitting the measured data to a more convenient or
accessible location (the earth's surface). For the ELINT field, telemetry also means the receiving of this
information, the conversion of the signal back into a replica of the original, and a recording of this replica.
The science of telemetry came about because of the development of rockets, missiles, and aircraft. Due to
the small size of the vehicle and weight restrictions, a method was developed that allows ground personnel
to monitor events during the flight of the vehicle. Additionally, with the advent of the jet aircraft there
were too many things for a test pilot to monitor to ensure proper operation, so telemetry was added to pass
the information to a ground site.
Some physical properties that are measured and transmitted to a ground station by a telemetry system
include the following:
Stress
Vibration
Yaw
Thrust
Strain
Roll
Humidity
Temperature
Pitch
Speed
Fuel pressure
Acceleration
Altitude
Air flow
Position
Fuel flow
Modern telemetry is an extremely important intelligence resource, and, as a result, many current
telemetry systems use data encoding to prevent or reduce the risk of hostile exploitation. This is perhaps
analogous to the encryption used in secure communications systems. All telemetry systems have certain
common elements. These components are found in every telemetry system. The common components are
transducers, multiplexers, transmitters, and receivers.
TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is an instrument that converts mechanical or physical variations into corresponding
electrical variations. The transducer is the most essential component of a telemetry system since the system
is only as good as the device performing the measurements. A number of devices are used as transducers.
Some of the more common include the following:
Thermostat—detects change in temperature.
Gyro—detects change in attitude.
Photoelectric Cell—detects change in light.
Thermocoupler—detects change in voltages.
The requirement for small size, lightweight, low power consumption devices, and for these devices to have
the ability to withstand the vibrations and acceleration loads of takeoff and landing influences the type of
transducer used.
MULTIPLEXERS
Multiplexers are used so that a separate transmitter is not required for each transducer placed on a
vehicle. In most telemetry applications, it is necessary to transmit more than one type of information
simultaneously. Multiplexing techniques will be explained later in this topic.
TRANSMITTERS
Telemetry transmitters are no different than any other transmitter. They operate at a particular
frequency and are modulated by information from a multiplexer. The type of modulation used differs with
the type of telemetry system.
RECEIVERS
The telemetry receiver is an ordinary receiver that receives the range that the transmitter uses, operates
with the correct bandwidth, and has the correct demodulation capabilities. Although any receiver that
tunes the transmitted frequency can usually pick up the telemetry, the telemetry is usually modulated in a
coded format, and often the data is stored on onboard tape recorders until the vehicle is over the country
of origin before it is transmitted on a telemetry link.
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is the technique that allows more than one data channel to be transmitted on a single carrier
link. A multiplexer is a device that combines a number of data channels into a single output in such a way
that one data input does not interfere with another input. The output from the multiplexer is then used to
modulate the transmitted carrier. There are two basic methods of multiplexing data, frequency division
mulitplexing (FDM) and time division multiplexing (TDM). In FDM, each data source has continual access
to the transmitter, but is restricted to a portion of the total bandwidth. In TDM, each data source has
access to the full bandwidth of the transmitter, but for only a fraction of the total time.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) combines multiple data channels on a single carrier by assigning a
different frequency band to each channel. At the transmitting site, the transducer senses or picks up the
data to be conveyed and converts it to a corresponding electrical voltage level. There must be a transducer
for each data category to be transmitted. The output voltage level of the transducer is used to frequency
modulate a subcarrier oscillator that produces a frequency band. The different frequency bands
of the subcarrier are then combined, or multiplexed, into the composite signal. Because the inputs to the
mixer are made up of individual FM signals, the output from the mixer is also FM. Due to the way the
signals add together, the output signal will exhibit amplitude variations. The output from the mixer goes to
the transmitter where it is broadcast at the selected frequency.
The receiver used by the ground site has a bandwidth wide enough to encompass all of the frequency
components of the telemetry signal, but not so wide that a significant amount of noise is admitted to the
receiver. Following the receiver, a discriminator removes the information from the carrier signal. The
signal is then sent through a series of bandpass filters. The filters separate the signal back into its original
components.
An advantage of an FDM system is that each channel provides a continuous readout of the data being
measured. This allows for a realtime simultaneous transmission of multiple data outputs. A disadvantage
of the FDM system is the use of multiple frequency bands, making it necessary to use a large frequency
bandwidth.
Time Division Multiplexing
Time division multiplexing (TDM) combines multiple data channels on a single carrier by periodically
sampling the data in each channel. Telemetry is one of the major applications of TDM. The selection of the
various data channels is accomplished through the use of a rotary switch. This switch, more commonly
called a commutator, sequentially samples each transducer output for a definite period of time.
Each transducer output is changed into electrical signals by the signal generator. This generator converts
the transducerproduced, timevarying voltage into a pulsed signal, some parameter of which is varied in
accordance with the information signal from the transducer. In addition to the pulse generators used for
the information, there must be at least one additional pulse generator used as a synchronizing pulse. The
synchronizing pulses are used to identify the start of each frame of data. The synchronizing pulses do not
change with time and are distinct from the data pulses.
The heart of the TDM system is the commutator, which follows the pulse generators. A commutator is a
device that sequentially accepts input from multiple input channels and combines the pulses into an
aggregate output data stream. The commutator is rotated from one contact to another in a given sequence,
sequentially sampling the information provided by the transducers. The entire system is laid out in a row,
in time sequence, so that the individual channels of data do not overlap. The communtator does not stop
after one revolution but continues until all of the required information is passed.
An important point to remember is that it takes time to go from pulse number one all the way around and
back to pulse number one. This time is called the frame time. One complete revolution of the commutator
is called a frame. The synchronizing pulse is used to indicate the start of a frame. The number of frames
completed in one second is the frame rate, the inverse of the frame time. The number of contacts on the
commutator determines the number of data samples or channels per frame. The number of samples or
channels per frame, multiplied by the frame rate, is called the commutator rate or sampling rate. If a
telemetry signal is broken into parts, it is said to have subframes. Subframe rate is the number of
subframes multiplied by the frame rate.
The modulator in TDM performs the same function as the modulator in FDM; it encodes the aggregate
information channel onto the carrier for transmission. The modulator uses any one of several types of
pulse modulation. The pulsemodulated signal is then fed to the multiplexer. The mixer in the TDM system
serves the same purpose as that in the FDM system, to combine the transducer data with other output
signals to transmit the desired information.
The first component of the ground portion is the receiver. The output of the receiver is the information
baseband signal. The baseband signal passes into the decommutator. The decommutator demultiplexes the
information baseband and reassembles the individual data signals from the aggregate signal.
An advantage of the TDM system is that it requires less bandwidth. Since TDM does not transmit all data
at the same time, as with FDM (wider bandwidth, more power requirement), higher peak power can be
obtained at the TDM transmitter output. The major disadvantage of the TDM system is that information
is only sampled and is not continuously monitored.
TELEMETRY TECHNIQUES
When identifying the methods of multiplexing and modulation used in a particular telemetry system, begin
where the signal is first generated and work toward the transmitted carrier. The first three letters identify
the type of multiplex, the middle two letters identify the type of subcarrier modulation (when a subcarrier
oscillator is used). When a subcarrier oscillator is not used, there will be no middle letter designator in the
system identification. The last two letters identify the type of carrier modulation used (e.g., PAM/FM/AM).
(NOTE: All threeletter groups beginning with "P" in the first position (such as in PAM, PDM, PCM, and
PPM) indicate TDM. In this example, the method of multiplexing and modulation is a PAM type of
multiplex, an FM type of subcarrier modulation, and an AM type of carrier modulation. Transmission
techniques for telemetry systems are as follows:
FM/FM. The frequency modulation (FM) designation format indicates first the method used to form
the information baseband and then the method used to encode the baseband onto the carrier for
transmission. Thus, FM/FM means the baseband is formed using frequency modulation and the
baseband is frequency modulated onto the carrier. Since the baseband is formed by modulating each
information signal onto a different baseband carrier, this is an FDM technique.
PAM. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) encodes channel information in the amplitudes of the
individual sample pulses. PAM is highly susceptible to noise.
PDM. Pulse duration modulation (PDM) encodes data variation as variations in the duration of the
sample pulses. Noise does not affect this system.
PCM. Pulse code modulation (PCM) transmits a stream of pulses in which information is conveyed
by the presence or the absence of pulses. Noise does not affect this system and PCM supports very
high data rates.
PPM. Pulse position modulation (PPM) is similar to PDM. A PPM system transmits two pulses for
each channel of information. The first pulse is a reference and its position within a frame is fixed.
The second pulse of each pair is a data pulse. The information is conveyed by the interval separating
the two pulses. PPM is not affected by noise. The distance or separation between the two pulses
imposes a minimum channel interval, or maximum channel rate, that limits the overall data rate.
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
Frequency diversity is a technique used by some radar systems. This technique uses at least two different
radio frequencies transmitted from the same antenna. Frequency diversity techniques were originally
designed as an EP feature. The way in which the radio frequencies are transmitted determines which
technique is used. Among the most common methods are frequency jumping, frequency tuning, and
multiple frequency.
FREQUENCY JUMPING
Frequency jumping is instantaneously changing the carrier frequency by a discrete amount in either a set
or a random manner. There are four modes of operation as follows:
Changing the frequency on a pulsetopulse basis.
Changing the frequency on a pulsegroup to pulsegroup basis, most often used with high PRF
systems to avoid range ambiguity.
Changing the frequency in discrete steps within the limits of the pulse duration, most often used in
pulse compression systems.
Changing the frequency within the limits of the pulse duration around a central value that is
changed from pulse to pulse or pulsegroup to pulsegroup; this method provides the best EP but is
difficult to implement and rarely seen.
FREQUENCY TUNING
Frequency tuning is changing the transmitted frequency mechanically or electromechanically by tuning
the power oscillator. The tuning is done at the output frequency and requires the use of tunable high
power output tubes. Frequency tuning requires that either the lowfrequency oscillator, the multiplier
stages, or both are modified to obtain a change in the transmitted RF. The final frequency can be any
value within the tuning range of the RF oscillator. Frequency tuning is discrete; the transmitted RF will be
one of several values and no others.
Illuminating a target with multiple RFs can be used to mitigate the effects of phase cancellation from
returns reflected from different locations on the target surface. These effects are called scintillation. For
example, energy reflected from the nose of an aircraft may be partly canceled by energy reflected from the
tail if the distance separating the nose and tail is on the order of a half wavelength. Changing the
transmitted frequency (and therefore the wavelength) increases the likelihood that some energy will result
if target scintillation is negligible.
MULTIPLE FREQUENCY
Multiple frequency is a technique that is used to increase the transmitted power of a radar system by
transmitting more than one frequency, simultaneously, from the same antenna. A separate antenna is
required for each RF transmitted. Identical pulse trains are transmitted on each frequency and
transmitted simultaneously. If the aggregate power level is greater than the powerhandling capacity of
the wave guide and antenna, then the pulse trains can be interleaved (transmitted sequentially) and re
phased in the receiver. Multiple frequency techniques produce the same result as frequency jumping with
the results available on a pulsetopulse basis rather than across several pulses.
ADVANTAGES OF FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
Frequency agility techniques provide antijamming capabilities for radar systems. Some additional
advantages include the following:
Improved unambiguous range
Reduction of range ambiguities
Capability to use electronic scanning
Increased probability of detection near maximum range
As a collection operator, the biggest reason for intercepting and analyzing frequency diversity signals is to
determine their antijamming capability. This information has a direct bearing on the design of radar
countermeasures equipment. Another reason is to analyze them for their possible use by beam steering
systems. Frequency diversity radars may operate in any radar band.
ELECTRONIC ATTACK
Operating in a hostile environment, a radar may be subjected to deliberate interference, or jamming.
Jamming is noise or a noiselike signal transmitted at frequencies in the receiver bandwidths of radar that
obscure the radar return signal. Jamming appears as extraneous responses on the radar display. These
responses may be few and resemble real targets or be many and fill the whole display. The purpose of
jamming is to create a sufficient degree of deliberate interference that a radar is unreliable or unusable.
Jamming falls under electronic attack (EA).
EA signals can be divided into three classes depending on whether the intent is to obliterate, confuse, or
deceive the target radar. Additionally, these three classes can be divided into active or passive.
Obliteration. Conceals the real targets by cluttering the radar display with false returns. Effective
obliteration jamming completely fills the radar screen with false targets. Obliteration jammers
usually operate at high power levels to swamp the real target echoes.
Confusion. Presents false targets to the radar. A large number of false targets cause the computer
system or human operators to lose the real target among the false targets.
Deception. Presents false targets that appear to the radar as though they were the returns from the
real targets. Deception jamming signals are designed so that they are indistinguishable from the real
target echoes. Deception jammers usually operate at low power levels as they need only as much
power as a real target return.
ACTIVE ELECTRONIC ATTACK
Active electronic attack signals involve the creation of jamming signals that are radiated into the
electromagnetic spectrum. Active jamming is any interference produced by an EA transmitter specifically
intended to disrupt a radar’s normal operations by saturating or masking radar returns or by introducing
additional realistic false targets. Active EA is of maximum concern to the operator and analyst.
Barrage Jammers
Barrage jammers (sometimes called confusion jammers) radiate a noise signal over a relatively wide band
of frequencies. The frequency bandwidth is designed to cover emitters with frequency agility, several
emitters simultaneously, or cases where only the approximate RF of a radar is known. The total power
available to a barrage jammer is spread over a large bandwidth. The victim radar can burn through by
increasing the transmitter power. The best barrage jamming signal is white Gaussian noise (wideband
noise) covering the bandwidth of the radar receiver to be jammed.
Spot Jammers
Spot jammers radiate in a relatively narrow band compared to barrage jammers yet wide enough to cover
a radar receiver bandwidth. See figure 211. This requires high power to provide an interference signal
strong enough to mask the real target returns. Spot jamming may be avoided by changing the radar
frequency, ideally on a pulsetopulse basis to avoid the jammer tracking the new frequency.
Figure 211.— Barrage versus spot jamming.
The victim radar could also use a notch filter to remove the interfering signal from the video signal path or
if the signal is AM or FM modulated, a lowpass filter can remove the interference. There are two types of
spot jammers—multiple and sequential. These are explained as follows:
Multiple Spot. Multiple spot jamming overcomes the limitation of a single spot jammer by multiple
spot jammers jamming on several frequencies at one time. The use of this method is effective against
radars that use fixed frequency assignments.
Sequential Spot. Sequential spot jamming also overcomes the limitation of a single spot jammer. A
sequential spot jammer jumps from one RF to another, usually in a programmed manner at a high
rate to ensure sufficient coverage. The jammer never radiates more than one frequency at any given
time.
Swept Frequency Jammers
Swept frequency jammers sweep the carrier frequency of a tunable transmitter over the radar band. A
single swept jammer can simultaneously jam many different radars operating at different frequencies.
Seek And LockOn Jammers
Seek and lockon jammers are essentially a swept jammer that has the capability to follow the victim
radar that changes RF or search for and lockon to the RF of another radar should the first stop
operating. An enhancement to jamming has been the addition of a lookthrough capability. The look
through system colocates a receiver with the jammer. The jammer is switched off at intervals and the
receiver monitors any changes in the victim or in the electromagnetic environment.
Deception Jammers
Deception jammers are designed to present jamming signals that are indistinguishable from the real target
echoes. Deception jamming degrades a tracking or homing radar once it begins to track a target. It is
almost always used for selfprotection and generally uses a radar repeater. Three types of deception
jammers are repeater jammers, transponders, and range gate stealers.
REPEATER JAMMERS
Repeater jammers generate false targets on the radar display by delaying the received radar signal and
then retransmitting it at a slightly later time. This delay causes the retransmitted signal to appear at a
range and azimuth different from that of the actual location of the jamming platform.
TRANSPONDERS
When triggered by a radar signal, transponders play back a stored replica of the radar signal or a noise
pulse. The transponder can be programmed to remain silent when illuminated by the main radar beam
and to transmit only when illuminated by the sidelobes, creating spurious targets on the radar display at
directions other than that of the true target.
RANGE GATE STEALERS
Range gate stealers cause a tracking radar to "break lock" on the target. See figure 212. A typical
tracking radar determines the target range by generating a pair of range gates. The radar receiver adjusts
the position of these gates to keep the target return centered between them. When the target return is
centered between the two range gates, the tracking radar is "locked on" the target. The range gate stealer
initially transmits a single cover pulse for each pulse received from the radar. The cover pulse is
transmitted with no delay and therefore arrives at the radar at the same time as the return pulse causing
the combined return to be stronger. The stronger return causes the radar to reduce the amount of
amplification during processing. The repeater slowly shifts the timing of its own pulse to cause an
apparent change in the tracking range. The radar tracking circuits will follow the stronger false signal
from the jammer and ignore the weaker echo from the target. Also, the repeater can be turned off, leaving
the tracker without a target and forcing it to revert to the search mode.
Figure 212.— Range gate stealer.
PASSIVE ELECTRONIC ATTACK
Passive electronic countermeasures do not generate or amplify electromagnetic radiation; they act in a
passive manner to change the energy reflected back to the radar. Passive EA is intended to confuse the
radar as to the true location of the target. Examples of passive EA are chaff, decoys, and radar cross
section reduction.
Chaff
One of the oldest methods of confusing enemy radar, chaff first appeared in WWII when metallic strips
were used over Hamburg, Germany, in 1943. Chaff is a collective name for a family of reflective materials.
Chaff consists of a large number of reflectors, usually in the form of metallic foil strips packaged in a
bundle. The length of the foil determines the optimum reflected frequency. Chaff bundles usually consist
of a variety of strip lengths for multiple frequency coverage. The objective of chaff is to reduce the
effectiveness of the radar by providing a very large, bright target return that masks the returns from
targets of interest.
Chaff is used to either deceive or to confuse a radar. Chaff is dispensed from aerial rockets and fired
ahead, behind, above, below, or simply dropped from aircraft. Chaff shot forward can deceive the range
and velocity tracking gates of tracking radars. Chaff is usually effective for a period of about 30 minutes.
Decoys
A decoy is a small aircraftlike vehicle that appears to a radar operator as a larger target. Decoys are
usually designed to incorporate radar signal enhancement devices such as corner reflectors, Luneburg
reflectors, or active repeaters. The decoy may use a small active jammer to make it resemble the target
aircraft. A defense system can be overloaded by a sufficient number of decoys. Decoys can confuse or
saturate an air defense network to reduce their effectiveness against approaching aircraft.
Radar CrossSection Reduction
Modification of the aircraft radar cross section incorporates the use of radarabsorbent materials and
airframe structural changes. The target radar cross section can be reduced by material that absorbs
electromagnetic energy. One type of radarabsorbing material is a quarterwavelength thick. The energy
reflected from the front surface of the material cancels energy that entered the material and was reflected
from the inner surface. This material is the same as coatings applied to optical lenses and is narrowband.
Another type internally dissipates the incident energy. This absorber is much thicker but has the
advantage of being relatively broadband.
MILLIMETER WAVE RADAR SYSTEMS
Millimeter waves are radio waves that range in frequency from 30 GHz to 300 GHz. The millimeter wave
band gets its name from the wavelength of millimeter wave signals. A radio wave with a frequency of 30
GHz has a wavelength of about 10 millimeters (mm), and a 300GHz radio wave has a wavelength of about
1mm. Millimeter wave radio signals have the shortest wavelength of any signals commonly associated with
the radio spectrum.
The major attributes of the millimeter wave region are the large bandwidth, small antenna size, and the
characteristic wavelength. Large bandwidth means the high range resolution can be achieved. The short
wavelengths allow narrow beamwidths of high directivity with physically small antennas. Narrow
beamwidths are important for highresolution imaging radar to avoid multipath effects when tracking
lowaltitude targets. The short wavelengths are useful for exploring scattering objects whose dimensions
are comparable to the millimeter wavelengths such as clouds. Another advantage of the short wavelengths
is that a Doppler frequency measurement of fixed accuracy gives a more accurate velocity measurement
than at lower frequencies.
Interaction with the atmosphere is greater at millimeter waves than at microwaves. Because millimeter
wavelengths are comparable to the size of raindrops, fog, snow flakes, and suspended water vapor, they
cause significant absorption of all millimeter wave transmissions. This attenuation would normally be
considered a disadvantage, but it also makes it very unlikely that the signal is intercepted at some
considerable distance by an unwanted listener. It is also unlikely that any nearby listener could intercept
the signal sidelobes. For these reasons, millimeter wave systems are classified as low probability of
intercept (LPI). Despite the advantages, atmospheric absorption remains as the largest obstacle to the use
of millimeter wave systems. The large amount of attenuation can be used to advantage in those special
cases where it is desired to reduce mutual interference or to minimize the probability of the radar being
intercepted by a hostile receiver at long range.
Millimeter wave systems use smaller components than lower frequency systems because of the smaller
wavelengths. The extremely high operating frequency also permits the use of very wide bandwidth signals.
The smaller wavelengths allow very narrow beamwidths that are produced by small antennas resulting in
high angular resolution. The energy reflected from a target is also a function of the wavelength. Smaller
wavelengths produce more information about the target (e.g., shape, size, and relative motion). The
greater available bandwidth permits more information to be transmitted in a communication system and
greater resolution in a radar system.
The millimeter wave radio band is the last to see significant development as a communications medium.
Millimeter wave communication is considered ideal for satellitetosatellite communication because it is
less accessible to eavesdropping, jamming, interference, or unauthorized manipulation. Automobile
manufacturer DaimlerBenz is experimenting with technology for collisionavoidance systems for
automobiles. In the military realm, millimeter wave microcircuits for missiles are less expensive and more
reliable. They work well on the battlefield because, unlike traditional optical or infrared systems, they can
form images with millimeter wave cameras that "see" through fog and thick battlefield smoke.
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Low Under 350 pps Long Range

High Over 1000 pps Short Range

Narrow Under 1 Short Range

Medium 1 to 4 Medium Range

Wide Over 4 Long Range

Fixed Landbased Exhibits a steady azimuth and a constant

Shipborne Exhibits slow changes in azimuth and signal

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