Casting, Welding, Machine Tools, Material SC PDF

S d i
Sand casting
y The molten metal is poured into the sprue hole, flows
y Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary through the runners,
runners and enters the mold cavity
mould material. through an opening called a gate.
y The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of y G i
Gravity fl
flow i the
is h most common means off
other materials, such as clay and water, to improve introducing the metal into the mold.
M t l C ti
Metal Casting mouldability and cohesive strength,
strength and are then
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the
desired casting.
casting
y After solidification, the mold is broken and the
finished casting is removed.
y The casting is then “fettled” by cutting off the ingate
y The pattern must be removed before pouring, the
and the feeder head.
mold
ld is
i usually
ll made
d in
i two
t or more pieces.
i
y Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold must be
y An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of
made for each casting.
casting
B S K M d l
By S K Mondal the mold through the sand and connected to a
system of channels called runners. Contd…. Contd…
Sequential steps in making a sand casting
i l i ki d i y The mold is opened, the pattern board is drawn
y A pattern board is placed between the bottom (drag) (removed),
(removed) and the runner and gate are cut into the
and top (cope) halves of a flask, with the bottom side up. surface of the sand.
y Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold. y The mold is reassembled with the pattern board

removed,
d and
d molten
l metall is poured
d through
h h the
h
sprue.
y A bottom board is positioned on top of the packed sand,
and the mold is turned over, showing the top (cope) half
of pattern with sprue and riser pins in place. y The contents are shaken from the flask and the metal
segment is separated from the sand, ready for further
p
processing.
g
y The cope half of the mold is then packed with sand.
Th h lf f th ld i th k d ith d
Contd…
Casting Terms
y Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand
mould
ld intact.
i t t It is
i made
d up off wood
d for
f temporary
t
applications
pp or metal for long‐term
g use.
y Drag: Lower moulding flask.
y Cope: Upper moulding flask.
y Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three‐

piece
i moulding.
ldi
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 1 of 240 Rev.0
Contd…
y Moulding sand: The freshly prepared refractory
y Pattern: Pattern is a replica
p j
of the final object to be
material used for making the mould cavity. It is a
made with some modifications.
mixture of silica,
silica clay and moisture in appropriate
y Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two
proportions.
moulding
ld fl k that
flasks h makes
k up the
h sand
d mould.
ld
y Backing sand: This is made up of used and burnt
y Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood,
wood
sand.
which is used at the start of the mould making.
y Core:
C U d for
Used f making
ki hollow
h ll cavities
i i ini castings.
i
Three flask mould
Contd…
Padding
y Pouring
g basin: A small funnel‐shaped
p cavityy at the top
p y Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the y Tapering
T i off thinner
thi section
ti towards
t d thicker
thi k section
ti
of the mould into which the molten metal is poured. mould cavity. is known as 'padding'.
y Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal y This will require extra material.
y Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in
from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity.
cavity y If p
paddingg is not p
provided, centre line shrinkage
g or
the
h mould
ld to increase
i the
h cooling
li rate off castings.
i porosity will result in the thinner section.
y Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through y Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the
which molten metal flow is regulated before they reach casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould
the
h mould
ld cavity. cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due
y Gate: The actual entry point through which molten to solidification
metal enters the mould cavity in a controlled rate. Contd… Contd…
IES‐2001 IES‐1996 IES 2007

Which of the following methods are used for Which one of the following is the correct
The main purpose of chaplets is
obtaining
bt i i directional
di ti l solidification
lidifi ti forf riser
i design
d i statement?
t t t?
(a) To ensure directional solidification Gate is provided in moulds to
1. Suitable placement of chills
(b) To provide efficient venting (a) Feed the casting at a constant rate
2. Suitable placement of chaplets ((b)) Give p
passage
g to g
gases
(c) For aligning the mold boxes (c) Compensate for shrinkage
3. Employing padding
(d) To
T support the
h cores (d) Avoid cavities
Select the correct answer.
( ) 1 and
(a) d 2 (b) 1 and
d 3 (c)
( ) 2 and
d 3 (d) 1, 2 and
d3
GATE‐2009 GATE‐1992 GATE 2011
In a green‐sand moulding process, uniform Green sand mould indicates that
ramming leads to (a) polymeric mould has been cured
Match the items in Column I and Column II.
Match the items in Column I and Column II
(a) Less chance of gas porosity (b) mould has been totally dried
Column I Column II
P Metallic Chills 1 Support for the core
P. Metallic Chills 1. Support for the core (b) Uniform flow of molten metal into the mould ((c)) mould is g
green in colour
Q. Metallic Chaplets 2. Reservoir of the molten metal cavity (d) mould contains moisture
R Riser 3 Control cooling of critical
R. Riser 3. Control cooling of critical (c) Greater dimensional stability of the casting
sections (d) Less sand expansion type of casting defect
S Exothermic Padding 4 Progressive solidification
S. Exothermic Padding 4. Progressive solidification
(a) P‐1,Q‐3, R‐2, S‐4 (b) P‐1,Q‐4, R‐2, S‐3
(c) P‐3, Q‐4, R‐2, S‐1
P 3 Q 4 R 2 S 1 (d) P 4 Q 1 R 2 S 3
P‐4, Q‐1, R‐2, S‐3
Pattern Pattern Allowances Sh i k
Shrinkage allowance
ll
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the 1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance y All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps
gp
casting process,, with some modifications. bismuth.
bismuth
The main modifications are 2. Draft or taper allowance
y The addition of pattern allowances,
allowances y This is because of the inter‐atomic vibrations which
3. Machining or finish allowance
M hi i fi i h ll
y The provision of core prints, and are amplified by an increase in temperature.
4 Distortion or camber allowance
4.
y Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained
y The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the
by casting and hence are to be obtained by further 55. Rapping allowance
pp g
processing linear dimensions. Even in case of internal dimensions.
Contd…
Liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage y Gray CI with a carbon equivalent of 4.3% has y Pattern Allowances

y Liquid
Li id shrinkage
h i k refers
f to the
h reduction
d i in
i volume
l Cast Iron 10 mm/m
negative shrinkage, that is, it actually expands
when the metal changes temperature from pouring to Brass, Copper, Aluminium 15 mm/m
solidus temperature in liquid state.
state To account for this,
this upto 2.5%
2 5% because of graphite precipitation.
precipitation So,
So
risers are provided in the moulds. Steell 20 mm/m
y Solidification shrinkage g refers to the reduction in for this, no riser is needed. Zinc, Lead 25 mm/m
volume when metal changes from liquid to solid state
at the solidus temperature. To account for this, risers
are provided
id d in
i the
h moulds.
ld
y Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused,
when a metal loses temperature in the solid state.
state The
shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of this
educt o .
reduction.
IES‐1995 GATE‐1999 IES‐1999
Which one of the following materials will require In
I solidification
lidifi ti off metal
t l during
d i casting,
ti
Which of the following materials requires the
the largest size of riser for the same size of casting? compensation
p for solid contraction is
l
largest
t shrinkage
hi k allowance,
ll while
hil making
ki a
pattern for casting? (a) Provided by the oversize pattern
((a)) Aluminium
( ) Aluminium
(a) l
(b) Cast iron (b) Achieved by properly placed risers
(b) Brass
(c) Steel (c) Cast Iron (c) Obtained by promoting directional
(d) Plain Carbon Steel solidification
lidifi i
(d) Copper.
(d) Made by providing chills
GATE‐2001 GATE‐2004
ISRO‐2007
Shrinkage allowance on pattern is provided to
Shrinkage allowance is made by Gray cast iron blocks 200 x 100 x 10 mm are to be
p
compensate for shrinkage
g when
( ) Adding
(a) dd to externall and
d internall dimensions
d castt in
i sand d moulds.ld Shrinkage
Sh i k allowance
ll f
for
(a) The temperature of liquid metal drops from pattern making is 1%. The ratio of the volume of
(b) Subtracting from external and internal pouring to freezing temperature
dimensions pattern
tt t that
to th t off the
th casting
ti will
ill be
b
(b) The metal changes from liquid to solid state at
((c)) Subtracting
g from external dimensions and freezing temperature
adding to internal dimensions (a) 0.97 (b) 0.99 (c) 1.01 (d) 1.03
(c) The temperature of solid phase drops from
(d) Adding to external dimensions and subtracting f
freezing
i to room temperature
from internal dimensions
(d) The temperature of metal drops from pouring
to room temperature
GATE‐2008 GATE 2011 IAS‐1995

A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumetric Assertion
A i (A):
(A) A pattern is i made
d exactly
l similar
i il to
solidification shrinkage and volumetric solid the part to be cast.
While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40 mm
contraction of 4% and 6% respectively.
respectively No riser is R
Reason (R) Pattern
(R): P i used
is d to make
k the
h mould ld
undergoes 3%, 4% and 5% volume shrinkage used. Assume uniform cooling in all directions. The cavity for pouring in molten for casting.
side of the cube after solidification and contraction is ( ) Both
(a) B h A and d R are individually
i di id ll true and
d R is
i the
h
during the liquid state, phase transition and solid
(a) 48.32 mm correct explanation of A
state
state, respectively
respectively. The volume of metal (b) 49.90 mm (b) Both
B h A and d R are individually
i di id ll true but
b R isi not the
h
compensated from the riser is correct explanation of A
(c) 49
49.94
94 mm
( ) A is
(c) i true but
b R is i false
f l
(a) 2% (b) 7% (c) 8% (d) 9% (d) 49.96 mm
(d) A is false but R is true

IAS‐2003 D ft
Draft
Match
M h ListLi I (Material
(M i l to be b cast)) with
i h List
Li II y To
T reduce
d the
th chances
h off the
th damage
d off the
th mould
ld
(Shrinkage Allowance in mm/m) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists: cavityy at the time of p
pattern removal,, the vertical faces
List‐I List‐II of the pattern are always tapered from the parting line.
(Material to Cast) (Shrinkage Allowance in mm/m)
(A) Grey cast iron 1. 7 ‐ 10 This provision is called draft allowance.
(B) Brass 2
2. 15
y Inner surfaces
f off the
h pattern require higher
h h draft
d f than
h
(C) Steel 3. 20
(D) Zinc 4
4. 24 outer surfaces.
surfaces
Codes:A B C D A B C D
y Draft is always provided as an extra metal.
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 4 1 2
(c) 1 4 3 2 (d) 3 2 1 4 DRAFT ALLOWANCE
Sh k ll
Shake Allowance ll
Distortion Allowance P M i l
Pattern Materials
y Wood
W d patterns
tt are relatively
l ti l easy to
t make.
k Wood
W d is
i nott
y At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped y A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and very dimensionally stable. Commonly used teak, white
therefore is likelyy to be distortion p
prone. pine and mahogany wood.
wood
all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould
y Metal patterns are more expensive but are more
cavity slightly to facilitates its removal.
removal y This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long dimensionally stable and more durable.
durable Commonly used
flat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting CI, Brass, aluminium and white metal.
y Itt iss a negative
egat ve a
allowance
owa ce aand
d iss to be app
applied
ed o
onlyy to which may have thin and long sections which are y Hard plastics,
plastics such as urethanes,
urethanes and are often preferred
those dimensions, which are parallel to the parting connected to thick sections. with processes that use strong, organically bonded sands
that tend to stick to other pattern materials.
materials
plane. y In the full‐mold process, expanded polystyrene (EPS) is
y The foundry practice should be to make extra
used.
used
material provision for reducing the distortion.
y Investment casting uses wax patterns.
The pattern material should be IES‐1994 GATE‐2000

y Easily worked, shaped and joined Which of the following materials can be used for
Disposable patterns are made of
y Light in weight making patterns?
y Strong, hard and durable (a) Wood
1. Aluminium 2. Wax 33. Mercuryy 4
4. Lead
y Resistant to wear and abrasion (b) Rubber
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
y Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions (c) Metal
Codes:
y Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in (d) P l
Polystyrene
(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
temperature and humidity.
y Available at low cost.
T f P tt
Types of Pattern T f P tt
Types of Pattern Types of Pattern
Single
Si l Piece
Pi Pattern
P tt Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
y Cope and Drag Pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings When the contour of the casting makes its
castings. These
ese aaree ssimilar
a to sp
splitt patte
patterns.
s. In add
addition
t o to
patterns.
tt A the
As th name indicates,
i di t theyth are made
d off a
single piece. withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of
of the casting is too high,
high then the pattern is split into two the p
pattern along g with the ggatingg and riser systems
y
parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the are attached separately to the metal or wooden
Gated Pattern cope.
p plates along
p g with the alignment
g pins. Theyy are
p
Gating and runner system are integral with the called the cope and drag patterns.
pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of
the runners and gates and help in improving the
productivity of a moulding.
Types of Pattern Types of Pattern T f P tt
Types of Pattern
y Follow Board Pattern
y Match Plate Pattern y Loose Piece Pattern This type of pattern is adopted for those
The
h cope and d drag
d patterns along
l with
h the
h This type of pattern is also used when the castings where there are some portions,
portions which
gating and the risering are mounted on a single contour of the part is such that withdrawing the are structurally weak and if not supported
pattern from the mould is not possible.
possible properly are likely to break under the force of
matching metal or wooden plate on either side.
ramming.
IES‐2008 T f P tt
Types of Pattern T fP
Types of Pattern
y Sweep Pattern y Skeleton Pattern
The pattern adopted for those castings where there It is used to sweep the complete casting by means A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood
are some portions
ti which
hi h are structurally
t t ll weak k andd of a plane sweep.
s eep These are used for generating is used for building the final pattern by packing
are likely to break by the force of ramming are large shapes, which are axi‐symmetrical or sand around the skeleton. After packing the
called:
ll d prismatic in nature such as bell‐shaped
bell shaped or sand the desired form is obtained with the help
sand,
(a) Loose piece pattern cylindrical. of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
generally for very large castings,
castings required in
(b) Follow board pattern
small quantities where large expense on
((c)) Skelton p
pattern complete wooden pattern is not justified.
justified
(d) Single piece pattern

Cooling Curve Fluidity
( )
GATE 2012 (PI)
The ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold is known
as fluidity. In sand casting, fluidity of the molten metal
Pouring Temperature i
increases with
ith
y The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring
p g temperature
p or the amount of superheat.
p (A) increase in degree of superheat
y Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity. (B) decrease in pouring rate
y Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however. At ((C)) increase in thermal conductivityy of the mould
high pouring temperatures, metal‐mold reactions are (D) increase in sand grain size
accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to permit
penetration.
i
y Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills the
mold cavity
ca it but also fills the small voids
oids between
bet een the sand
particles in a sand mold.
ISRO‐2011 Core Desired characteristics of a core

Fluidity in casting (CI) operation is greatly y Used for making cavities and hollow projections.
y Green Strength: A core made of green sand should
i fl
influenced
d by
b b strong
be t enough
h to
t retain
t i the
th shape
h till it goes for
f
y All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal baking.
a) Melting temperature of molten metal and are therefore subjected to much more severe y Dry Strength:h It should
h ld have
h adequate
d d strength
dry h
thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result the so that when the core is placed in the mould, it
b) Pouring temperature of molten metal core sand should be of higher strength than the should
h ld beb able
bl to resist the
h metall pressure acting on
moulding sand. it.
c)) Finish of the mould
y Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is
d) Carbon content of molten metal surrounded all around it is desirable that the core
material should have higher refractoriness.
Contd…
y Then,, the p
permeabilityy number,, R is obtained byy
VH y Calculate the permeability number of sand if it takes 1 min
y Permeability: Gases evolving from the molten metal R= 25 s to pass 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of5 g/cm2 through
and generated from the mould may have to go pAT
the standard sample.
through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence Where V= volume of air = 2000 cm3
cores are required to have higher permeability.
permeability H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm p = 5.0 g / cm 2
y Permeability Number: The rate of flow of air passing
p , g/ 2
p = air pressure, g/cm
p T = 1 min 25 s = 1.417
1 417 min
through
th h a standard
t d d specimen
i under
d a standard
t d d pressure is
i
termed as permeability number. A = cross sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2 501.28
R= = 70.75
y The
Th standard
d d permeability
bili test is
i to measure time
i T time in minutes for the complete air to pass through
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pass through 5 × 1.417
1 417
taken by a 2000 cu cm of air at a pressure typically of
Inserting the above standard values into the
980
8 PaP (10 / 2),
( g/cm ) to pass through
h h a standard
d d sand d
expression, we get
specimen confined in a specimen tube. The standard 501.28
specimen
i size
i isi 50.8
8 mm in
i diameter
di and
d a length
l h off R=
p.T240
50.8 mm. For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 7 of Rev.0
IES 2007 y Friability: The ability to crumble should be a very
important consideration at the time of removal.
What is permeability? Permeability is more important y Collapsibility:
p y At the time of cooling,
g, casting
g shrinks,, and
in the basic process of sand casting than porosity. Give y Smoothness: Surface of the core should be smooth
unless the core has good collapsibility (ability to decrease
one important reason for this feature.
i t t f thi f t f good
for d finish
fi i h to
t the
th casting.
ti
in size) it is likely to provide resistance against shrinkage
[2 marks] y Low Gas Emission
and thus can cause hot tears.
C S d
Core Sands C b Di id M ldi
Carbon Dioxide Moulding
y The compressive strength of the bond increases with
y Sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2:Na2O) is used as a binder.
y Used
d clay
l free
f silica
l sand.
d This is essentially a quick process of core or mould standing time due to dehydration.
p p
preparation.
y Binders used are linseed oil,
oil core oil,
oil resins,
resins dextrin,
dextrin y Because of the high strength of the bond, the core need not
y The mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and
molasses, etc. sand and then treated with carbon dioxide for two to three be p
provided with anyy other reinforcements.
minutes such that a dry compressive strength of over 1.4
y Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and MPa is arrived. y It does not involve any distortions due to baking and also
petroleum oils and coal tar. y The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid, which better dimensional accuracies are achieved.
hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica,
y The general composition of a core sand mixture could which forms the bond. y The
Th sand
d mixture
i d
does not have
h good
d shelf
h lf life
lif and
d
be core oil (1%) and water (2.5

(2 5 to 6%).
6%) y The introduction of CO2 g gas starts the reaction byy forming
g therefore should be used immediatelyy after p
preparation.
p
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O).
Contd…
IES‐2002 GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE – 2008 (PI) GATE‐2014
Assertion (A): In CO2 casting process,
process the mould or g of a hollow p
In sand casting part of lead,, a cylindrical
y core
An
A aluminium
l i i alloy
ll (density
(d i 2600 ) casting
i is
i to be
b
core attains maximum strength. of diameter 120 mm and height 180 mm is placed inside
Reason (R): The optimum gassing time of CO2 produced. A cylindrical
p y hole of 100 mm diameter and
through the mould or core forms Silica Gel which the mould cavity. The densities of core material and lead
100 mm length is made in the casting using sand core
imparts sufficient strength to the mould or core.
core are 1600 kg/m3 and 11,300
11 300 kg/m3 respectively.
respecti el The net (density 1600 ). The net buoyancy force (in Newton)
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A force ((in N)) that tends to lift the core during
gppouring
g of acting on the core is ……………..
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the molten metal will be
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (a) 19.7 (b) 64.5 (c) 193.7 (d) 257.6
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
M ldi S d C
Moulding Sand Composition
iti Oth Additi
Other Additives M ldi S d P
Moulding Sand Properties
ti
y Sand:
S d Ordinary
O di silica
ili Sand
S d (SiO2),
) zircon,
i or olivine
li i y Porosity or Permeability: Permeability or porosity of
y Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
the moulding sand is the measure of its ability to
sands. permit air to flow through it.
it
y Pitch
Pit h if used
d up to
t 3%
% would
ld improve
i th hot
the h t
y Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the moulding y Strength: It is defined as the property of holding
strength.
g
t th off sand
together d grains.
i A moulding
ldi sand
d should
h ld have
h
sands ample strength so that the mould does not collapse or
y Saw dust up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O), and gett partially
ti ll destroyed
d t d during
d i conveying,
i t
turning
i over
slowly burning, and increase the permeability. or closing.
B
Bentonite
i (Al2O3 4SiO
SiO2 H2O nH
H2O).
O) y Other materials: sea coal, asphalt, fuel oil, graphite, y Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding sand
mixture to withstand the heat of melt without showing
y Water: Clay is activated by water.
water molasses iron oxide,
molasses, oxide etc.
etc any signs of softening or fusion.
Contd…
y Plasticity: It is the measure of the moulding sand to flow Oth S d

Other Sands IES‐2008
around and over a pattern during ramming and to uniformly y Facing
g sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
fill the flask. material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
y Collapsibility: This is the ability of the moulding sand to cavityy to g
give a better surface finish to the castings.
g Small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled
decrease in volume to some extent under the compressive y Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the on the inner surface of mould cavity is called
forces developed by the shrinkage of metal during freezing
p y g g g refractory material found in the mould.mould This is made
and subsequent cooling. up of used and burnt sand. (a) Backing sand
y Adhesiveness: This is the property of sand mixture to
p p y y Green Sand: The molding sand that contains
adhere to another body (here, the moulding flasks). The ( ) Facing sand
(b)
moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
moulding sand should cling to the sides of the moulding
g g g
should have enough strength so that the constructed (c) Green sand
boxes so that it does not fall out when the flasks are lifted
and turned over. This property depends on the type and
mould retains its shape.
(d) Dry sand
amount of binder used in the sand mix. y Dry
D sand: d When
Wh the th moisture
i t i the
in th moulding
ldi sand d is
i
completely expelled, it is called dry sand.
Grain size number IES‐2002
y ASTM (American
( Society for Testing and Materials)) In the grain ‐size determination using standard
grain size number, defined as
n-1
charts, the relation between the given size
N 2
number n and the average number of grains 'N'
y Where N is the number of grains per square inch
visible in a prepared specimen at 100X and n is the per square inch at a magnification of 100 X is
ASTM
S Mg grain‐size
a s e number.
u be .
( ) N = 2n
(a)
y Low ASTM numbers mean a few massive grains; high
numbers refer to many small grains.
grains (b) N = 2n‐l
(c) N = 2n + 1
S d Sli
Sand Slinger
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) (d) N = 2n + 1 Page 9 of 240 Rev.0
Casting Yield Gating System
Gating System
The casting yield is the proportion of the actual
g , , p
casting mass, w, to the mass of metal poured into the
mould, W, expressed as a percentage.
w
Casting yield = × 100
W
Contd…
Gating System
Gating System y Runner: A runner is commonly a horizontal channel
y Ingate: A channel through which the molten metal
y Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the
which connects the sprue with gates, thus allowing the enters the mould cavity.
top of the mould into which the molten metal is
poured. molten metal to enter the mould cavity.
cavity The runners y Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape
p g p
of air and gases.
are of larger cross‐section and often streamlined to
y Sprue:
S Th passage through
The th h which
hi h the
th molten
lt metal,
t l
from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In slow down and smooth out the flow, and are designed
many cases it controls
t l the
th flow
fl off metal
t l into
i t the
th to provide approximately uniform flow rates to the
mould.
various parts of the mould cavity.
cavity Runners are
commonly made trapezoidal in cross‐section.
Contd… Contd…
fG
Types of Gate or In‐gate IES 2011 G
GATE – 20 0 ( )
2010 (PI)
Top
T gate: Causes
C turbulence
b l in
i the
h mould
ld cavity,
i it i is
i prone In light metal casting,
casting runner should be so designed During
D i the
h filling
filli process off a given
i sand
d mould
ld cavity
i byb
that:
to form dross,, favourable temperature
p gradient towards the
g molten metal through a horizontal runner of circular cross‐
1. It avoids
id aspiration
i ti
gate, only for ferrous alloys. section the frictional head loss of the molten metal in the
2. It avoids turbulence
runner will increase with the
Bottom gate: No mould erosion, used for very deep moulds, 3. The path of runner is reduced in area so that
higher pouring time,
time Causes unfavourable temperature
q
unequal volume of flow throughg each g
gate (a) increase in runner diameter
takes place (b) decrease in internal surface roughness of runner
gradients.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
Parting Gate: most widely used gate, easiest and most (c) decrease in length of runner
economical in preparation. (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) increase in average velocity of molten metal
Step Gate: Used for heavy and large castings, size of ingates
are normally increased from top to bottom.
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES‐1998 GATE‐2002
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the lists : A sand casting mould
assembly is shown in The primary purpose of a sprue in a casting
List –I List –II
the above figure. The mould
ou d iss to
A. Top gate 1. Heavy and large castings elements marked A (a)Feed the casting at a rate consistent with the rate
B. Bottom gate
g 2. Most widely used and economical
y and B are respectively of solidification
C. Parting gate 3. Turbulence (a) Sprue and riser (b)Act as a reservoir for molten metal
(b) Ingate
I t andd riser
i ( ) d molten
(c)Feed l metall from
f the
h pouring
i basin
b i to theh
D. Step gate 4. Unfavourable temperature gradient
(c) Drag and runner gate
Codes
C d
(d) Riser and runner (d)Help feed the casting until all solidification takes
A B C D A B C D place
( ) 3
(a) 4 2 1 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 1 2 4 3
Th
The goals for the gating system
l f th ti t IES 1998
IES‐1998 IES‐2009
y To
T minimize
i i i turbulence
t b l to
t avoid
id trapping
t i gasses into
i t Which of the following are the requirements of an ideal Consider the following statements:
C id th f ll i t t t
the mold gating system?
1.The actual entry point through which the molten
1 The molten metal should enter the mould cavity with as
1.
y To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal enters the mould cavity is called ingate.
high a velocity as possible.
metal starts to solidify 2.Bottom gate in case of a mould creates unfavourable
g
2 It should facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity.
2. It should facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity
y To avoid shrinkage temperature gradient.
3. It should be able to prevent the absorption of air or gases
y Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the from the surroundings on the molten metal while 3.Sprue in case of a mould is made tapered to avoid air
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must flowing through it. inclusion.
be in the gating system not in the required cast part. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Which of the above statements is/are correct?
y Incorporates a system for trapping the non‐metallic (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
inclusions.
inclusions
T
Types of Gating Systems
f G ti S t P
Pressurized Gating System
i d G ti S t U P i d G ti S t
Un‐Pressurized Gating System
y The total cross sectional area decreases towards the y The total cross sectional area increases towards the
The gating systems are of two types: mold cavity
mold cavity
y Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the
y Pressurized gating system metal flow y Restriction only
y at the bottom of sprue
p
y Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
y Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
y Un‐pressurized gating system
U i d i y Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the
sprue always runs full y Aspiration in the gating system as the system never
y Because
B off the
h restrictions
i i the
h metall flows
fl at high
hi h runs full
velocity leading to more turbulence and chances of
mold
ld erosion.
i y Less
L turbulence.
b l
Sprue Design Since the velocities are proportional to the square of
y Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten p ,
the potential heads, as can be derived from
metal is brought into the parting plane where it enters the Bernoulli's equation,
runners and ggates to ultimatelyy reach the mould cavity.
y
hc
y The molten metal when moving from the top of the cope to At = Ac
ht
the p
partinggpplane g
gains in velocityy and some low‐pressure
p
area would be created around the metal in the sprue.
y Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air would The exact tapering can be obtained by the equation of
be breathed into this low‐pressure area which would then continuity. Denoting the top and choke sections of The sprue by
be carried to the mould cavity.
y the subscripts’t’ and 'c' respectively, we get
Where H = actual
h l
y To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is
sprue height
tapered
p to g
graduallyy reduce the cross section as it moves Vc
A t Vt = A c Vc At = Ac and ht = h + H
away from the top of the cope as shown in Figure below (b). Vt
Contd… Contd…
GATE 2007
GATE‐2007
GATE‐2001 A 200 mm long g down sprue p has an area of cross
section of 650 mm2 where the pouring basin meets the
The height of the down‐sprue is 175 mm and its
p
down sprue ((i.e. at the beginning
g g of the down sprue).
p )
cross‐sectional
ti l area att the
th base
b i 200 mm2. The
is Th
A constant head of molten metal is maintained by the
cross‐sectional area of the horizontal runner is
pouring
p g basin. The Molten metal flow rate is 6.55 × 105
l 200 mm2. Assuming
also A i no losses,
l i di t the
indicate th 3
mm /s. Considering the end of down sprue to be open
correct choice for the time (in seconds) required to
p
to atmosphere and an acceleration due to g gravityy of
fill a mould cavity
ca it of volume
olume 1006 mm3. (Use g = 100
2 104mm/s2, the area of the down sprue in mm2 at its end
m/s ).
((avoidingg aspiration
p effect)) should be
( )
(a)2.67 (b)
(b)8.45 ( )
(c)26.72 (d)
(d)84.50
(a)650.0 (b)350.0 (c)290.7 (d)190.0
Contd…
G ti
Gating ratio
ti IES‐2003 IES‐2005
A gating
ti ratio
ti off 1: 2: 4 is
i used
d to
t design
d i the
th gating
ti
y Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area: Runner area:
system for magnesium alloy casting. This gating ratio The gating ratio 2: 8: 1 for copper in gating system
Ingate area.
area refers to the cross∙ section areas of the various gating d i refers
design f tot the
th ratio
ti off areas of:
f
elements as given below:
y For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio of 1: 2: 2 or (a) Sprue: Runner: Ingate
1
1. Down sprue 2. 2 Runner bar 3.
3 Ingates
1: 2: 1.5 will produce castings nearly free from erosion, (b) Runner: Ingate: Sprue
The correct sequence of the above elements in the
ratio 1: 2: 4 is ((c)) Runner: Sprue:
p Ingate
g
will minimize oxidation, and will produce uniform
ill i i i id i d ill d if
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Ingate: Runner: Sprue
flow.
(b) 1,3 and d2
y A gating ratio of 1: 4: 4 might favour the formation of (c) 2, 3 and 1
oxidation defects. (d) 3, 1 an 2
GATE‐2010 IAS‐1999 Ri
Risers and Riser Design
d Ri D i
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) The
Th rate off flow
fl off metall through
h h sprue y Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid
is NOT a function of the cross‐sectional areas of metal to the solidifying casting as a means of
In a gating system, the ratio 1:2:4 represents sprue runner and gate.
sprue, gate compensating for solidification shrinkage.
(a) Sprue base area: runner area: ingate area Reason (R): If respective cross‐sectional areas of y To perform this function, the risers must solidify after
p
sprue,, runner and g gate are in the ratio of 1: 2: 2,, the the casting.
casting
(b) Pouring basin area : ingate area : runner area system is known as unpressurised gating system.
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct y According to Chvorinov's rule, a good shape for a riser
(c) Sprue base area : ingate area : casting area explanation of A would
ld be
b one that
th t has
h a long
l f
freezing
i time
ti (i
(i.e., a small
ll
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the surface area per unit volume).
(d) Runner area : ingate
R i area : casting area
i correct explanation
l i off A y Live risers (also known as hot risers) receive the last
(c) A is true but R is false hot metal that enters the mold and generally do so at a
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true time when the metal in the mold cavity has already
begun to cool and solidify.
Types of Risers
IES 1994
IES‐1994 Ch i
Chvorinov’s
’ rule
l
Assertion (A): In a mould, a riser is designed and placed y Total solidification time (ts) = B (V/A) n
so that the riser will solidify after the casting has solidified.
where n = 1.5 to 2.0
Reason (R): A riser is a reservoir of molten metal which
[Wh
[Where, B = mould constant and is a function of (mould
B ld d i f i f ( ld
will supply molten metal where a shrinkage cavity would
have occurred. material, casting material, and condition of casting]
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct n = 2 and triser = 1.25 tcasting
explanation
p of A 2 2
⎛V⎞ ⎛V⎞
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the or ⎜A⎟ = 1.25 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠riser ⎝ A ⎠casting
correct explanation
p of A
(c) A is true but R is false
For cylinder V = πD2H / 4
( )
(d) A is false but R is true of diameter D
f di D 2
A = πDH + 2 πD
and height H 4
IES 2011 IES 1998

IES‐1998 GATE 2013 Same Question (PI)
GATE‐2013
The relationship between total freezing time t,
t A spherical drop of molten metal of radius 2 mm A cube
b shaped
h d casting
ti solidifies
lidifi in
i 5 min.
i The
Th
volume of the casting V and its surface area A,
g to Chvorinov’s rule is :
according was found to solidify in 10 seconds. A similar drop of solidification time in min for a cube of the same
radius 4 mm would solidify in material, which is 8 times heavier than the original
⎛V ⎞
(a ) t = k ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A ⎠
(a) 14.14 seconds casting, will be
⎛ A ⎞
(b ) t = k ⎜ ⎟
⎝V ⎠ (b) 20 seconds
d
2
( ) 10
(a) (b) 20 ( ) 24
(c) (d) 40
⎛ A ⎞
(c ) t = k ⎜ ⎟
⎝V ⎠ (c) 28.30
28 30 seconds
2
⎛V ⎞
(d ) t = k ⎜ ⎟ (d) 4
40 seconds
⎝ A ⎠
Where K is a constant
GATE‐2014
GATE‐2014 (PI) GATE‐2003
A cylindrical riser of 6 cm diameter and 6 cm height has
For a given volume of a riser, if the solidification
to be designed for a sand casting mould for producing a
With a solidification factor of 0.97 x 106 s/m2, the
time of the molten metal in riser needs to be
steel rectangular plate casting of 7 cm × 10 cm × 2 cm
solidification time (in seconds) for a spherical
quadrupled, the surface area of the riser should be
dimensions having the total solidification time of 1.36
1 36
casting of 200 mm diameter is
made
minute. The total solidification time (in minute) of the
( ) 539
(a) (b) 1078
8 ( ) 4311
(c) (d) 3233
(a) one‐fourth (b) half riser is ……..
(c) double (d) four times
IES‐2006 GATE – 2010 (PI) GATE‐2007

Solidification
S lidifi ti time
ti off a metallic
t lli alloy
ll casting
ti isi
According to Chvorinov's equation, the
Volume of a cube of side 'l' and volume of a sphere of
solidification
lidifi ti time
ti off a casting
ti isi proportional
ti l to:
t (a) Directly proportional to its surface area
radius ‘r’ are equal. Both the cube and the sphere are solid
(a) v2 (b) Directlyy p
proportional
p to the specific
p heat of the
and
d off same material.
t i l They
Th are being
b i cast.
t The
Th ratio
ti off the
th
cast material
(b) v p
solidification time of the cube to the same of the sphere is:
(c) Directly proportional to the thermal diffusivity of 3 6 2 2 3 2 4
⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞ 4π ⎞⎛ r ⎞ 4π ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞ 4π ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
(c) 1/v (a ) ⎜ 6 ⎟ ⎜l⎟ ( b ) ⎛⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ( c ) ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ( d ) ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
the
h molten
l metall ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝l⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝l⎠
(d) 1/v2
(d)Inversely proportional to the pouring
Where, v = volume of casting
temperature.
GATE 2011 (PI)

GATE ‐2011 (PI) GATE‐2009 (PI)
In a sand casting process,
process a sphere and a cylinder of A solid
l d cylinder
l d off diameter
d D and
d height
h h equall to D, and
d a solid
ld
equal volumes are separately cast from the same molten cube of side L are being sand cast by using the same material.
Assuming there is no superheat in both the cases, the ratio of
metal under identical conditions. The height and
solidification time of the cylinder to the solidification time of the
diameter of the cylinder are equal. The ratio of the cube is
solidification time of the sphere to that of the cylinder is (a) (L/D)2
(b) (2L/D)2
((a)) 1.14
4 ((b)) 0.877
(c) (2D/L)2
(c) 1.31 (d) 0.76
(d) (D/L)2
IES 2012
IES ‐ IES 2011 Conventional
IES 2011 Conventional
y A round casting is 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm in Conventional Question ESE 2003
The ratio of surface area of volume for a unit volume of
Th ti f f f l f it l f
length. Another casting of the same metal is elliptical in
riser is minimum in case of Compare the solidification time of two optimum side –
cross section,
i with
i h a major
j to minor
i axis
i ratio
i off 2, and
d
(a) Cylindrical riser has the same length and cross
cross‐sectional
sectional area as the risers of the same volume with one has cylindrical shape
(b) Spherical riser round casting. Both pieces are cast under the same and other is parallopiped. [30 Marks]
(c) Hemispherical riser conditions. What is the difference in the solidification
(d) Cuboids riser times
i off the
h two castings
i ? [ – Marks]
[10 M k ]
Area of ellipse = π ab
Ci
Circumference
f = π ⎡3 ( a + b ) − ( 3a + b )( a + 3b ) ⎦⎤
⎣
= 2π (a 2
+ b2 ) / 2 (approx.)
GATE‐2014 M d l M th d
Modulus Method
A cylindrical
li d i l blind
bli d riser
i with
ith diameter
di t d and d height
h i ht h,
h is
i y It has
h been
b empirically
i i ll established
t bli h d that
th t if the
th modulus
d l
placed on the top of the mold cavity of a closed type of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting
g byy a
sandd moldld as shown
h i the
in th figure.
fi If the
th riser
i i off
is
factor of 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be π D2
constant volume, then the rate of solidification in the + π D2
riser
i is i the
th least
l t when
h theth ratio
ti h : d is
i 4
satisfactory.
f
Sprue basin
d MR = 1.2
1 2 Mc
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 y Modulus = volume/Surface area

Riser h
(c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1 y In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a
Mold cavity riser with a height‐to‐diameter ratio of 1.
Contd…
C i ’ Method
Caine’s M th d
Q
Conventional Question IES‐2008 Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to
y Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter
the riser. A ( V)
X= Casting
equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of dimensions ( AV ) Riser

30 x 30 x 6 cm with a side riser,
riser casting poured horizontally Th i h ld lidif l
The riser should solidify last so x > 1
into the mould.
a
According to Caine X = +c
[Use Modulus Method] Y−b
[ 0 ‐ Marks]
[10 V riser
Y = and a, b, c are constant.
Vcasting

Table: Constants in Caine’s Method Chills
Chill
Q
Conventional Question IES‐2007 y External chills are masses of high‐heat‐capacity,
g p y, high‐thermal‐
g
y Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and conductivity material that are placed in the mould (adjacent to
the casting) to accelerate the cooling of various regions.
diameter equal)) necessary to feed a steel slab Chills can effectively promote directional solidification or
increase the effective feeding distance of a riser. They can often
casting of dimensions 25 x 25 x 5 cm with a side b used
be d to reduce
d the
h number
b off risers
i required
i d for
f a casting.
i
riser, casting poured horizontally into the mould. y Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed within the
mould cavity to absorb heat and promote more rapid
[Use Caine’s Method] solidification. Since some of this metal will melt during the
operation,
ope at o , itt w
will abso
absorb
b not
ot o
onlyy tthee heat‐capacity
eat capac ty eenergy,
e gy, but
[ For steel a = 0.10, b = 0.03 and c = 1.00 ] also some heat of fusion. Since they ultimately become part of
the final casting, internal chills must be made from the same
alloy as that being cast.
IES‐1995 GATE‐1998,2007, 2014(PI) IAS 1994

Chills are used in casting moulds to
Directional solidification in castings can be Chills are used in moulds to (a) Achieve directional solidification
improved by using (b) Reduce possibility of blow holes
(a) Achieve directional solidification
(c) Reduce the freezing time
(a) Chills and chaplets (b) Reduce the possibility of blowholes (d) Increase the smoothness of cast surface
( ) Chills and padding
(b) (c) Reduce freezing time
(c) Chaplets and padding (d) Smoothen
S h metall flow
fl for
f reducing
d i splatter.
l
(d) Chills, chaplets and padding.
Cupola IES 2012

IES ‐
y Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for IES‐1997
melting cast iron.
iron Statement ((I):) Cupola
C p p y
furnace is not employed for
Assertion (A):
( ) Steell can be
b melted
l d in hot
h blast
bl cupola.
l melting steel in foundry
y In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to preheat the Reason (R): In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the Statement ((II):) The temperatures
p generated within a
g
preheat the air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
furnace is considerably higher than that in a the furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola.
cupola Coke is fuel and Lime stone ((a)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are
conventional
i l cupola.
l
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
(CaCO3) is mostly used flux. (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
y Cost
C off melting
l i low.
l explanation
l i off A (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
y Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
produce iron below 2.8% carbon. correct explanation
l i off A explanation of Statement (I)
y Steel can be also p prepared
p in cupola
p byy employing
p y g (c) A is true but R is false (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
duplexing and triplexing operations. (d) A is false but R is true (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Crucible Furnace or Pot Furnace Induction Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace y Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace. y The induction furnaces are used for all types of
y The crucible is g
generallyy heated byy electric resistance materials, the chief advantage being that the heat
y For heavy steel castings,
castings the
or gas flame. source is isolated from the charge and the slag and flux
open‐hearth type of furnaces get the necessary heat directly from the charge instead
with electric arc or oil fired of the heat source.
would be generally suitable in
view of the large heat required
for melting.
y Electric arc furnaces are more
suitable for ferrous materials and
are larger in capacity.
Casting Cleaning (fettling)
g g( g)
Ladles Impurities in the molten metal are prevented from reaching GATE‐1996
y yp g
the mould cavity by providing a
y Two types of ladles used in the pouring of castings. (i) Strainer
Light impurities in the molten metal are prevented
(ii) Bottom well f
from reaching
hi theth mouldld cavity
it by
b providing
idi a
(iii) Skim bob
(a) Strainer
(b) Button well
((c)) Skim bob
(d) All of the above
Pouring time
Pouring time GATE‐2005 GATE 2006
GATE‐2006
In a sand casting operation, the total liquid head is
Time taken to fill the mould with top gate maintained
i i d constant such h that
h it i is
i equall to the
h mouldld
Where A = Area of mould A mould has a downsprue whose length is 20 cm height. The time taken to fill the mould with a top gate
A.H
tA = H H i ht f
H = Height of mould
ld andd the
th cross sectional
ti l area att the
th base
b off the
th i tA. If the
is h same mould ld is
i filled
fill d with
i h a bottom
b gate,
A g 2gh m
Ag = Area of Gate downsprue is 1cm2. The downsprue feeds a then the time taken is tB. Ignore the time required to
Hm = Gate height h i
horizontal
t l runner leading
l di into
i t the
th mould ld cavity
it off fill the
h runner and d frictional
fi i l effects.
ff A
Assume
volume 1000 cm3. The time required to fill the atmospheric pressure at the top molten metal surfaces.
mould cavity
ca it will
ill be Th relation
The l i between
b tA andd tB is
i
Time taken to fill the mould with bottom gate
(a)4.05 s (b)5.05 s (c)6.05 s (d)7.25 s (A) tB = 2 t A
( )
2A (B) tB = 2 t A
tB = hm − hm − H tA
Ag 2g ((C)) tB =
2
(D) tB = 2 2 t A
GATE 2007 (PI) Linked S‐1
GATE – 2007 (PI) Li k d S 1 GATE 2007 (PI) Linked S‐2
GATE – 2007 (PI) Li k d S 2 Expression for choke area
In a sand casting process, a sprue of 10 mm base In a sand casting process, a sprue of 10 mm base m
diameter and 250 mm height leads to a runner diameter and 250 mm height leads to a runner CA = mm2
cρt 2gH
which fills a cubical mould cavity of 100 mm size which fills a cubical mould cavity of 100 mm size
The volume flow rate (in mm3/s) is The mould filling time (in seconds) is Where m = mass of the casting, kg
(a) 0.8 x 105 (b) 1.1 x 105 (a) 2.8 (b) 5.78 ρ = Density of metal, kg / m3
t = pouring time
p g
1 7 x 105
(c) 1.7 2 3 x 105
(d) 2.3 (c) 7.54
7 54 (d) 8.41
8 41
c = Efficiency factor and is the function of gate
system used
y
H = Effective head of liquid metal
= h for top gate
Contd…
H=h‐
H h
hm
for bottom gate
f b tt t
IES 2009 IAS‐2011 Main
2 y 2 marks
h2
Sketch a mould for two hollow components to be
=h‐ c for parting line gate
2hm cast. On the diagram, indicate runner, gate, riser,
core, cope, sprue, pouring basin, sprue well, drag,
parting line.
line
hC
hm
[
[10‐Marks]
]
hm hm
P i li
t t ti li t b tt t
top gate parting line gate bottom gate
C ti D f t
Casting Defects G D f t
Gas Defects
IES‐2013 The following are the major defects, which are likely to
Th f ll i th j d f t hi h lik l t y A condition existing in a casting caused by the
When an alloy solidifies over a range of occur in sand castings:
g trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases
evolved during the pouring of the casting.
temperature, the resulting casting structure is: y Gas defects y The defects in this category
g y can be classified into
(a) Wholly equi‐axed blowholes and pinhole porosity.
y Shrinkage cavities
y Blowholes
ow o es aaree sp
spherical
e ca oor eelongated
o gated cav
cavities
t es p
present
ese t
( ) Wholly columnar
(b) y Molding material defects in the casting on the surface or inside the casting.
(c) Partially columnar partially equi‐axed
equi axed y Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
y Pouring metal defects
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of
(d) Dendritic y Mold shift.
M ld hift molten metal.
metal
Shrinkage Cavities
Shrinkage Cavities Cut and washes
d h
y These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the
Molding Material Defects
solidification of the casting. y These
Th appear as rough
h spots
t and
d areas off excess metal,
t l and
d
y Cuts and washes, are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing
y To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
metal.
metal
required. For this reason risers are placed at the
appropriate places in the mold. y Scab y This is caused by the molding sand not having enough
strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
velocity
y Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the y Metal penetration,
proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. y The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of
molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the
y It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage y Fusion, and
proper design of the gating system.
cavities.
y Swell
S ll
Scab M t l
Metal penetration
t ti
y This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould
y When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand
Fusion
lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled by y This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with
grains, the result is a rough casting surface.
metal.
y This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was th molten
the lt metal,
t l giving
i i a brittle,
b ittl glassy
l appearance
y When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be
applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand
disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand,
grains more the metal p
g penetration. on the casting
g surface.
which
hi h is
i then
h washed
h d away and
d the
h resulting
l i cavity
i filled
fill d
with metal. y The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand
y The
Th reasons can be:b ‐ too fine
fi sand,d low
l permeability
bili off
sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven mould particles are of lower refractoriness or that the
ramming.
i pouring temperature is too high.
P i M t lD f t
Pouring Metal Defects y The mis‐run and cold shut defects are caused either by
Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold The likely defects in this category are a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section
wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension y Mis‐runs and thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be
off the
th casting.
ti A proper ramming
i off the
th moldld will
ill y Cold shuts improved by changing the composition of the metal
correct this defect. and by increasing the pouring temperature of the
metal.
metal
y A mis‐run is caused when the metal is unable to fill
Inclusions the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or cavities.
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification.
ldf The
h provision off choke
h k in the
h y A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
mold
ld can preventt this
thi defect
d f t forming a discontinuity in the casting.
casting
Contd…
GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 GATE‐2004 GATE‐2009
Match the casting defects (Group A) with the probable
causes (Group B): Two streams of liquid metal which are not hot
Group A Group B Misrun is a casting defect which occurs due to
P: Hot tears 1: Improper fusion of two streams of liquid enough
h to
t fuse
f properly
l result
lt into
i t a casting
ti defect
d f t
metal (a) Very high pouring temperature of the metal
known as
Q: Shrinkage 2: Low permeability of the sand mould (b) Insufficient fluidity of the molten metal
R: Blow holes 33: Volumetric contraction both in liquid
q and (a) Cold shut
solid stage (c) Absorption of gases by the liquid metal
(b) Swell
S: Cold Shut 4: Differential cooling rate
(d) Improper
I alignment
li off the
h mould
ld flasks
fl k
P Q R S P Q R S (c) Sand wash
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(d) Scab
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 1 2 4 3
Mold Shift
ld h f Metallurgical defects
Metallurgical defects
y Hot tears or hot cracking, cause of this defect is that
GATE‐2014
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag stresses and strains built up during solidification are too
high compared to the actual strength of the semisolid The hot tearing in a metal casting is due to
or molding
ldi boxes
b h
have nott been
b properly
l aligned.
li d material. This type of defects occurs in the lower part of
the solidification range, close to the solidus, when the (a) high fluidity
alloy has a wide solidification temperature range and a
(b) high melt temperature
small amount of liquid, when the solid fraction is more
than 0.9, the hot tearing is easy to occur. Proper mould (c) wide range of solidification temperature
design prevents this type of defect.
y Hot spots are areas on the surface of casting that (d) low
l coefficient
ffi i off thermal
h l expansion
i
become veryy hard because theyy cooled more q quicklyy
than the surrounding material.
IES‐2001 IAS‐2004 GATE‐2003

Match List‐I (Casting Defects) with List‐II (Explanation) and select the correct
Match List I (Casting Defects) with List II (Explanation) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists: Hardness of green sand mould increases with
List‐I List‐II
Scab is a (Casting Defects) (Explanation) (a) Increase in moisture content beyond 6 percent
y p
A. Metallic projections 1. Consist of rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities
including blow holes and pin holes (b) Increase in permeability
(a) Sand casting defect B. Cavities 2. Formed during melting, solidification and moulding.
C. Inclusions 3. Includes single folds, laps, scars adhering sand layers and (c) Decrease in permeability
(b) Machining defect oxide scale
(d) Increase in both moisture content and
D. Discontinuities 4. Include cracks, cold or hot tearing and cold shuts
5.Consist of fins, flash or massive projections and rough
Consist of fins flash or massi e projections and rough permeability
bilit
(c) Welding defect surfaces
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 5 3 2 (b) 1 5 2 4
(d) Forging defect
F i d f (c) 5 1 2 4 (d) 5 1 3 2

IES‐1998 IES‐2005 IES‐1997
Assertion (A): Stiffening members, such as webs
A i (A) S iff i b h b In gating system design, which one of the If the melting ratio of a cupola is 10: 1, then the
and ribs, used on a casting should be liberally following is the correct sequence in which choke coke requirement for one ton melt will be
provided
provided. area, pouring time, pouring basin and sprue sizes (a) 0.1 ton
Reason (R): They will provide additional strength are calculated?
to a cast member.
to a cast member (b) 10 tons
(a) Choke area ‐ Pouring time ‐ Pouring basin – Sprue (c) 1 ton
correct explanation of A (b) Pouring basin ‐
ou g bas Sprue
Sp ue ‐ C
Choke area ‐
o e a ea Pouring time
ou g t e (d) 11 tons
t
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (c) Choke area ‐ Sprue ‐ Pouring basin ‐ Pouring time
correct explanation of A (d) Pouring basin ‐
P i b i Pouring time ‐
P i ti Choke area ‐
Ch k Sprue
S
A i f l b t R i t
IES‐2009 IAS‐2001 IAS‐2004

In which one of the following furnaces most of the Which of the following pattern‐materials are used Which one of the following gating systems is best
non‐ferrous alloys are melted? in Precision Casting? suited to obtain directional solidification?
(a) Reverberatory furnace 1. Plaster of Paris (a) Top grating
(b) Induction furnace 2. Plastics (b) Part
Part‐line grating
line grating
(c) Crucible furnace 3. Anodized Aluminium Alloy (c) Bottom grating
(d) Pot
P t furnace
f 4. Frozen Mercury
F M (d) Stepped grating
St d ti
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4 (c)3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
Cast Aluminium Code

Cast Aluminium Code C l i i C d
Cast Aluminium Code
y Four digit identification system
Contd..
IES 2011
y Second two digits identify the aluminium alloy or In the designation of Aluminium casting A514.0
A514 0
y First digit indicates alloy group indicate the aluminium purity. indicates :
1 – Aluminium, 99% or more
, 99 y The last digit is separating from the other three by a ( ) Aluminium
(a) Al i i purity
it
2 – copper decimal point and indicates the product form; that is, (b) Aluminium content
3 Silicon, with copper and/or magnesium
3 – Silicon with copper and/or magnesium castings or ingots
(c) Percentage of alloy element
4 – silicon y A modification of the original alloy is indicated by a
(d) Magnesium Content
5 – magnesium serial
i l letter
l tt before
b f th numerical
the i l designation.
d i ti
6 – not used y Alloy A514.0 indicates an aluminium alloy casting with
magnesium as the principal alloy. One modification to A
Ans. (d)
7 – zinc
the original alloy has made, as indicated by the letter A.
8 tin
8 –
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
9 – other elements Page 21 of 240 Rev.0
Shell Moulding
y Can produce complex parts.
y The sand is mixed with a thermosetting resin is
allowed to come in contact with a heated metal pattern y A good
d surface
f fi i h and
finish d good
d size
i t l
tolerance
Special Casting (2000C).
y A skin
ki (shell)
( h ll) off about
b 3.5 mm off sand
mixture adhere to the pattern.
d and
d plastic
l i
reduce the need for machining.
g
y Materials can be cast: CI, Al and Cu alloys.

y Then the shell is removed from the pattern.
y The cope
p and drag g shells are kept
p in a flask with
necessary backup material and the molten metal is
poured into the mold.
p
By S K Mondal
Molding Sand in Shell Molding y Hot coating: the mixture is heated to 150oC– 180oC prior
y The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand to loading the sand. In the course of sand mixing, the
and
d powdered
d d bakelite.
b k li soluble phenol formaldehyde resin is added.
added The mixer is
allowed to cool up to 80 – 90o C. Hot coting gives better
y Cold coating and Hot coating methods are used for
properties to the mixtures than cold method.
coating the sand grains with bakelite.
y Cold coating: quartz sand is poured into the mixer and

th the
then th solution
l ti off powdered
d d bakelite
b k lit in
i acetone
t and
d
ethyl aldehyde are added. (mixture is 92% quartz sand,
Shell moulding process
h ll ldi
5% bakelite, 3% ethylaldehyde )
Contd…
Ad t
Advantages Li it ti
Limitations
y Expensive pattern
Applications
y Dimensional
Di i l accuracy.
y Smoother surface finish.

finish (Due to finer size grain used) y Small size casting
g only.
y y Cylinders and cylinder heads for air‐ cooled IC
y Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.

engines
y Very
y thin sections can be cast.
y Automobile transmission parts.
y Very small amount of sand is needed. y More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling
the shell moldings. y Piston rings

IES 2010
IES 2010 IES‐1996
Consider the following advantages of shell
IES‐2005
Consider the following ingredients used in In shell moulding, how can the shell thickness
I h ll ldi h th h ll thi k
mould casting: moulding: be accurately maintained?
1. Close dimensional tolerance.
Cl di i l t l 1. Dry silica sand ( )
(a) By controlling the time during which the pattern
2. Good surface finish. 2.Clay is in contact with mould
(b) By controlling the time during which the pattern
3. Low cost. 3.Phenol formaldehyde
is heated
4. Easier.
E i 4.Sodium
S di silicate
ili t
(c) By maintaining the temperature of the pattern in
Which of these are correct? Those used for shell mould casting include
the range of 175oC
C – 380oC
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) By the type of binder used
((c)) 1and 3 ((d)) 1,, 2,, 3 and 4
( )
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only ( )
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES‐2006 IES 2007 IAS‐2007

Shell moulding can be used for: The mould in shell moulding process is made up
(a) Producing milling cutters
g g Which of the following are employed in shell
moulding?
ldi ? off which
hi h off the
th following?
f ll i ?
(b) Making gold ornaments
1. Resin binder 2. Metal pattern 3. Heating coils
(c) Producing heavy and thick walled casting (a) Gypsum + setting agents
Select the correct answer using the code given
(d) Producing thin casting below: (b) Green sand + clayy
(c) Sodium silicate + dried sand
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,
1 2 and 3
(d) Dried silica + phenolic resin
IAS‐1999 I t t C ti
Investment Casting
Match
M t h List
Li t I (Moulding
(M ldi Process)
P ) with
ith List
Li t II (Binding
(Bi di Investment casting process or lost wax process
Agent) and select the correct answer using the codes Basic steps:
given below the lists:
g 1 Produce expendable wax,
1. wax plastic,
plastic or polystyrene patterns.
patterns
List I List II
2. Assemble these patterns onto a gating system
A. Green sand 1. Silicate
3 Investing or covering the pattern assembly with refractory
3.
B. Core sand 2. Organic
slurry
C. Shell moulding 3. Clay
4 Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
4.
D CO2
D. CO process 4. Plaster
Pl off Paris
P i
5. Plastic 5. Firing the mould to remove the last traces of the pattern
Codes:A B C D A B C D material
(a) 3 2 5 1 (b) 3 2 4 1 6. Pouring molten metal
(c) 2 3 5 4 (d) 2 3 4 5 7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
Fig. Investment flask‐casting procedure
Ceramic Shell Investment Casting
IES 2009
y In ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is y 2 marks
built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a
pattern into a slurry (refractory material such as
zircon with binder).
y After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the

assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry before the next
coating is applied.
applied
Advantages Limitations Applications

y Tight dimensional tolerances
y Costly patterns and moulds y Aerospace and rocket components.
y Excellent surface finish (1.2 3 0 μm )
(1 2 to 3.0
y Labour costs can be high y Vanes and blades for gas turbines.
y Machining
g can be reduced or completely
p y
eliminated y Limited size y Surgical instruments
y High melting point alloy can be cast, almost any

metal can be cast
y Almost unlimited intricacy
y
IES 2011 GATE‐2006 GATE‐2011 (PI)

The proper sequence of investment casting steps is :
(a) Slurry coating – pattern melt out‐Shakeout – Stucco An expendable pattern is used in Which of the following casting processes uses
coating
ti ( ) Slush
(a) l h casting
(b) Stucco coating – Slurry coating – Shakeout – Pattern expendable pattern and expendable mould?
(b) Squeeze casting
melt out (c) Centrifugal casting (a) Shell mould casting
(c) Slurryy coating
g – Stucco coating
g – Pattern melt out – (d) Investment casting
Shakeout ( ) Investment casting
(b)
(d) Stucco coating – Shakeout – Slurry coating – Pattern (c) Pressure die casting
melt out
(d) Centrifugal casting
IES‐1992 20 0
JWM 2010
ISRO‐2010 The most preferred process for casting gas turbine
g
Consider the following materials :
1. Wax
Investment casting is used for blades is:
2 Wood
2. Wood
(a) Shapes which are made by difficulty using complex (a) Die moulding
3. Plastic
patterns
tt i sand
in d casting
ti (b) Shell moulding
Which of these materials can be used as pattern in
(c) Investment moulding
(b) Mass production
p investment casting process ?
(d) Sand casting
S d ti
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) Shapes which are very complex and intricate and
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
can't be cast by any other method
(d) There is nothing like investment casting
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 2007
IES 2007 IES‐2006
( ) The investment casting
Assertion (A): g is used for Consider the following statements in respect of
precision parts such as turbine plates, sewing investment castings: Which of the following materials are used for
machines etc. 1. The pattern or patterns is/are not joined to a stalk or making patterns in investment casting method?
sprue also of wax to form a tree of patterns. 1. Wax 2. Rubber 3. Wood 4. Plastic
Reason (R): The investment castings have a good
surface finish and are exact reproductions of the 2.The prepared moulds are placed in an oven and heated Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
gently to dry off the invest and melt out the bulk of wax.
master pattern. (a) Only 1 and 3 (b) Only 2 and 3
3.The moulds are usually poured by placing the moulds in
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the ( ) Only
(c) O l 1, 2 andd4 (d) Only
O l 2, 3 and d4
a vacuum chamber. Which of the statements given above
correct explanation of A are correct?
(b) Both
B th A and d R are individually
i di id ll true
t b t R is
but i NOT the
th (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
correct explanation of A (c)2 and 3 onlyy (d) 1, 2 and 3
IAS‐1996 Permanent Mould Casting Advantages

Light and intricate parts with close dimensional
y The process in which we use a die to make the y Good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
tolerances of the order of ± 0.005 mm are
castings is called permanent mold casting or gravity y Metal
M l mold
ld gives
i rapid
id cooling
li and
d fine‐grain
fi i
produced by
die casting, since the metal enters the mold under structure
(a) Investment castingg gravity.
gravity
(b) Die casting y Multiple‐use molds.
y Some time in die‐casting we inject the molten metal
(c) Centrifugal casting with a high pressure.
pressure When we apply pressure in
(d) Shell mould casting injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting
process.
process
y Grey cast iron is used for mould material.

IES 2013
IES‐2013
Disadvantages Applications Statement (I): Mould walls of a permanent mould are
kept thick.
thick
y High initial mold cost Statement (II): The thicker mould walls retain
y Pistons/cylinders/rods
y Shape,
Shape size
size, and complexity are limited maximum
i h
heat i
increasing
i flow
fl off molten
l metal.
l
y Mold life is very limited with high‐melting‐point y Gears
metals such as steel.
steel (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
y Low melting point metals can be cast y Kitchenware true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
‐ Aluminum
Statement (I)
‐ Zinc (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
‐ Magnesium alloys true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
p of
‐ Brass Statement (I)
‐ Cast iron (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Die Casting Hot chamber machines are
y Molten metal is injected into closed metal dies under
Die casting machines can be
Die casting machines can be
y Good for low temperature (approx. 400°C)
pressures ranging from 100 to 150 MPa. y Faster than
h cold
ld chamber
h b machines
h
y Pressure is maintained during solidification y Hot chamber y Cycle times must be short to minimize metal
contamination
y After which the dies separate and the casting is ejected y Cold chamber y Metal starts in a heated cylinder
y
along with its attached sprues and runners. y A piston forces metal into the die
y The piston retracts,
retracts and draws metal in
y Cores must be simple and retractable and take the y Metal: Lead, Tin, Zinc
form of moving metal segments
Cold chamber machines
y Casts high melting point metals ( > 600°C)
y High pressures used
y Metal is heated in a separate crucible
l h d bl
y Metal is ladled into a cold chamber
y The metal is rapidly forced into the mold before it
cools
y Copper
Copper, Brass and Aluminium can cast.
Brass and Aluminium can cast
Hot Chamber Page 26 of 240 Rev.0
Advantages
y Extremely smooth surfaces (1 µm) Limitations ¾Applications
y Carburettors
y Excellent dimensional accuracy y High initial die cost
y Automotive
A t ti parts
t
y Rapid production rate y Limited to high‐fluidity nonferrous metals
y Bathroom fixtures
y Better mechanical properties compared to sand y Part size is limited y Toys
casting y Porosity may be a problem
P it b bl
¾Common metals
y Some scrap in sprues, runners, and flash, but this can
p p , , ,
y Intricate parts possible y Alloys
All off aluminum,
l i zinc,
i magnesium,
i and
d lead
l d
be directly recycled y Also possible with alloys of copper and tin
y Minimum finishing operations
y Thin sections possible
IES 2011 IES‐2009 20 0
JWM 2010
Consider the following advantages of die casting over Assertion (A) ( ) : In die casting g method,, small
Which of the following are the most suitable thickness can be filled with liquid metal.
sand casting :
materials for die casting?
1 Rapidity of the process
1. Reason (R) : The air in die cavity trapped inside the
(a) Zinc and its alloys casting causes problems.
2. Smooth surface
3 Strong dense metal structure
3. (b) Copper and its alloys (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
Which of these advantages are correct ? (c) Aluminium and its alloys correct explanation of A
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d3 (d) Lead
L d andd its
it alloys
ll (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not
B h A d R i di id ll b R i the
h
(b) 1 and 2 only correct explanation of A
(c) 2 and 3 only (c) A is true but R is false
(d) 1 and 3 onlyy ((d)) A is false but R is true
IES‐2005 IES‐2006 IES‐1995

Which one of the following processes produces a In which of the following are metal moulds used? Assertion
A i (A):
(A) An
A aluminium
l i i alloy
ll with
i h 11 % silicon
ili is
i
casting when pressure forces the molten metal used for making engine pistons by die casting
(a) Greensand mould technique.
technique
into the mould cavity? (b) Dry sand mould Reason (R): Aluminium has low density and addition
(a) Shell moulding
g (b) Investment casting
g (c) Die casting process of silicon improves
p its fluidity
y and therefore its
(c) Die casting (d) Continuous casting castability.
(d) Loam moulding
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation
l i off A
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true
IES‐1995 IAS‐2007 IAS‐1996
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer taking the help Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Die
Di casting i yields
i ld a product
d off goodd
of codes given below the lists: Consider the following statements:
List I List II 1. Zinc die castings have low strength.
g g accuracy and finish.
(Products) (Process of manufacture) R
Reason (R) Low
(R): L melting
li alloys
ll used
d ini diedi
A. Automobile piston in aluminium alloy 1. Pressure die‐casting 2. In the die casting process, very thin sections or casting.
B. Engine crankshaft in spheroidal
complex shapes can be obtained easily.
graphite iron
hi i 2. Gravity die‐casting
G i di i ( ) Both
(a) B h A and d R are individually
i di id ll true and d R isi the
h
C. Carburettor housing in aluminium alloy 3. Sand casting Which of the statements given above is/are correct? correct explanation of A
D. Cast titanium blades 4. Precision investment
casting
i ( ) 1 only
(a) l (b) Both
i di id ll true butb R is
i not theh
5. Shell moulding correct explanation of A
Code: A B C D A B C D (b) 2 only
(a) 2 3 1 5 (b) 3 2 1 5 (c) Both 1 and 2 ( ) A is
(c) i true but
b R is i false
f l
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 4 1 2 3
((d)) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) A is false but R is true
IES 2011 GATE‐2007 IES‐1995

Consider the following statements : Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Aluminium
Al i i alloys
ll are cast ini hot
h
1. Hot chamber machine is used for casting zinc, tin and Which of the following engineering materials is chamber die casting machine.
other
th lowl melting
lti alloys.
ll th mostt suitable
the it bl candidate
did t for
f hot
h t chamber
h b die di Reason (R): Aluminium alloys require high melting
casting? when compared to zinc alloys.
2. Cold chamber machine is used for die casting of
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
ferrous alloys ( ) Low carbon
(a) b steell explanation of A
33. Rapid
p cooling
g rate in die casting g p
produces high
g (b) Titanium (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
strength and quality in many alloys. (c) Copper correct explanation of A
Which of these statements are correct? (d) Tin ((c)) A is true but R is false
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
( ) 2 and
(c) d 3 only
l (d) 1 andd 3 only
l
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal Casting
( )
GATE ‐2009 (PI) y Process: Molten metal is introduced into a rotating
g sand,
metal, or graphite mould, and held against the mould
Hot chamber die casting process is NOT suited for
wall by centrifugal force until it is solidified
(a) Lead and its alloy
y A mold is set up and rotated along a vertical (rpm is
(b) Zinc and its alloy
reasonable), or horizontal (200‐1000 rpm is reasonable)
( ) Tin
(c) Ti and
d its
it alloy
ll
axis.
((d)) Aluminum and its alloyy
y The
Th mold
ld is
i coated
d with
i h a refractory
f coating.
i
y During cooling lower density impurities will tend to rise

Fi T
Fig. True centrifugal casting
if l i
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) towards the center ofPage 28 of 240
rotation. Rev.0
P
Properties
ti Advantages Li it ti
Limitations
y The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are y Fine
Fi grained
i d structure
t t att the
th outer
t surface
f off the
th y More segregation of alloy component during pouring under
better compared to other processes, because the inclusions casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and the forces of rotation
such as slag and oxides get segregated towards the centre porosity
it
and can be easily removed by machining. Also, the y Contamination of internal surface of castings with non‐
pressure acting
p g on the metal throughout
g the solidification y Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without
causes the porosity to be eliminated giving rise to dense cores metallic
lli inclusions
i l i
metal. y Can p produce a wide range g of cylindrical
y parts,
p y Inaccurate internal diameter
y No cores are required for making concentric holes in the including ones of large size.
case of true centrifugal casting. y Good dimensional accuracy, soundness, and y Shape is limited.
cleanliness y Spinning equipment can be expensive
y There is no need for gates and runners,
runners which
y Poor machinability
increases the casting yield, reaching almost 100 %.
l
Common metals GATE‐2002 GATE‐1993
y Iron
Centrifugally cast products have
y steel In centrifugal casting, the impurities are (a) Large
g g
grain structure with high
g pporosityy
y stainless steel
t i l t l ( ) Uniformly
(a) f l distributed
d b d (b) Fine grain structure with high density
y alloys of aluminium, copper, and nickel (b) Forced towards the outer surface (c) Fine grain structure with low density
(c) Trapped near the mean radius of the casting (d) Segregation of slug towards the outer skin of the
(d) Collected at the centre of the casting casting
ti
IES‐2008 IES‐2009
( )
GATE ‐2008 (PI) Which of the following casting processes does not
In hollow cylindrical parts, made by centrifugal casting, /do not require central core for producing pipe? Which one of the following casting processes is
1 Sand casting process
1. b t
best suited
it d t
to make
k bi
bigger size
i h ll
hollow
the density of the part is
2. Die casting process
3 Centrifugal casting process
3. symmetrical
y pipes?
p p
( ) maximum
(a) i at the
h outer region
i
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) Die casting
(b) maximum at the inner region ( ) 1 and
(a) d2
(b) 2 only (b) Investment casting
((c)) maximum at the mid‐point
p between outer and inner
(c) 2 and 3 (c) Shell moulding
surfaces
(d) 3 onlyy
(d) uniform throughout (d) Centrifugal casting
IES 2007 IES‐1998 IES‐2009
Which one of the following is the correct Poor machinability of centrifugally cast iron pipe Which of the following are the most likely
statement? is due to characteristics in centrifugal casting?
In a centrifugal casting method (a) Chilling (a) Fine grain size and high porosity
(a) No core is used (b) Segregation (b) Coarse grain size and high porosity
(b) Core may be made of any metal (c) Dense structure (c) Fine grain size and high density
( ) Core
(c) C i made
is d off sand
d (d) High mould rotation speed
Hi h ld t ti d (d) Coarse
C grain
i size
i andd high
hi h density
d it
(d) Core is made of ferrous metal
IES 2007 IES‐2000 IAS‐2004

Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists:
Match List I (Process) with List II (Products/materials)
M t h Li t I (P ) ith Li t II (P d t / t i l )
List I List II and select the correct answer using the codes given Match List‐I (Name of the Process) with List‐II (Advantage) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
(Casting Process) (Principle) below the Lists: List I
List‐I List II
List‐II
A. Die casting 1.The metal solidifies in a rotating mould List I List II (Name of the Process) (Advantage)
B. Investment casting 2.The pattern cluster is repeatedly dipped
into a ceramic slurry and dusted with A. Die casting 1. Phenol formaldehyde A. Sand Casting 1. Large cylindrical parts with good quality
refractory
f B
B. C
Ceramic mold casting
i ld ti 2.Excellent dimensional accuracy and surface
E ll t di i l d f
C. Shell moulding 3. Molten metal is forced by pressure into
B. Shell molding 2. C.I. pipes finish
a metallic mould C. CO2 molding 3. Non‐ferrous alloys C. Die casting 3. Intricate shapes and close tolerance parts
D
D. Centrifugal casting 4 After cooling the invest is removed
4. After cooling, the invest is removed
from the Casting by pressure jetting or D Centrifugal casting
D. C if l i 4. Sodium silicate
S di ili D
D. C
Centrifugal casting
if l i 4. Almost any metal is cast and there if no limit to
Al l i d h if li i
vibratory cleaning size, shape and weight
Code: A B C D A B C D
Codes:A B C D A B C D 5. Good dimensional accuracy, finish and low
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 3 4 2 1 (a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 3 1 4 2 porosity
(c) 2 4 3 1 (c) 3 1 2 4 (c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 1 3 2 4 Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 3 5 1 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 1 5 3 (d) 4 3 2 1
Semi‐centrifugal Casting IAS‐2003
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) S Semi‐centrifugal
i if l casting
i process isi
y Centrifugal force assists the flow of metal from a similar to true centrifugal casting except that the
central
t l reservoir
i to
t the
th extremities
t iti off a rotating
t ti central core is used in it to form inner surface.
surface
Reason (R): In semi‐centrifugal casting process the
symmetrical
y mold,, which mayy be either expendable
p or p is always
axis of spin y vertical
multiple‐use p
explanation of A
y Rotational speeds are lower than for true centrifugal (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
casting (c) A is true but R is false
y Cores can be used to increase the complexity of the
product. Fig. Semi‐centrifugal casting
IES‐2013
Statement (I): In semi centrifugal casting a particular Centrifuging
p of the casting
shape g is p
produced byy mould, core and the
centrifugal force of molten metal. y Uses centrifuging action to force the metal from a central
Statement (II): The centrifugal force aids to proper pouring reservoir into separate mold cavities that are
feeding to produce the casting free from porosity.
offset from the axis of rotation.
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of y Low speed
Statement (I) y May used to assist in the pouring of investment casting
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
trees.
t
true b t Statement
but St t t (II) is
i nott the
th correctt explanation
l ti off
Statement (I)
( ) Statement (I)
(c) ( ) is true but
b Statement (II)
( ) is false
f l
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true Fig. Method of casting by the centrifuging process
IES‐2000 Dry Sand Molding Slush Casting

Match List I (Type of casting) with List II (Working principles)
M t h Li t I (T f ti ) ith Li t II (W ki i i l )
and select the correct answer using the codes given below the y To reduce gas forming materials air dried mould used. y Slush casting is a variation of the permanent mold process
Lists: in which the metal is permitted to remain in the mold only
Li t I
List I Li t II
List II Types: until a shell of the desired thickness has formed.
A. Die casting 1. Molten metal is forced into the die
under pressure y The mold is then inverted and the remaining liquid is
B. Centrifugal casting 2. Axis of rotation does not coincide with 1 Skin drying and
1.Skin poured out.
axis of mould
C. Centrifuging
g g 33. Metal solidifies when mould is rotating
g 2.Complete mold drying y When the mold halves are separated, the resulting casting
D. Continuous casting 4. Continuously pouring molten metal is a hollow shape with good surface detail but variable wall
into mould thickness.
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 4 3 2 1 y Frequently used to cast low‐melting‐temperature metals
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 4 2 3 1 into ornamental objects such as candlesticks, lamp bases,
andd statuary.
IAS‐2004 IES 2011 IES 2012

IES ‐
The method of casting for producing ornamental pieces The process of making hollow castings of non circular
non‐circular
Which of the following are produced by slush
are: shape and desired thickness by permanent mould
casting?
( ) Slush
(a) Sl h and d gravity
it casting
ti without the use of cores is known as
(a) Hollow castings with thick walls
(b) Pressed and slush casting (a) Die casting (b) Slush casting
(b) Hollow castings with thin walls
(c) Gravity and semi permanent mould casting ( ) Pressed
(c) P d casting
ti (d) Centrifugal
C t if l casting
ti
(c) Thin castings
(d) Thick
Thi k castings
ti (d) Semi permanent mould and pressed casting

Squeeze Casting IAS‐2002 Si l C
Single Crystal Casting
lC i
Match List I (Casting Process) with List II
M t h Li t I (C ti P ) ith Li t II The process is effectively:
Process:
(Applications) and select the correct answer using the 1. Prepare a mold so that one end is a heated oven, and
1. Molten metal is ppoured into an open
p face die. codes given below the Lists:
g
the other end chilled.
chilled The part should be oriented so
2. A punch is advanced into the die, and to the metal. List I List II
that the cooling happens over the longest distance.
(Casting Process) (Applications)
3 Pressure (less than forging) is applied to the punch
3.Pressure 2. Cast
C t metalt l into
i t the
th mold ld
A. Centrifugal casting 1. Carburetor
and die while the part solidifies. B. Squeeze casting 2. Pipes 3. Solidification will begin at the chill plate. These
4.The
Th punch h is
i retracted,
t t d and d the
th partt is
i knocked
k k d outt C Die Casting
C. Di C i 3. Wh l f
Wheels for dendrites will grow towards the heated end of the
with an ejector pin. automobiles
part as long dendritic crystals. The part is slowly
4
4. Gear housings
y Overcomes problemsbl withh feeding
f d the
h die,
d and
d pulled out of the oven, past the chill plate.
Codes: A B C A B C
produces near net, highly detailed parts. 4. Remove the solidified p
4 part.
(a) 2 3 1 (b) 4 1 3
(c) 2 1 3 (d) 4 3 1
IES 2009
l i
Plaster Casting
y Process: A slurry of plaster,
plaster water,
water and various additives is
y Creep and thermal shock resistance properties. additives is pouted over a pattern and allowed to set. The
pattern is removed and the mould is baked to remove
excess water. After pouring and solidification, the mould is
broken and the castingg is removed.
y Advantage: High dimensional accuracy and smooth
surface finish,, thin sections and intricate detail can
produce.
y Limitations: Lower‐temperature
p nonferrous metals only:y
2 marks
y Common metals: Primarily aluminium and copper
Pit Moulding IES‐1996 Loam Moulding

y This method is used for very large castings and is done on Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?
the foundry floor. 1. Pit mouldingg ..................For large jobs.
g j y Moulding
g loam is g
generallyy artificiallyy composed
p of
2. Investment moulding ... Lost wax process. common brick‐clay, and sharp sand.
3 Plaster moulding ……… Mould prepared in
3. Plaster moulding Mould prepared in
gypsum. y Loam means mud.
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(a) d (b) 1 and 2
d y Loam Moulding is restricted to forms which cannot be
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
cast conveniently in any other process.
process
y It is costly.
y
IES‐1997 GATE‐1998 GATE‐1992
Which one of the following pairs is not correctly List I
Li t I List II
Li t II Match the following moulding/casting processes with
M h h f ll i ldi / i i h
matched? (A) Sand casting (1) Symmetrical and the product:
circular shapes only Moulding/Casting processes Product
(a) Aluminium alloy piston …………Pressure die casting (B) Plaster mould casting (2) Parts have hardened (A) Slush casting (P) Turbine blade
(b) Jewellery……………………….. Lost wax process skins and soft interior
(C) Shell mould casting (3) Minimum post‐ (B) Shell moulding (Q) Machine tool bed
(c) Large pipes ……………………..Centrifugal casting casting processing (C) Dry sand moulding (R) Cylinder block
(d) Large
L b ll ………………………Loam
bells L moulding
ldi (D) Investment casting (4) Parts have a tendency (D) Centrifugal casting
C t if l ti (S) H ll ti
(S) Hollow castings
to warp like lamp shades
(5) Parts have soft skin (T) Rain water pipe
and hard interior
(U) Cast iron shoe
(6) Suitable only for non‐
f
ferrous metals
t l brake
GATE‐1996 IES‐2003 IES‐1993

List I List II Match List I (Products) with List II (Casting Process) and select
M t h Li t I (P d t ) ith Li t II (C ti P ) d l t Match the items of List I (Equipment) with the items
M h h i f Li I (E i ) i h h i
the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
of List II (Process) and select the correct answer using
(A) Rivets for aircraft body
y 1. Forging
g g List I List II
the given codes.
the given codes
(Products) (Casting Process)
(B) Carburettor body 2. Cold heading A. Hollow statues 1. Centrifugal Casting List I (Equipment) List II (Process)
(C) Crankshafts 3
3. Aluminium‐based B
B. Dentures 2
2. Investment Casting P ‐ Hot Chamber Machine 1. 1 Cleaning
C. Aluminium alloy pistons 3. Slush Casting
alloy Q ‐ Muller 2. Core making
D. Rocker arms 4. Shell Moulding
(D) Nails
N il 4. P
Pressure die casting
di ti 5. G i Di C i
Gravity Die Casting R ‐ Dielectric Baker 3
3. Die casting
5. Investment casting Codes: A B C D A B C D S ‐ Sand Blaster 4. Annealing
((a)
) 33 2 4
4 5 ((b)
) 1 33 4
4 5 5
5. Sand mixing
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 3 2 5 4
(a) P‐2, Q‐1, R‐4, S‐5 (b) P‐4, Q‐2, R‐3, S‐5
(c) P‐4, Q‐5, R‐1, S‐2
P 4 Q 5 R 1 S 2 (d) P‐3, Q‐5, R‐2, S‐1
P 3 Q 5 R 2 S 1
IAS‐2004 GATE 2007 (PI)

GATE – 2007 (PI)
Match List‐I (Name of the Casting Process) with List‐II (Process Definition) and select
M h Li I (N f h C i P ) i h Li II (P D fi i i ) d l
Match the lists
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List‐I List‐II Group‐1 Group‐2
(Name of the Castin Process)
(Name of the Casting Process) (Process Definition)
A. Die casting 1.This process involves use of a mould made of P. Sand Casting 1. Turbine blades
Dried silica sand and phenolic resin mixture
B
B. El t l casting
Electroslag ti 2. In this process, molten metal is forced by
I thi lt t l i f d b Q Centrifugal Casting
Q. Centrifugal Casting 2 IC Engine Pistons
2. IC Engine Pistons
Pressure into a metal mould
C. Centrifugal casting 3. This process employs a consumable electrode R. Investment Casting 3. Large bells
D
D. P i i
Precision casting
i 4. This process involves rotating a mould while the
Thi i l i ld hil h
metal solidifies S. Die Casting 4. Pulleys
5. This process produces very smooth, highly
Accurate castings from both ferrous and non
ferrous alloys
(a) P – 4, Q – 1, R – 3, S – 2 (b) P – 2, Q – 4, R – 3, S ‐ 1
Codes:A
(a) 5
B
4
C
1
D
2 (b)
A
2
B
3
C
4
D
5
((c)) P – 3, Q – 4, R – 1,, S – 2 ( ) P – 3, Q – 2,, R – 1,, S ‐ 4
(d) By S K Mondal
(c) 5 For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
3 4 2 (d) 2 4 1 5 Page 33 of 240 Rev.0
Welding Definition Requirement for a high quality welding Cl ifi ti
Classification of welding processes
f ldi
¾ Oxy fuel gas welding (OFW)
y Welding is a process by which two materials, usually ¾ Arc
A welding
ldi (Aw)
(A )
1. A source of satisfactory heat and/or pressure,
metals, are permanently joined together by ¾ Resistance welding
coalescence, which is induced by a combination of 2. A means of protecting or cleaning the metal, and ¾ Solid
l d state welding
ld (f
(friction welding,
ld ultrasonic
l welding,
ld
temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions. forge welding etc.)
3 Caution to avoid,
3. avoid or compensate for,
for harmful
y The particular combination of these variables can y Unique process
g from high
range g temperature with no pressure to highg metallurgical
g effects. ¾ Thermit welding
g
pressure with no increase in temperature. ¾ Laser beam welding
y Welding (positive process) ¾ Electroslag
g welding
g
¾ Flash welding
y Machining (negative process)
¾ Induction welding
y Forming, casting (zero process) ¾ Electron beam welding
IES 2012
IES ‐ Weldability / Fabrication Processes Case of Aluminium
The advantage of the welding process is y The
Th weldability
ld bilit off a material
t i l will
ill depend
d d on the
th y The
Th oxide
id coating
ti on aluminum
l i alloys
ll causes some
(a) It relieves the joint from residual stresses specific welding or joining process being considered. difficulty in relation to its weldability.
(b) It helps
h l in i checking
h ki off distortion
di t ti off work k piece
i y For resistance welding of consistent quality, it is y It also
l has
h high
hi h thermal
th l conductivity
d ti it and
d a very short
h t
(c) Large number of metals and alloys, both similar and/or usually necessary to remove the oxide immediately temperature range between liquidus and solidus and when
before welding. liquid its viscosity is very low.
low
dissimilar can be joined.
y Aluminium is poor absorber of laser light.
((d)) Heat pproduced during g the welding g does not pproduce y Fabrication weldability y test is used to determine
mechanical properties required for satisfactory y D i
During f i
fusion welding,
ldi the
h aluminum
l i would
ld oxidize
idi so
metallurgical changes.
readily that special fluxes or protective inert‐gas
performance of welded jjoint.
p
atmospheres must be employed.
employed
y The correct sequence of the given materials in
y Friction welding and TIG welding is good for aluminium.
ascending order of their weldability is
y For aluminium
l AC current plusl high
h h frequency
f is must.
Aluminum < copper < cast iron < MS Contd…
Case of Cast Iron Case of Stainless Steel Case of Stainless Steel

y Cast iron is more difficult to weld because of its high y Stainless steel is a difficult metal to weld because it y The ferritic stainless steels are generally less weldable
carbon content and brittleness (poor ductility) contains both nickel and chromium. than the austenitic stainless steel and require both
y Massive carbon deposits have a tendency to form in y The best method for welding stainless steel is TIG preheating and postweld heat treatments.
treatments
the areas adjacent to the weld, and high‐carbon welding. y Welds of ferritic stainless steel can be by
martensite tends to form in the heat
heat‐affected
affected zones.
zones y The electric arc is also preferred for welding stainless (i) autogenously (i.e.
(i e without the addition of filler
These microstructures are very brittle and may crack steels. A heavily coated welding rod, which produce a metal)
p
spontaneouslyy while welding g is in pprogress
g or later shielded arc,
arc is employed.
employed (ii) with an austenitic stainless steel
when load is applied to the workpiece. y You must do a better job of pre‐cleaning. (iii) using a high nickel filler alloy.
y Cast iron can be jjoined byy the oxyacetylene
y y brazingg (iv) Type 405 filler (low 11% Cr, Cr low carbon and small
y Using a low arc current setting with faster travel
process and shielded metal‐arc welding (stick) speeds is important when welding stainless steel, 0.2% Al)
process. because some stainless steels are subject to carbide y Welding process: TIG, MIG, Shielded
Shielded‐metal
metal arc
y Some cases preheating and/or post heating is required. precipitation. welding and Plasma arc welding
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 34 of 240 Contd…..
Rev.0
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES‐2006 GATE‐2014
Assertion (A): ( ) It is generally
g y difficult to weld
Aluminum parts by normal arc welding process. Assertion (A): Aluminium
( ) has poor weldability. The major difficulty during welding of aluminium is
Reason (R): Aluminium has high thermal
g due to its
Reason (R): Hard and brittle AluminumAluminum‐oxide
oxide film
is formed at the welded joints. conductivity and high affinity to oxygen. (a) high tendency of oxidation
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (b) high thermal conductivity
correct explanation of A correct explanation of A (c) low melting point
(b) Both
i di id ll true but
b R is i NOT the
h (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (d) low
l density
d it
correct explanation of A correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false ( ) A is true but R is false
(c) A i t b t R i f l
((d)) A is false but R is true (d) A is false but R is true
IES 2011 IES 2011 IES‐2006

During plasma arc welding of aluminium,
aluminium improved Consider the following statements.
Consider the following statements
Fabrication weldability test is used to determine
removal of the surface oxide from the base metal is Cast iron is difficult to weld, because of
obtained with typical polarity of : (a) Mechanical properties required for satisfactory
ec a ca p ope t es equ ed o sat s acto y
1. Low ductility
L d tilit
performance of welded joint
(a) DC Straight 2. Poor fusion
(b) Susceptibility of welded joint for cracking
(b) DC reverse 3. Tendency to crack on cooling
(c) Suitability for joint design
(c) AC potential
p Which of these statements are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Appropriate machining process
A i hi i
(d) Reverse polarity of phase of AC potential
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
IES‐1999 IES 2010

IES 2010 IES 2010
IES 2010
Weldability of ferritic stainless steel used in Consider the following g statements regarding
g g
The correct sequence of the given materials in automotive exhaust system is improved by welded joints:
g
ascending order of their weldability is 1 It is a permanent type of joint.
1. joint
selecting stainless steel electrode having low
(a) MS, copper, cast iron, aluminium 2. It is reliable and economical for pressure vessel
content of
(b) Cast iron, MS, aluminium
Cast iron MS aluminium copper construction.
construction
(a) Carbon (b) Nitrogen
(c) Copper, cast iron, MS, aluminium 3. It is free from fabricational residual stresses.
(d) Aluminium, copper, cast iron, MS
Al i i i S (c) Chromium (d) Carbon and Nitrogen
4. Such joints are suitable for static loading only.
55. Welding g is a versatile and flexible metal jjoining
gpprocess.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 only (b) 2,
2 3 and 4 only
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 35 of 240 (c) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Rev.0
(d) 1, 2 and 5 only
IES 2012
IES ‐ IES 2013
IES‐2013 Gas Flame Processes:
Which of the following factors improve weld ability of Weldability depends on Welding Cutting and Straightening
Welding, Cutting and Straightening
steel?
y Oxy‐fuel gas Welding (OFW): Heat source is the
1 Low carbon content
1. Low carbon content 1. Thermal conductivityy
flame produced
fl d d byb the
h combustion
b i off a fuel
f l gas and
d
2. High carbon content 2. Surface condition oxygen.
3. Good affinity content
3. Change in microstructure
4
4. Poor affinity to oxygen
y yg y OFW has largely
g y been replaced
p byy other p
processes but
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only it is still popular because of its portability and the low
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4 p
capital investment.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
y Acetylene is the principal fuel gas employed.
employed
y Combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) in a Three types of flames can be obtained by varying

welding torch produces a temp. in a two stage reaction. the oxygen/acetylene (or oxygen/fuel gas) ratio.
y In the first stage y If the ratio is about 1 : 1 to 1.15 : 1, all reactions are
C2 H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + Heat
H t carried to completion and a neutral flame is produced.
produced
This reaction occurs near the tip of the torch. y Most welding is done with a neutral flame. It is
y In the second stage combustion of the CO and H2 and
chemically
h i ll neutral t l and
d neither
ith oxidizes
idi or carburizes
b i
occurs just beyond the first combustion zone. the metal being welded.
2CO + O2 → 2CO2 + Heat
1
2 2 → H2O + Heat
H2 + O
Oxygen for secondary reactions is obtained from the
atmosphere
atmosphere.
Oxy‐acetylene gas welding neutral flame
y Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing

y A higher ratio, such as 1.5 : 1, produces an oxidizing
flame. Carburizing flame can carburize metal also.
flame hotter than the neutral flame (about 3300oC)
flame,
but similar in appearance. y The excess fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen, Metal Flame
p
and the flame temperature is not as g
great ((about MS N
y Used when
hen welding
elding copper and copper alloys
allo s but
3000oC). High carbon steel R
harmful when welding steel because the excess oxygen Grey cast iron N, slightly oxidizing
reacts with the carbon,
carbon decarburizing the region y Flames of this type are used in welding Monel (a
Alloy steel N
around the weld. nickel‐copper alloy), high‐carbon steels, and some Aluminium Slightly carburizing
alloy steels, and for applying some types of hard
hard‐facing
facing Brass Slightly oxidizing
material. Copper, Bronze N, slightly oxidizing
Nickel alloys
y Slightly
g y carburizing g
Lead N

Oxy‐acetylene gas welding Oxidising flame Page 36 of 240 Rev.0
Oxy‐acetylene gas welding Carburizing flame
U
Uses, Advantages, and Limitations
Ad t d Li it ti
y Exposer of the heated and molten metal to the various
y OFW is fusion welding.
welding
gases in the flame and atmosphere makes it difficult to
y No pressure is involved.
y Filler
Fill metal
t l can be
b added
dd d in
i the
th form
f off a wire
i or rod.
d prevent contamination.
contamination
Diagram y Fluxes may be used to clean the surfaces and remove

contaminating oxide. The gaseous shield produced by
y Heat source is not concentrated, a large area of the
metal is heated and distortion is likely to occur.
vaporizing flux can prevent oxidation during welding,
and the slag produced by solidifying flux can protect
y Flame welding is still quite common in field work, in
the weld pool. Flux can be added as a powder, the
welding rod can be dipped in a flux paste, or the rods maintenance and repairs, and in fabricating small
can be pre‐coated.
quantities of specialized products.
products
Contd…
Oxy acetylene welding equipment IES 2010

IES 2010
y Oxygen is stored in a cylinder at a pressure ranging
Pressure Gas Weldingg The ratio between Oxygen and Acetylene
from 13.8 MPa to 18.2 MPa . y Pressure gas welding (PGW) or Oxyacetylene gases for neutral flame in gas welding is
Pressure Welding is a process used to make butt ( )2:1
(a) (b) 1 : 2
y Due to high explosiveness of free acetylene it is stored joints between the ends of objects such as pipe
y
in a cylinder with 80‐85% pporous calcium silicate and aand‐railroad
d a oad rail.
a . ((c)) 1 : 1 ((d)) 4 : 1
then filled with acetone which absorb upto 420 times y The ends are heated with a gas flame to a
by its volume at a pressure 1.75 MPa . p
temperature below the melting gp
point,, and the soft
y At the time of acetylene release if acetone comes with metal is then forced together under considerable
acetylene
ace y e e thee flame
a e would
ou d g
givee a pu
purple
p e co
colour.
ou . pressure.
y Another option is acetylene generator. y This process, therefore, is actually a 'form of solid‐
state welding.
CaC2 + 2 H 2O → C2 H 2 + Ca (OH ) 2
GATE‐1994 GATE‐2003 IES 2010

IES 2010
Assertion ((A): ) Oxidizing g flame is used in gasg
In Oxyacetylene gas welding, temperature at the welding to join medium carbon steels having high
The ratio of acetylene to oxygen is inner cone of the flame is around melting gppoint.
approximately
approximately………. for a neutral flames used in
(a) 3500°C Reason (R): In gas welding, oxidizing flame
gas welding.
(b) 3200
3200°C
C produces the maximum temperature compared to
( ) 1:1
(a)
(c) 2900°C neutral and reducing flame.
(b) 1 : 2
(d) 2550°C
°C (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(c) 1 : 3 correct explanation of A
(d) 1.5
15:1 (b) Both
B th A and d R are individually
i di id ll true
t b t R is
but i NOT the
th
GATE‐2002 IES‐2009 IES‐1998
The temperature of a carburising flame in gas By which one of the following methods gray cast In oxy‐acetylene gas welding, for complete
welding is that of a neutral or an oxidising flame. iron is usually welded? combustion, the volume of oxygen
g required per
(a) Lower than (a) TIG welding (b) MIG welding unit of acetylene is
(b) Higher than (c) Gas welding (d) Arc welding ((a)) 1
(c) Equal to (b) 1.5
(d) Unrelated to
U l t d t (c) 2
(d) 2.5
IAS 1994 IAS‐1995 IES 2012

IES ‐
Statement ((I):
) In g
gas welding g the metal to be jjoined g
gets
In gas welding of mild steel using an oxy‐ Assertion (A):
( ) If neutral flame is used in oxy‐ oxidized or carburized
acetylene welding, both oxygen and acetylene
acetylene flame. the total amount of acetylene cylinders of same capacity will be emptied at the same Statement ((II):
) The neutral flame affects no chemical
consumed was 10 litre. The oxygen consumption time. change on the molten metal.
from the cylinder is Reason (R): Neutral flame uses equal amounts of ((a)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are
oxygen and d acetylene.
l
(a) 5 litre individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
(b) 10 litre explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(c) 15litre individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
(d) 20 litre
li (c) A is true but R is false explanation of Statement (I)
(d) A is false but R is true (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
Oxygen Torch Cutting (Gas Cutting) y For thicker plates with specified contour, shearing y Larger size orifice produces kerf width wider and larger
cannot be used and oxy‐fuel gas cutting (OFC) is oxygen consumed.
y Iron and steel oxidize (burn)
( ) when heated to a
useful. y At kindling temperature (about 870oC), iron form iron
temperature between 8000C to 10000C.
y Gas‐cutting
Gas cutting is similar to gas welding
elding except
e cept torch tip.
tip oxide.
oxide
y High‐pressure oxygen jet (300 KPa) is directed against
y Reaction:
a heated steel p
plate, the oxygen
yg jjet burns the metal and
3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4 +6.67
+6 67 MJ/kg of iron
blows it away causing the cut (kerf).
The other reactions:
y For
o cutt
cuttingg metallic
eta c p plates
ates sshears
ea s aaree used. These
ese aaree
2Fe + O2 → 2FeO + 3.18 MJ/kgk off iron
useful for straight‐line cuts and also for cuts up to 40
c ess.
mm thickness. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 4.9 MJ/kg of iron
y All exothermic reactions preheat the steel.
Fig‐ differences in torch tips for gas welding and gas cutting
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 38 of 240 Rev.0 Contd…

Contd… Contd…
y The drag lines shows the characteristics of the movement y If torch moved too rapidly, the bottom does not get
y For complete oxidation 0.287 m3 oxygen/kg of iron is
of the oxygen stream. sufficient heat and produces large drag so very rough
required
i d
and irregular‐shaped‐cut edges.
y Due to unoxidized metal blown away the actual
y If torch moved slowly a large amount of slag is
requirement is much less.
generated and produces irregular cut.
y Torch tipp held verticallyy or slightly
g y inclined in the
direction of travel.
y Torch position is about 1.5
1 5 to 3 mm vertical from plate.
plate
Fig‐ positioning of cutting torch in oxy‐ fuel gas cutting
y Drag
g is the amount byy which the lower edge
g of the drag
g
line trails from the top edge.
y Good cut means negligible
g g drag.
g
Contd… Contd… Contd…
y Gas cutting is more useful with thick plates. Application

IAS‐2011 Main
y Useful only for materials which readily get oxidized
y For thin sheets (less than 3 mm thick) tip size should Draw a self explanatory sketch of oxy‐acetylene gas
be small. If small tips are not available then the tip is and
d the
th oxides
id have
h l
lower melting
lti points
i t than
th th
the
cutting torch. Briefly explain how cutting is
inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees. metals.
effected.
y Widely used for ferrous materials.
[ M k ]
[20‐Marks]
y Cannot be used for aluminum, bronze, stainless steel
and like metals since they resist oxidation.
Fig. Recommended torch position for cutting thin steel
Difficulties y For high carbon steel material around the cut should IES‐1992
y Metal temperature goes beyond lower critical be preheated (about 250 to 300oC) and may post heat The edge of a steel plate cut by oxygen cutting will
temperature and structural transformations occur. get hardened when the carbon content is
g
also necessary.
necessary
(a) Less than 0.1 percent
y Final microstructure depends on cooling rate. y Cutting CI is difficult, since its melting temp. is lower (b) Less than 0.3
0 3 percent
than iron oxide. (c) More than 0.3 percent
y Steels
St l with
ith less
l th 0.3 % carbon
than b cause no problem.
bl (d) Anywhere
A h b
between 0.1 to 1.0 percent
y If chromium and nickel etc are present in ferrous
alloys oxidation and cutting is difficult.

Contd…
IES 2007 IES‐2001 IES‐1992
Consider the following statements in respect of oxy‐ Oxyacetylene reducing flame is used while Thick steel plate cut with oxygen normally shows
acetylene welding:
g g
carrying out the welding on g of cracking.
signs g This tendency for cracking
g can
1
1. The joint is not heated to a state of fusion
The joint is not heated to a state of fusion.
2. No pressure is used. (a) Mild steel (b) High carbon steel be minimised by
3 Oxygen is stored in steel cylinder at a pressure of 14
3. (c) Grey cast iron (d) Alloy steels ((a)) Slow speed
p cutting
g
MPa. (b) Cutting in two or more stages
4. When there is an excess of acetylene used, there is a
d id d h
decided change in the appearance
i h (c) Preheating the plate
of flame. (d) Using oxy‐acetylene flame
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4
1 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
1 2 and 4
IES‐2005 d C i
Powder Cutting
y Cast iron,, stainless steel,, and others high
g alloyy steels are ( )
GATE‐2009 (PI)
Consider the following statements: difficult to cut by oxy‐fuel cutting and we can use powder
1. In gas welding, the torch should be held at an angle of g
cutting. Which of the following powders should be fed for
30° to 45° from the horizontal plane.
f h h l l
y By injecting a finely divided 200‐mesh iron powder into effective oxy‐fuel cutting of stainless steel?
2. In gas welding, the Size of the torch depends upon the
thi k
thickness of metal to be formed.
f t l t b f d the flame, a lower melting point eutectic oxide is formed
at the cutting interface, where additional iron‐oxygen (a) Steel
3. Drag in gas cutting is the time difference between
heating of the plate and starting the oxygen gas for reaction is generated and cutting proceeds in a similar
( ) Aluminum
(b)
cutting. way of oxy‐fuel cutting.
Which of the statements given above are correct? y The heat and the fluxing action of the burning iron (c) Copper
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 powder enable the cutting oxygen stream to oxidize the
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 base metal continuously,
continuously just as in cutting carbon steel.
steel (d) Ceramic
Pl C tti
Plasma Cutting El t i A W ldi
Electric Arc Welding
y Uses ionized g
gas jjet (plasma)
p to cut materials resistant to
oxy‐fuel cutting,
y High
g velocityy electrons g generated byy the arc impact
p gas
g
molecules, and ionize them.
y The ionized g gas is forced through
g nozzle ((upto
p 5500 m/s),
/ ), and
the jet heats the metal, and blasts the molten metal away.
Electric Arc Welding
y More economical,, more versatile and much faster (5 to 8
times) than oxyfuel cutting, produces narrow kerfs and
smooth surfaces.
y HAZ is 1/3 to ¼ th than oxyfuel cutting. Fi B i i
Fig. Basic circuit for arc welding
i f ldi
y Maximum plate thickness = 200 mm
Principle of Arc y Work is negative and electrode is positive is reverse ISRO‐2011
y An arc is generated between cathode and anode when polarity (RPDC).
In arc welding, penetration is minimum for
g p
th are touched
they t h d to
t establish
t bli h the
th flow
fl off currentt and
d y SPDC conditions are preferred.
then separated
p byy a small distance. (a) DCSP
y DC arc‐welding
ldi maintain
i t i a stable
t bl arc and
d preferred
f d for
f
y 65% to 75% heat is generated at the anode. (b) DCRP
difficult tasks such as overhead welding.
g
y If DC is used and the work is positive (the anode of the y For a stable arc, the gap should be maintained. (c) AC
circuit), the condition is known as straight polarity (d) DCEN
(SPDC).
(SPDC)
Contd… Contd…
y Manual arc welding is done with shielded (covered)

Three modes of metal transfer during arc welding Major Forces take part in Metal Transfer
electrodes (i) gravity force
(i) it f
y Bare‐metal wire used in automatic or semiautomatic
machines
machines. (ii) Surface tension
y Non consumable electrodes (e.g tungsten) is not (iii) electromagnetic interaction
g
consumed d by
b the
h arc andd a separate metall wire is used
d
as filler. (iv) hydrodynamic action of plasma
y There are three modes of metal transfer (globular,
spray and short‐circuit).
20 0
JWM 2010 GATE‐1993 Arc welding equipments
Assertion
A ti (A) : Bead
B d is i the
th metal
t l added
dd d during
d i In d.c. welding, the straight polarity (electrode
( 1. Droopers: Constant current welding machines
single pass of welding. negative) results in ¾ Good for manual welding
g
Reason (R)( ) : Bead material is same as base metal. (a) Lower penetration 2. Constant voltage machines
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the (b) Lower deposition rate ¾ Good for automatic welding
correct explanation of A (c) Less heating of work piece
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the (d) Smaller weld pool
S ll ld l

Contd…
Formula y Requires
q g current ((150
a large 5 to 1000 A),
), voltage
g is
between 30 and 40 V, actual voltage across the arc
varying from 12 to 30 V.
Fig. Machine with different settings y To initiate a weld,
ld the
h operator strike
k the
h electrode
l d and
d
start arc.
V I
+ =1
OCV SCC
Fig. Characteristic curve of a constant voltage arc‐welding machine
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES‐2005 IES‐2001
In arc welding, the arc length should be equal to Consider the following statements:
(a) 4.5 times the rod diameter 1. In arc welding, 65% to 75% heat is generated at the In manual arc welding, the equipment should
anode.
(b) 3 times
ti th rod
the d diameter
di t have drooping characteristics in order to maintain
2. Duty cycle in case of arc welding is the cycle of
(c) 1.5 times the rod diameter
complete welding of work piece from the (a) Voltage constant when arc length changes
(d) Rod diameter beginning.
3 Arc blow is more common with DC welding.
3. Arc blow is more common with DC welding (b) Current constant when arc length changes
Which of the statements given above are (c) Temperature in the are constant
correct?
(d) Weld pool red‐hot
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES‐2001 IES‐1998 IAS‐1999

In arc welding, d.c. reverse polarity is used to bear The voltage‐current characteristics of a dc Open‐circuit voltage of 60 V and current of 160A
g
greater advantage in
g generator for arc welding
g g is a straight
g line were the welding g conditions for arc welding
g of a
(a) Overhead welding between an open‐circuit voltage of 80 V and short‐ certain class of steel strip of thickness 10 mm. For
(b) Flat welding of lap joints circuit current of 300 A. The generator settings for arc welding of 5mm thick strip of the same steel,
maximum arc power will be the welding voltage and current would be
(c) Edge welding
((a)) 0 V and 150
5 A ((b)) 4
40 V and 3300 A ((a)) 60 V and 80 A
(d) Flat welding of butt joints
l ldi f b j i
(c) 40 V and 150 A (d) 80 V and 300 A (b) 120 V and 160 A
(c) 60 V and 40 A
(d) 120 V and 40 A

IAS‐1998 GATE ‐2012 Same Q in GATE ‐2012 (PI) GATE 2007 (PI)
GATE – 2007 (PI)
In
I a DC arc welding ldi operation,
ti the
th voltage‐arc
lt
The DC power source for arc welding has the
Assuming a straight line V‐I characteristics for a characteristic 3V + I = 240, where V = Voltage and
gg
dc welding generator, short circuit current as 400A length characteristic was obtained as Varc = 20 + 5L
where
h th arc length
the l th L was varied i d between
b t 5 mm I = Current in amp.
amp For maximum arc power at
and open circuit voltage as 400 which one of the
following is the correct voltage and current setting and 7 mm. Here Varc denotes the arc voltage in Volts. the electrode, voltage should be set at
for maximum arc power? Th arc currentt was varied
The i d from
f 400 A to t 500 A. A (a) 20 V (b) 40 V (c) 60 V (d) 80 V
Assuming linear power source characteristic, the
((a)) 4
400 A and 100 V ((b)) 200 A and 200 V
open circuit
i it voltage
lt and
d the
th short
h t circuit
i it currentt for
f
(c) 400 A and 50 V (d) 200 A and 50 V the welding operation are
( ) 45 V, 450 A
(a) (b) 75 V, 750 A
(c) 95 V, 950 A (d) 150 V, 1500 A
GATE‐1992 GATE 2014 (PI)

GATE‐2014 (PI) Duty Cycle
In an arc welding operation, carried out with a
A low carbon steel plate is to be welded by the manual y The percentage of time in a 5 min period that a
power source maintained at 40 volts and 400
metal arc welding process using a linear V ‐ I welding machine can be used at its rated output
characteristic DC Power source. The following data are amperes, the
h consumable
bl electrode
l d melts
l and
d just
j without overloading.
available : fills the gap between the metal plates to be butt
butt‐ y Time is spent
p in setting
g up,
p metal chipping,
pp g cleaning g
OCV of Power source = 62 V and inspection.
welded. The heat transfer efficiency for the process
Short
S o t ccircuit
cu t cu
current
e t = 130
30 A y For
o manual
a ua we
welding
d g a 60% duty cyc
cyclee iss suggested aand
d
Arc length, L = 4 mm is 0.8, melting efficiency is 0.3 and the heat required for automatic welding 100% duty cycle.
T
Traverse speedd off welding
ldi = 15 cm/s
/ to melt
l the
h electrode
l d is
i 20 J/mm
J/ 3. If the
h travell speed
d
Efficiency of heat input = 85% of tthe
o eeelectrode
ect ode iss 4 mm/s,
/s, tthe
e ccross‐sectional
oss sect o a aarea,
ea,
Voltage is given as V = 20 + 1.5 L
in mm2, of the weld joint is _______ Contd…
Calculate the heat input into the workprice
Electrode
IFS‐2011 1. Non‐consumable Electrodes
What is the maximum output current that can be
2. Consumable Electrodes
2 drawn at 100% duty cycle from a welding power source
⎛ I⎞
Required duty cycle, Ta = ⎜ ⎟ T rated at 600A at 60% duty cycle.
⎝ Ia ⎠ [3 Marks]
[3‐Marks] Non‐consumable Electrodes
Where ,T = rated duty cycle ¾Made of carbon, Graphite or Tungsten.
I = rated current at the rated duty cycle ¾Carbon and Graphite are used for D.C.
b d h df
Io = Maximum current at the rated duty cycle ¾ Electrode is not consumed, the arc length remains
constant, arc is stable and easy to maintain.

Contd…
Consumable Electrodes Consumable electrodes are three kinds: Electrode coating characteristic
¾Provides
P id filler
fill materials.
t i l (a)
( ) Bare 1. Provide a protective atmosphere.
¾Same composition. (b) Fluxed or lightly coated 2. Stabilize the arc.
¾This requires that the electrode be moved toward or (c) Coated or extruded / shielded 3. Provide a protective slag coating to accumulate
away from the work to maintain the arc and y For automatic welding,
welding bare electrode is in the form of impurities, prevent oxidation, and slow the cooling of
satisfactory welding conditions. the weld metal.
continuous wire (coil).
4
4. Reduce spatter.
spatter
5. Add alloying elements.
6. Affect
ff arc penetration
7. Influence the shape of the weld bead.
8. Add additional filler metal.
Contd…
GATE‐1994 Electrode coatings 3. Deoxidizing Ingredients. Cellulose, Calcium

carbonate, dolo
carbonate, dolo‐ mite, starch, dextrin, wood flour,
The electrodes used in arc welding are coated. l. Slag Forming Ingredients. asbestos, mica, silica, graphite, aluminium, ferromanganese.
This coating is not expected to fluorspar, titanium dioxide, Iron oxide, magnesium
(a) Provide protective atmosphere to weld carbonate, Calcium carbonate and aluminium oxide. 4. Binding Materials Sodium silicate, potassium silicate,
(b) Stabilize the are asbestos.
(c) Add alloying elements 2. Arc Stabilizing Ingredients. or ionizing agents:
potassium
potass u ssilicate,
cate, TiO
O2 + ZrO
O2 (Rut
(Rutile),
e), M
Mica,
ca, 5. Alloying Constituents to Improve Strength of Weld
(d) Prevents electrode from contamination
P t l t d f t i ti
Calcium oxide, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide,
e dspa ((KAI Si3 O8)
feldspar 6. TiO2 and potassium compounds increase the melting
p p g
rate of the base metal for better penetration.
7. Iron powder provides higher deposition rate.
Contd… Contd…
y The slag is then easily chipped. i d

Binders
y AC arc welding
ld used
d potassium silicate
l binders.
b d
y Coatings are designed to melt more slowly than the
f ll wire.
filler y DC arc welding used sodium silicate binders.
binders
y Potassium
otass u has
as a lower
o e ionization
o at o pote
potential
t a as co
compared
pa ed
with sodium.

Contd…
IES 2007 IES‐1997 IES‐2002
The coating material of an arc welding electrode Assertion (A):
( ) The electrodes of ac arc welding are Match List I with List II and select the correct answer:
coated with sodium silicate, whereas electrodes used List I (Ingredients) List II (Welding
contains which of the following?g for dc arc welding are coated with potassium silicate
binders. f
functions)
i )
1. Deoxidising agent
Reason (R): Potassium has a lower ionization A. Silica 1. Arc stabilizer
2 Arc stabilizing agent
2. potential
i l than
h sodium.
di B. Potassium
i oxalate
l 2. De‐oxidizer
idi
3. Slag forming agent (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct C. Ferro silicon 3. Fluxing agent
explanation of A
S l
Select the
h correct answer using
i the
h code
d given
i b l
below: D. Cellulose 4. Gas forming material
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only correct explanation of A Codes:A B C D A B C D
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only (c) A is true but R is false (a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 2 1 3 4
(d) A is false but R is true (c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 2 4 3 1
Welding Flux
y g
Low Hydrogen Electrode IFS‐2011
Available in three forms
y The basic coatings contain large amount of What is meant by low ‐hydrogen electrode ?
y Granular calcium
l i carbonate
b t (limestone)
(li t ) and d calcium
l i [
[2‐marks]
k ]
y Electrode wire coating fluoride (fluorspar) and produce low hydrogen.
y Electrode core y But it can absorb
b b moisture therefore
h f coated
d low
l
hydrogen electrodes are backed before use to a
temperature off 200oC to 3000C and d stored
d in an
oven at 110oC to 150oC
y Other types of electrode release large amount of
hydrogen, which can dissolve in the weld metal
and lead to embrittlement or cracking.
Welding Positions
Welding Positions W ldi C
Welding Current
t Welding Voltage
y Welding current depends upon: the thickness of the y The arc voltage depends only upon the arc length
welded metal, type of joint, welding speed, position of
the weld, the thickness and type of the coating on the V = k1 + k2l Volts
electrode and its working length.
Fig. The position of electrode for horizontal welding y Welding current, I = k. d, amperes; d is dia. (mm)
Where l is the arc length in mm and k1 and k2 are
constants,
t t
k1 = 10 to 12; and k2 = 2 to 3
The minimum Arc voltage is given by
g g y
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 45 of 240 Vmin = (20 + 0.04 l) Volt Rev.0
Fig. Positioning of electrode for welding in vertically upward position
Arc Length A long arc results in
y For good welds, a short arc length is necessary, y Large heat
h loss
l into
i atmosphere.
h
because: y Unstable arc.
1. Heat is concentrated. y Weld pool is not protected.
2. More stable y Weld has low strength,
strength less ductility,
ductility poor fusion and
3. More protective atmosphere. excessive spatter.
Contd… Fig. Arc Power Vs Arc Length
Arc length should be equal to the diameter of the electrode size G 2002 C i l
GATE‐2002, Conventional ( )
GATE‐2010 (PI)
Duringg a steadyy g gas metal arc welding g with direct
The
h arc length‐voltage
l h l characteristic
h off a DC arc is given current electrode positive polarity, the welding current,
by the equation: V = 24 + 4L,
4L where V is voltage in volts voltage and weld speed are 150 A, 30 V and 6 m/min,
respectively. A metallic wire electrode of diameter 1.2
and L is arc length in mm. The static volt‐ampere mm is being fed at a constant rate of 12 m/min. The
d it specific
density, ifi heat
h t and d melting
lti t
temperature
t off the
th
characteristic of the power source is approximated by a wire electrode are 7000 kg/m3, 500 J/kgoC and 1530oC,
Bead width should be equal to three diameter of the electrode size straight
h line
l with
h a no load
l d voltage
l off 80 V and
d a short
h respectively Assume the ambient temperature to be 30oC
respectively.
and neglect the latent heat of melting. Further, consider
circuit current of 600A. Determine the optimum arc that two
two‐third
third of the total electrical power is available for
melting of the wire electrode. The melting efficiency (in
length for maximum power. percentage)
p g of the wire electrode is
(a) 39.58 (b) 45.25 (c) 49.38 (d) 54.98
GATE‐2008 GATE‐2006
In arc welding of a butt joint, the welding speed is In an arc welding process, the voltage and current
( )
GATE‐2009 (PI)
to be selected such that highest cooling rate is are 25 V and 300 A respectively. The arc heat Autogenous gas tungsten arc welding of a steel
achieved. Melting efficiency and heat transfer transfer efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8
efficiency are 0.5 and 0.7, respectively. The area of mm/sec. The net heat input (in J/mm) is plate is carried out with welding current of 500 A,
the
h weld ld cross section is 5 mm2 and d the
h unit (a) 64 voltage of 20 V, and weld speed of 20 mm/sec.
energy required to melt the metal is 10 J/mm3. If (b) 797
the
h welding
ld power is 2 kW,
k the
h welding
ld speedd in Consider the heat transfer efficiency from the arc
mm/s is closest to (c) 1103
to the weld pool as 90%. The heat input per unit
(a) 4 (b) 14 (c) 24 (d) 34 (d) 79700
length (in KJ/mm) is
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 46 of 240 (a) 0.25 (b) 0.35 (c) 0.45 (d) 0.55
Rev.0
Example Arc blow in DC arc welding
y Arc blow occurs during
g the welding
g of magnetic
g
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of materials with DC.
arc‐weldingg of steel with a p
potential of 20 V and y The effect of arc blow is maximum when welding
g
a current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s corners where magnetic field concentration is
and .the
the cross
cross‐sectional
sectional area of the joint is 20 maximum.
2 y The effect is particularly noticeable when welding with
mm . Heat required to melt steel may be taken
bare electrodes or when using currents below or above
as 10 J/mm3 and the heat transfer efficiency as y Again the problem of arc blow gets magnified when
0.85. welding highly magnetic materials such as Ni alloys,
because of the strong magnetic fields set up by these
metals.
y Cause: Unbalanced magnetic forces.
Contd… Contd…
Effect of arc blow The effects of arc blow can be minimized with D.C. IES‐2001
welding by
y Low heat penetration. Arc blow is more common in
y Shortening the arc.
y Excessive weld spatter.
p (a) A.C. welding
.C. e d g
y Reduce
R d currentt
y Pinch effect in welding is the result of electromagnetic (b) D.C. welding with straight polarity
y Reducing weld speed.
forces (c) D.C. welding with bare electrodes
D C elding ith bare electrodes
y Balance magnetic field by placing one ground lead at
y Weld spatter occurs due to (d) A.C. welding with bare electrodes
each end of the work piece.
¾High
Hi h welding
ldi currentt
y Wrapping the electrode cable a few turns around the
¾Too small an electrode arc
work piece.
p
Contd…
IES 2013
IES‐2013
Statement (I): The deflection of Arc from its intended IES‐2001 ISRO‐2006
path is called ‘Arc
Arc blow.
blow’ Too
T high
hi h welding
ldi currentt ini arc welding
ldi would ld result
lt in
i
Pinch effect in welding is the result of
Statement (II): The chances of Arc blow is common in (a) Excessive spatter, under cutting along edges, irregular
(a) Expansion of gases in the arc
pa s o o gases t e a c
A C Arc
A.C. A welding.
ldi deposits, wasted electrodes
(b) Electromagnetic forces
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually (b) Excessive ppiling
g up
p of weld metal, ppoor p
penetration,
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of (c) Electric force
wasted electrodes
Statement (I) (d) Surface tension of the molten metal
(c) Too small bead, weak weld and wasted electrodes
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually (d) Excessive piling up of weld metal, overlapping
true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
p of without penetration of edges,
edges wasted electrodes
Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement For-2015
(I) is false(IES, GATE & PSUs)
but Statement (II) is true Page 47 of 240 Rev.0
Gas shields y Helium, most expensive, has a better thermal Carbon Arc welding
y An inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away conductivity, is useful for thicker sheets, copper and y Arc is produced between a carbon electrode and the
other
th atmospheric
t h i gases. aluminium welding,
welding higher deposition rate.
rate work.
k
y Gases are argon,

argon helium,
helium nitrogen,
nitrogen carbon dioxide and y The arc in carbon dioxide shielding
g g
gas is unstable, y Shielding is not used.
used
a mixture of the above gases. least expensive, deoxidizers needed.
y No pressure
p
y Argon ionizes easily requiring smaller arc voltages.It is y It is a heavy gas and therefore covers the weld zone
y With or without filler metal
good for welding thin sheets. very well.
ll
y May be used in "twin arc method", that is, between
two carbon (graphite) electrodes.
Contd…
IES 2010
IES 2010 Tungsten Inert Gas welding (TIG) y Very clean welds.
Assertion ((A): ) g
Straight p y is always
polarity y
y Arc is established between a non‐consumable y All metals and alloys can be welded.
welded (Al,
(Al Mg also)
recommended for Carbon‐electrode welding.
tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
Reason (R): Carbon arc is stable in straight polarity. y Straight polarity is used.
y Tungsten is alloyed with thorium or zirconium for
better current‐carrying y g and electron‐emission y Weld voltage 20 to 40 V and weld current 125 A for
characteristics.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the RPDC to 1000 A for SPDC.
y Arcc length
e gt iss coconstant,
sta t, aarcc iss stab
stablee aand
d easy to
correct explanation
l i off A
maintain. y Shielded Gas: Argon
y With or without filler.
filler
(d) A is false but R is true y Torch
h is water or air cooled.
l d
Contd…
GATE 2011 IES 2010

IES 2010
Which one among the following welding processes In an inert g gp
gas welding process,, the commonly
y used
used non – consumable electrode? gas is
( ) G t l ldi
(a) Gas metal arc welding (a) Hydrogen
(b) Submerged arc welding (b) Oxygen
(c) Gas tungsten arc welding ( ) Helium
(c) H li or Argon
A
(d) Flux coated arc welding (d) Krypton

Fig. TIG Page 48 of 240 Rev.0
GATE‐2002 IES‐1994
ISRO‐2009 Which of the following arc welding processes does Which one of the following welding processes
Following gases are used in tungsten inert not use consumable electrodes? uses non‐ consumable electrodes?
gas welding
ldi (a) GMAW (a) TIG welding
(a) CO2 and H2 (b) GTAW (b) MIG welding
(b) Argon and neon (c) Submerged Arc Welding (c) Manual arc welding
(c) Argon and helium (d) None of these
N f th (d) Submerged arc welding.
S b d ldi
(d) Helium and neon
IES‐2013
Statement ((I):
) Non consumable electrodes,, used in arc
IES‐2000 welding are made of high melting point temperature Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or MIG
materials,, even then the length g of electrode g goes on
Which one of the following statements is correct? decreasing with passage of time. y A consumable electrode in a gas shield.
(a) No flux is used in gas welding of mild steel
o u s used gas e d g o d stee Statement (II): The electrode material gets oxidized y Arc is between workpiece
p and an automaticallyy fed
(b) Borax is the commonly used flux coating on and melts on the weld material to form a strong flux. bare‐wire electrode.
welding electrodes (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually y Argon, helium, and mixtures of the two can be used.
(c) Laser beam welding employs a vacuum chamber true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of y Any metal can be welded but are used primarily with
and thus avoids use of a shielding method Statement (I) the non‐ferrous metals.
metals
(d) AC can be used for GTAW process (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually y When welding steel, some O2 or CO2 is usually added
true but
b Statement
S (II) is
i not the
h correct explanation
l i off t improve
to i th arc stability
the t bilit and
d reduce
d weld
ld spatter.
tt
Statement (I)
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true Contd…
IES 2007
In MIG welding, the metal is transferred into the
y Fast and economical. g
form of which one of the following?
y A reverse‐polarity
l d arc is generally
dc ll used
d because
b (a) A fine spray of metal
of its deep penetration, spray transfer, and ability
to produce
d smoothh welds
ld withh good
d profile.
fl (b) Molten drops
(c) Weld pool
(d) Molecules
l l

Fig. MIG
IES‐1997 IES 2013
IES‐2013 IES 2010
IES 2010
g statements:
Consider the following ( ) g
Assertion (A): Inert gas and bare electrode instead
Consider the following statements: of flux coated electrode is used in the case of
In metal are welding
MIG welding process uses
gp gp
automatic TIG and MIG welding processes.
1. Consumable electrode 2. non‐consumable electrode 1. Utilizes a consumable electrode
Reason (R): Better protection is provided by a cloud
3. D.C. power supply 4. A.C. power supply 2. A welding torch used is connected to acetylene gas of inert gas than the cover created by the flux.
Of these statements supply (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(a) 2 and 4 are correct 3. The
Th electrode
l t d and d work‐piece
k i are connected
t d to
t the
th correct explanation of A
(b) 2 and 3 are correct welding power supply (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
( ) 1 and 4 are correct
(c) d Which of these statements are correct? correctt explanation
l ti off A
(d) 1 and 3 are correct (c) A is true but R is false
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
IES 2012
IES ‐ Submerged Arc welding (SAW)
() C p y
Statement (I): DC with reverse polarity is used in MIG G
welding y A thick layer of granular flux is deposited just ahead of y Most suitable
bl for
f flat
fl butt
b or fillet
f ll welds
ld in low
l
( ) p y
Statement (II):Use of DC with reverse polarity enables carbon steel (< 0.3% carbon).
a bare
b wire
i consumable
bl electrode,
l t d and d an arc is
i
deeper penetration and a clean Surface
((a)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are maintained beneath the blanket of flux with onlyy a few y The process is not recommended for high‐carbon
g
small flames being visible. steels, tool steels, aluminum, magnesium,
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are y A portion of the flux melts. Molten flux and flux titanium, lead, or zinc.
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I) provides thermal insulation, slows cooling rate and
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false produce soft,
soft ductile welds.
welds
Contd…
Characteristic of submerged arc welding Advantages
y High speeds, y Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
y High deposition rates, y No weld spatter.
y Deep penetration,
Deep penetration y Nearly 100% deposition efficiency.
Nearly 100% deposition efficiency
y High cleanliness (due to the flux action). y Lesser electrode consumption.

Limitations IES 2011 IES‐2006
The welding process in which bare wire is used as
y Extensive flux handling, In which of the following welding processes, flux
electrode, granular flux is used and the process is
g
is used in the form of granules?
y Contamination of the flux by moisture.
characterized by its high speed welding,
welding is known as:
(a) AC arc welding
(a) Shielded arc welding
y Large‐grain‐size
Large grain size structures.
structures (b) Submerged arc welding
(b) Plasma arc welding
(c) Argon arc welding
y Welding is restricted to the horizontal position. (c) Submerged
g arc welding g
(d) DC arc welding
C ldi
(d) Gas metal arc welding
y Chemical control is important
IES‐2005 IES‐2008 GATE‐1999

Which of the following are the major Assertion (A):( ) Submerged arc welding is not For butt ‐welding 40 mm thick steel plates, when
characteristics of submerged arc welding? recommended for high carbon steels, tool steels, the expected quantity of such jobs is 5000 per
aluminium, magnesium etc.
1. High welding speeds. Reason (R): This is because of unavailability of month over a period of 10 year, choose the best
2. High deposition rates. suitable fluxes, reactivity at high temperatures and suitable welding process out of the following
l
low sublimation
bli i temperatures. available
l bl alternatives.
l
3. Low penetration.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
4. Low cleanliness.
4 of A (a) Submerged
g arc welding
g
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct (b) Oxy‐acetylene welding
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3
1 2 and 3 explanation of A
(c) Electron beam welding
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 (d) A is false but R is true (d) MIG welding
Atomic Hydrogen welding (AHW) IES‐2005
y Temperature
p 3700oC.
of about 37
y An
A a.c. arc is
i formed
f d between
b two tungsten electrodes
l d In atomic hydrogen welding, hydrogen acts as
along which streams of hydrogen are fed to the y Hydrogen acts as shielding also.
welding zone.
zone The molecules of hydrogen are (a) A heating agent
eat g age t
dissociated by the high heat of the arc in the gap y Used for very thin sheets or small diameter wires. (b) One of the gases to generate the flame
between the electrodes.
electrodes The formation of atomic (c) An effective shielding gas protecting the weld
An effecti e shielding gas protecting the eld
hydrogen proceeds with the absorption of heat: y Lower thermal efficiency than Arc welding.
(d) A lubricant to increase the flow characteristics of
H2 = 2H ‐ 421.2
421 2 k J / mol
y Ceramics may be arc welded. weld metal
ld l
y This atomic hydrogen recombines to form molecular
hydrogen outside the arc, particularly on the relatively y AC used.
used
cold surface of the work being welded, releasing the
heat g
gained ppreviously:
y
H2 + 421.2
2H =For-2015 k J GATE
(IES, / mol. & PSUs) Page 51 of 240 Rev.0
Contd…
Resistance Welding
y They are not officially classified as solid‐state welding
Principle
y Both heat and pressure are used. by the American Welding Society.
Resistance Welding y Heat is generated by the electrical resistance of the y Very rapid and economical.
work pieces and the interface between them.
y Pressure is supplied externally and is varied y Extremely
l well
ll suited
d to automated
d manufacturing.
f
g
throughout the weld cycle.
y
y No filler metal,
metal no flux,
flux no shielding gases.
gases
y Due to pressure, a lower temperature needed than
oxy‐fuel
oxy fuel or arc welding.
By S K Mondal Contd… Contd…
y Overall resistance very low.
y Very high‐current (up to 100,000 A)
y Very low‐voltage
l l (
(0.5 to 10 V)) is
i used.
d
Fig. The desired temperature Fig.

g Typical
yp current and
distribution across the pressure cycle for resistance
electrodes and the work welding. The cycle includes
pieces in lap resistance forging and post heating
welding. operations. Fig. The arrangement of the electrodes and the work in spot
FIG. The fundamental resistance‐welding circuit welding, showing design for replaceable electrode tips.
Advantages Limitations
IES 2007
1. Very rapid. 1. High initial cost.
What is the principle of resistance welding?
2. Fully automation possible. 2. Limitations to the type of joints (mostly lap joints).
Indicate where the resistance is maximum in spot
welding operation. 3 Conserve material; no filler metal,
3. metal shielding gases,
gases or 3 Skilled maintenance personne1 are required:
3.
flux is required.
q 4. special surface treatment needed.
[
[ 2 marks]
k ]
4. Skilled operators are not required.
5.Dissimilar metals can be easily joined.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) 6. High reliability and High

Page 52reproducibility.
of 240 Rev.0
Application Different types Resistance spot welding
y The process description given so far is called resistance
y The resistance welding processes are among the 1. Resistance spot welding
spot welding (RSW) or simply spot welding.
most common technique for high volume 2. Resistance seam welding y This is essentially done to join two sheet‐metal jobs in
joining. p jjoint, forming
a lap g a small nugget
gg at the interface of
3 Projection welding
3.
the two plates.
4. Upset welding
5. Flash welding
6. Percussion welding
Heat input and Efficiency Calculations Electric Resistance Welding

IES‐2003
In resistance welding, heat is generated due to the
JJoule’s law applicable
pp resistance between
Q = I2 Rt, Joules (a) Electrode and workpiece
(b) Asperities between touching plates
(c) Two dissimilar metals being in contact
(d) Inter atomic forces
i f
Contd…
IES‐2001 GATE‐2007 GATE‐2009 (PI) Linked S‐1

Two metallic sheets,, each of 2.0 mm thickness,, are welded in a lap
p jjoint Resistance spot welding of two steel sheets is carried out in
configuration by resistance spot welding at a welding current of 10 kA
The maximum heat in resistance welding is at the and welding time of 10 millisecond. A spherical fusion zone extending lap joint configuration by using a welding current of 3 kA and
up to the full thickness of each sheet is formed. The properties of the gg of volume 20 mm3
a weld time of 0.2 S. A molten weld nugget
(a) Tip of the positive electrode
p o t e pos t e e ect ode metallic sheets are given as:
(b) Tip of the negative electrode ambient temperature = 293 K is obtained. The effective contact resistance is 200 µΩ
melting temperature = 1793 K (micro‐ohms). The material properties of steel are given as:
(c) Top surface of the plate at the time of electric l t t heat
latent h t off fusion
f i = 300 kJ/kgkJ/k
(i) latent heat of melting: 1400 kJ/kg, (ii) density: 8000
density = 7000 kg/m3
contact with the electrode specific heat = 800 J/kg K kg/m3, (iii) melting temperature: 1520oC, (iv) specific heat:
(d) Interface between the two plates being Joined
f b h l b i i d Assume: kJ/k oC.
0.5 kJ/kg C The
Th ambient
bi i 20oC.
temperature is C
(i) Contact resistance along sheet‐sheet interface is 500 micro‐ohm and
along electrode‐sheet interface is zero; Heat (in Joules) used for producing weld nugget will be
( ) No conductive heat loss through the bulk sheet materials; and
(ii) (
(assuming 100%
% heat
h transfer
f efficiency)
ff )
(iii) The complete weld fusion zone is at the melting temperature.
The meltingg efficiencyy (in %) of the p
process is (a) 324 (b) 334 (c) 344 (d) 354
(a) 50.37 (b) 60.37 (c) 70.37 (d) 80.37
GATE‐2009 (PI) Linked S‐2 GATE‐2005 GATE‐2001
Resistance spot welding of two steel sheets is carried out in
lap joint configuration by using a welding current of 3 kA and Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel Resistance spot welding is performed on two
gg of volume 20 mm3
a weld time of 0.2 S. A molten weld nugget (density = 8000 kg/m3) is carried out successfully plates of 1.5 mm thickness with 6 mm diameter
is obtained. The effective contact resistance is 200 µΩ by passing a certain amount of current for 0.1 electrode, using 15000 A current for a time
(micro‐ohms). The material properties of steel are given as: second through the electrodes. The resultant weld duration of 0.25 seconds. Assuming the interface
(i) latent heat of melting: 1400 kJ/kg, (ii) density: 8000 nugget formed
f d is 5 mm in diameter
d andd 1.5 mm resistance to be
b 0.0001 Ω , the
h heat
h generated
d to
kg/m3, (iii) melting temperature: 1520oC, (iv) specific heat: thick. If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 form the weld is
kJ/k oC.
0.5 kJ/kg C The
Th ambient
bi i 20oC.
temperature is C k k and
kJ/kg d the
h effective
ff resistance in the
h welding
ld (a) 5625 W‐sec (b) 8437 W‐sec
Heat (in Joules) dissipated to the base metal will be operation in 200 µΩ , the current passing through (c) 22500
5 W‐secsec (d) 3375
33750 W‐sec
sec
(
(neglecting
l all
ll other
h heat
h l
losses)
) the
h electrodes
l d is approximately l
(a) 10 (b) 16 (c) 22 (d) 32 (a) 1480A (b) 3300 A
(c) 4060 A (d) 9400 A
GATE‐2004 GATE‐1992 GATE‐2010

Two 1 mm thick steel sheets are to be spot welded For resistance spot welding of 1.5 mm thick steel Two pipes of inner diameter 100 mm and outer
at a current of 5000 A. Assuming effective sheets, the current required is of the order of diameter 110 mm each joined by flash butt
resistance to be 200 micro‐ohms and current flow (a) 10 A welding using 30 V power supply. At the interface,
time of 0.2 second, heat generated during the (b) 100 A 1 mm of material melts from each pipe which has
process willll be
b a resistance off 42.4 Ω. Iff the
h unit melt
l energy is
(c) 1000 A 64.4 MJm‐3, then time required for welding in
(a) 0.2 Joule (b) 1 Joule
(d) 10,000 A seconds
d is
(c) 5 Joule (d) 1000 Joules
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 10 (d) 20
GATE‐2014 IES 2007 C ti l

IES 2007 Conventional GATE – 2008 (PI)
Two steel sheets of thickness one mm are welded
For
F spott welding
ldi off two
t steel
t l sheets
h t (base
(b metal)
t l) each
h off by resistance projection welding technique. A Aluminum strips of 2 mm thickness are joined together
3 mm thickness,, welding
g current of 10000 A is applied
pp current of 30,000 A for 0∙005 second is made to by resistance spot welding process by applying an
flow. The effective resistance of joint can be taken electric current of 6000 A for 0.15 sec. The heat required
for 0.2 s. The heat dissipated to the base metal is 1000 J. as 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as for meltingg aluminum is 2.9 J/mm3. The diameter and
9 J/
Assuming that the heat required for melting 1 mm3 a cylinder of diameter 5 mm and height 1∙5 mm.
the thickness of weld nugget are found to be 5 mm and
The density of steel is 0∙00786 gm/mm3. The heat
volume
l off steel
t l is
i 20 J and
d interfacial
i t f i l contact
t t resistance
i t needed for welding steel is 10 J/mm3. Calculate the 2 5 mm,
2.5 mm respectively.
respectively Assuming the electrical resistance
between sheets is 0.0002Ω,, the volume ((in mm3) of weld efficiency of welding. [20] to be 75 µΩ (micro – ohms), the percentage of total
energy utilized in forming the weld nugget is
nugget is …………….
(a) 28 (b) 35 (c) 65 (d) 72
IAS‐2003 Resistance seam welding y Welding current is a bit higher than spot welding, to
compensate short circuit of the adjacent weld.
Assertion (A):
( ) Spot welding is adopted to weld two
overlapped metal pieces between two electrode y Weld is made between overlapping sheets of metal. y In other process a continuous seam is produced by
points. passing a continuous current through the rotating
Th seam is
The i a series
i off overlapping
l i spott welds.
ld
Reason (R): In this process when current is switched electrodes with a speed of 1.5 m/min for thin sheet.
on, the lapped pieces of metal are heated in a
restricted
i d area. y The basic equipment is the same as for spot welding.
welding
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct except that the electrodes are now in the form of
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the rotating disks.
(c) A is true but R is false y Timed pulses of current pass to form the overlapping
welds.
welds
Contd… Contd…
Projection welding
( )
GATE – 2012 (PI) y Limitations of spot welding.
In resistance seam welding, the electrode is in the 1. Electrode condition must be maintained
f
form off a continually, and only one spot weld at a time.
(a) cylinder 2. For additional strength multiple welds needed.
(b) flat plate y Projection welding (RPW) overcomes above
((c)) coil of wire limitations.
limitations
(d) circular disc
Fig. Resistance seam welding
Contd…
y Dimples are embossed on work pieces at the weld

y Projections are press‐formed in any shape.
Upset welding
locations and then p g
placed between large‐area
electrodes, and pressure and current applied like spot y Multiple welds at a time. y Made butt joint compared to lap joint.
welding.
g
y Current flows through the dimples and heats them y No indentation mark on the surface. y Pieces are held tightly and current is applied.
and pressure causes the dimples to flatten and form a y Due to pressure joints get slightly upset and hence its
y Bolts and nuts can be attached to other metal parts.
weld.
name.
Fig. Principle of y Useful for joining rods or similar pieces.

projection welding,
j ti ldi
(a) prior to application of
current and pressure
( )
(b) and after formation of
For-2015 (IES, GATE &welds
PSUs) Page 55 of 240 Rev.0
Contd… Contd…
y This is the process used for making electric resistance‐ Flash Welding
welded (ERW) pipes starting from a metal plate of suitable
thickness. y It is similar to upset welding except the arc rather than
y The plate is first formed into the shape of the pipe with the resistance
i t h ti
heating.
help of the three roll set as shown in Fig. above. The ends
of the p
plate would then be forming g the butt jjoint. y One pieces is clamped with cam controlled movable
y The two rotating copper disc electrodes are made to
contact the two ends of the p plate through g which the platen and other with is fixed platen.
current is passed. The ends get heated and then forge‐
welded under the p pressure of the rolls.
y The ends of the pieces to be upset welded must be perfectly
parallel. Anyy high
p g spots
p if p
present on the ends would g get
melted first before the two ends are completely joined.
Contd… Contd…
y Two pieces are brought together and the power supply is Percussion Welding
switched on. Momentarilyy the two p p
pieces are separated
to create the arc to melt the ends of the two pieces. y Similar to flash welding except arc power by a rapid
g
Then again the p
pieces are brought
g together
g and the
discharge of stored electrical energy.
energy
power switched off while the two ends are fused under
force. Most of the metal melted would flash out y The arc duration is only
y 1 to 10 ms, heat is intense and
through the joint and forms like a fin around the joint. highly concentrated.
y Faster than upset welding.
y Small weld metal is produced, little or no upsetting, and
low HAZ.
HAZ
y Application: Butt welding of bar or tube where heat

damage is a major concern.
Contd…
Thermit Welding y Temp. 2750°C produced in 30 seconds, superheating
y Heating and coalescence is by superheated molten the molten iron which provide both heat and filler
Other Welding metal
t l obtained
bt i d from
f a chemical
h i l reaction
ti
metal oxide and a metallic reducing
b t
between
g agent.
g
a metal.
metal
y Runners and risers are provided like casting.

Technique
h i y Used mixture one part aluminum and three parts iron y Copper, brass, and bronze can be welded using a
oxide and ignited by a magnesium fuse. (1150°C). different starting mixture.
8Al+ 3Fe3O4 → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat y Used to joint thick sections, in remote locations.

Contd…
IES‐2000 Electro Slag Welding y A 65‐mm deep layer of molten slag, protect and
Consider the following processes: y Very effective for welding thick sections. cleanse the molten metal.
1. Gas welding
2. Thermit welding y Heat is derived from the passage of electrical current y Water‐cooled
W l d copper molding
ldi plates
l confined
fi d the
h
33. Arc welding g through a liquid slag and temp.
temp 1760
1760°C
C liquid and moved upward.
4. Resistance welding
y Multiple electrodes are used to provide an adequate
The correct sequence of these processes in increasing
order of their welding temperatures is supply of filler.
(a) 1, 3, 4, 2
1 3 4 2 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4
1 2 3 4
(c) 4, 3, 1, 2 (d) 4, 1, 3, 2
Contd… Contd…
y Applications: Shipbuilding, machine manufacture, IAS‐2003

heavy pressure vessels, and the joining of large Which one of the following is not an electric
castings and forgings.
forgings g
resistance method of welding?
(a) Electro slag welding
y Slow cooling
gpproduces a coarse g
grain structure. (b) Percussion welding
y Large HAZ. (c) Seam welding
(d) Flash welding
l h ldi
Contd…
IAS‐2000 Electron Beam Welding
Consider the following welding processes: y A beam of electrons is magnetically focused on the
1.. TIG welding
G ed g 2.. Sub
Submerged arc welding
e ged a c e d g
work
k piece
i i a vacuum chamber.
in h b
3. Electro‐slag welding 4. Thermit welding
Which of these elding processes are used for elding
Which of these welding processes are used for welding y Heat of fusion is produced by electrons decelerate.
decelerate
thick pieces of metals?
y Allows precise
p beam control and deep
p weld
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(a) d (b) 1, 2 and 4
d
penetration.
(c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
y No shield gas (vacuum chamber used)

IES‐2004 IES‐2002 IES‐1993
Assertion (A): In electron beam welding process, In which one of the following welding techniques Electron beam welding can be carried out in
vacuum is an essential process parameter is vacuum environment required? (a) Ope
Open air
a
Reason (R): Vacuum provides a highly efficient (a) Ultrasonic welding
shield on weld zone (b) A shielding gas environment
(b) Laser beam welding (c) A pressurized inert gas chamber
A pressuri ed inert gas chamber
correct explanation of A (c) Plasma arc welding (d) Vacuum
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (d) Electron beam welding
l b ldi
IAS‐2004 Laser Beam Welding y Very thin HAZ and little thermal distortion.

Which one of the following welding processes y Used a focused laser beam provides power intensities y Filler metal and inert gas shield may or may not used.
consists of smaller Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)?
in kW/ 2
i excess off 10kW/cm y Deep penetration.
(a) Arc welding (b) Electron beam welding
(c) MIG welding (d) Thermit welding y The high
high‐intensity
intensity beam produces a very thin column y No
N vacuum needed.
d d
of vaporized metal with a surrounding liquid pool.
y No direct contact needed.
needed
y Depth‐to‐width ratio greater than 4: 1.
Contd… Contd…
y Heat input is very low, often in the range 0.1 to 10 J. IES 2007 IES‐2006
Consider the following statements in respect of the Which one of the following welding processes
y Adopted by the electronics industry.
laser beam welding: consists of minimum heat affected zone (HAZ)?
y Possible to weld wires without removing the 1. It can be used for welding any metal or their
I b d f ldi l h i
combinations because of very high temperature of the (a) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMA W)
polyurethane insulation.
insulation focal points.
focal points (b) Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
2. Heat affected zone is very large because of quick (c) Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
heating.
(d) Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
l G ldi ( G)
3. High vacuum is required to carry the process.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(c) 1 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Contd…
GATE‐2012 (PI) IAS‐2007 IAS‐1999
Which of the following welding processes results in Consider the following welding processes: Match List I (Shielding
( method)) with List II (Welding
(
process) and select the correct answer using the codes
the smallest heat affected zone? 1.. Arcc welding
ed g 2.. MIG
G welding
ed g given below the lists:
g
(a) Shielded metal arc welding List I List II
3. Laser beam welding 4. Submerged arc
A. Flux coating 1. Gas metal arc welding
(b) Gas welding welding B
B. Fl granules
Flux l 2. S b
Submerged d arc welding
ldi
(c) Laser beam welding Select the correct sequence in increasing order of Heat C. CO2 3. Shielded metal arc welding
affected zone (HAZ) using the code D Vacuum
D. 4
4. Laser beam welding
(d) Thermit
h i welding
ldi
5. Electron beam welding
given below: Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 ‐ 2 ‐ 3 – 4 (b) 1 ‐ 4 ‐ 2 – 3 (a) 1 2 5 3 (b) 1 4 2 5
(c) 3 5 1 4 (d) 3 2 1 5
((c)) 3 ‐ 2 ‐ 4 – 1 ((d)) 4 ‐ 3 ‐ 2 – 1
Forge Welding Friction Welding
y Machine is similar to a centre lathe.
y Blacksmith do this. y Heat is obtained by the friction between the ends of
y Power requirements 25 kVA to 175 kVA.
y Borax is used as a flux. th two
the t parts
t to
t be
b joined.
j i d
y The axial pressure depends on the strength and
y The ends to be joined were then overlapped on the y One part is rotated at a high speed and other part is
h d
hardness off the
h metals
l being
b joined.
d
anvil and hammered to the degree
g necessaryy to axially aligned and pressed tightly against it.
y Pressure 40 MPa for low‐carbon
low carbon steels to as high as 450
produce an acceptable weld. y Friction raises the temperature of both the ends. Then
MPa for alloy steels.
y Quality depends on the skill of the worker and not rotation is stopped abruptly and the pressure is
used
d by
b industry.
i d increased to join.
join
Contd… Contd…
y Very efficient.
GATE‐2007
y Wide variety of metals or combinations of metals can Which one of the following is a solid state joining
be jjoined such as aluminium to steel.
process??
y Grain size is refined
y Strength is same as base metal.
metal (a) Gas tungsten arc welding
y Only round bars or tubes of the same size, or (b) Resistance spot welding
p g
connecting
i bars
b or tubes b to flat
fl surfaces
f can join.
j i
y One of the components must be ductile. (c) Friction welding
y Friction welding is a solid state welding. (d) submerged arc welding
y A low contact pressure may be applied initially to
permit cleaning of the
For-2015 surfaces
(IES, GATEby& aPSUs)
burnishing action. Page
Fig‐ 59 of 240
friction welding process Rev.0
Contd…
GATE‐2013
pairs
Match the CORRECT pairs.
GATE‐2014 G 20 0 ( )
GATE ‐2010 (PI)
Processes Characteristics/Applications
In solid‐state welding, the contamination layers P. Friction Welding 1.Non‐consumable electrode Two steell bars,
b each
h off diameter
d 10 mm, are coaxially
ll
b t
between th surfaces
the f t be
to b welded
ld d are removed
d by
b Q. Gas Metal Arc
Q Gas Metal Arc 2 Joining of thick plates
2. Joining of thick plates friction welded,
welded end to end,
end at an axial pressure of 200
Welding MPa and at a rotational speed of 4000 rpm. The
(a) alcohol R T
R. Tungsten Inert Gas
t I t G 3. Consumable electrode wire
C bl l t d i
Welding coefficient of friction between the mating faces of the
(b) p
plastic deformation
S. Electroslag Welding 4. Joining of cylindrical rotating bars
b is 0.50. The
h torque is assumed
d to act at the
h
(c) water jet dissimilar materials 3/4th radius of the rotating bar. The power (in KW)
(d) sand blasting consumed at the interface for welding is
( ) 4 Q3
(a)P‐4, Q‐3, R‐1, S‐2 ( ) 4 Q
(b)P‐4, Q‐2, R‐3, S‐1
3
(c) P‐2, Q‐3, R‐4, S‐1 (d) P‐2, Q‐4, R‐1, S‐3 (a) 12.33 (b) 16.44 (c) 18.50 (d) 24.66
Ultrasonic Welding (USW) • Restricted to the lap joint

IFS‐2011 • USW is a solid‐state welding.
• Weld thin materials sheet, foil, and wire
materials‐sheet, or the
wire‐‐or
attaching thin sheets to heavier structural members.
Discuss with figure the various steps required for • High‐frequency
g q y (10 to 200, KHz) is applied.
pp • Maximum thickness 2.5 2 5 mm for aluminum and 1.0 10
friction welding, mentioning at least two methods • Surfaces are held together under light normal mm for harder metals.
pressure. • N b off metals
Number t l andd dissimilar
di i il metal t l combinations
bi ti
of control.
• Temp. do not exceed one‐half of the melting point. and non metals can be joined such as aluminum to
[
[5‐marks]
k ] • The
Th ultrasonic
lt i transducer
t d i same as ultrasonic
is lt i ceramics
i or glass.
l
machining. • Equipment is simple and reliable.
• Less surface preparation and less energy is needed.
Contd… Contd…
Explosion Welding
pp
Applications Important factors are,
y Done at room temperature in air, water or vacuum.
y Joining the dissimilar metals in bimetallics y Critical velocity
y
y Making microcircuit electrical contacts.
y Surface contaminants tend to be blown off the surface. y Critical angle
y Welding refractory or reactive metals
W ldi f i l y Typical impact pressures are millions of psi.
psi y The cladding plate can be supported with tack welded
supports at the edges, or the metal inserts.
y Bonding ultrathin metal.
g y Well suited to metals that is prone to brittle joints
when heat welded, such as,
y Aluminum on steel
y Titanium on steel
Contd… Contd…
y Typically the detonation velocity should not exceed High velocity explosives, 4572‐7620 m/s.
120% of the sonic velocity in the metal. y TNT g ,
Advantages,
y RDX
y PETN
y Can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable
y Composition
C iti B metals
y Composition C4 y The lack of heating preserves metal treatment
y Datasheet
y The
Th process isi compact, portable,
bl andd easy to contain
i
y Primacord
Medium velocity explosives, 1524‐4572 m/s y Inexpensive
y Ammonium nitrate y No need for surface preparation
y Ammonium perchlorate
y Amatol
y Nitroguonidine
y Dynamites
y diluted PETN
Disadvantages, yp pp
Typical applications:
y The metals must have high enough impact resistance,
and ductilityy ((at least 55%)) y Very large plates can be cladded.
y The cladding plate cannot be too large. y Joins dissimilar metals.
y Noise and blast can require worker protection,
protection vacuum
chambers, buried in sand/water. (titanium to steel, Al to steel, Al to Cu etc.)
y Join tube to tube sheets of large heat exchangers.
Contd… Contd…
IES 2011 S‐1 Contd…
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer
GATE‐1992 using the code given below the lists:
IES 2011 From S‐1
In an explosive welding process, the……….. Codes :
List‐I List –II
(maximum/minimum) velocity of impact is fixed A. Laser beam 1. Can be applied for welding or refractory metals A B C D A B C D
by the velocity of sound in the……………… welding like niobium, tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten. (a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 2 3 1 4
(flyer/target) plate material B. Electron 2. A sound and clean welded joint is created due to ((c)) 4 1 3 4 ( )
(d) 2 1 3 4
(a) Maximum; target beam welding rubbing of two parts against each other with
adequate speed and pressure producing intense heat
(b) M
Minimum; target
u ; ta get raising temperature above melting point.
raising temperature above melting point
(c) Maximum; flyer C. Ultrasonic 3. Clean heat source created much away from job, a
(d) Minimum; flyer
Mi i fl welding narrow spot is heated work chamber operates in a
narrow spot is heated, work chamber operates in a
high vacuum.
D. Friction
D Friction 4. Clean heat source very quick heating, very small
4 Clean heat source very quick heating, very small
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) welding focal spot, no vacuum chamber is required.
Page 61 of 240 Rev.0
IES‐2009 IAS‐2002
Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer using the code given Match List I, (Welding) with List II (Application) and select the correct
( ) ( )
IFS ‐ 2009
below the Lists: answer using the codes given below the Lists:
List‐I List‐II List I List II Two plates of aluminium and stainless steel are to
(Welding Process) (Application) (
(Welding) ) (
(Application) )
A. Laser welding 1. Uniting large‐area sheets
B. Friction welding 2. Repairing large parts
A. Explosive 1. Joining thick sheets be welded back to back to create a single plate of
C Ultrasonic welding
C. 3
3. Welding a rod to a flat surface B. Ultrasonic 2. Manufacture of heat exchanges g
D. Explosive welding 4. Fabrication of nuclear reactor C. Thermit 3. Joining thin sheets or wires of
similar/dissimilar metals
thickness equal to the sum of the thicknesses of
components
55. Welding very thin materials
g y D. Projection 4. Joining hydraulic piston rods for
Code: agricultural
l l machinery
h the two plates.
plates Suggest the suitable process and
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D 5. Joining rails, pipes and thick steel
5 4 3 2 1 4 2 5 sections explain it in brief.
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D (a) 2 5 1 3 (b) 4 5 1 3 [ 10 – marks]
1 3 4 2 5 3 4 1 (c) 2 3 5 1 (d) 4 3 5 1
Autogeneous Welding Micro Plasma Arc Weld (PAW) Diffusion Welding

y It is a solid state welding
g p
process which p
produces
y Autogeneous welding or fusion of the parent y Similar to GTAW except the plasma caused by the arc coalescence of the faying surfaces by the application of
material in an inert g
gas shield without the use pressure and elevated temperatures (about 50 to 80%
i constricted
is t i t d by
b a water‐cooled
t l d orifice
ifi of absolute melting point of the parent materials) for a
of filler metals.
time ranging from a couple of minutes to a few hours.
y Capable of high welding speeds where size permits
y Produces high quality bonds with good strength with
y Argon
g is used as the shielding
gggas. little or no distortion.
y Can join very dissimilar materials.
y A solid filler metal may or may not be inserted.
y Materials welded for aircraft and rocket industry:
Boron, Titanium, Aluminium, Ceramic, Composite,
Graphite, Magnesium etc.
JWM 2010
M h Li I i h Li II d l h
Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer
GATE – 2008 (PI) IAS‐2001 using the code given below the lists :
Which
h h pair among the
h following
f ll solid
l d state welding
ld Match List I (Welding processes) with List II (Features) and
( ) ( ) List I List II
select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
A. Atomic 1. Two pieces are brought together and
processes uses heat from an external source? h d
hydrogen welding
ldi power supply is switched on
l i i h d
List I List II
A. Ultrasonic welding 1. Gas heated to ionized condition
P – Diffusion welding; Q‐ Friction welding for conduction of electric current B. Plasma‐arc
B Plasma arc 22. Nugget is formed at the interface of
Nugget is formed at the interface of
B. Electron beam welding 2. High frequency and high
intensity vibrations welding two plates
R – Ultrasonic welding S – Forge welding
C
C. Plasma arc welding 3
3. Concentrated stream of high‐
Concentrated stream of high C Spot welding
C. Spot welding 3 Gas is ionized
3. Gas is ionized
energy electrons
(a) P and R (b) R and S 4. Exothermal chemical reaction D. Flash welding 4. Inert gas shielded arc welding
Codes:A
C d A B C A B C
(c) Q and S (d) P and S (a) 1 2 4 (b) 4 3 1 Code:A B C D A B C D
(c) 2 1 4 (d) 2 3 1
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 1 3 2 4
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 62 of 240 (c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 1 Rev.0
2 3 4
IES 2011 Conventional Brazing and Soldering
Discuss the process capabilities and applications of Gas y Brazing
B i is
i the
th joining
j i i off metals
t l through
th h the
th use off heat
h t
and a filler metal whose melting temperature is above
Metal Arc Welding, Gas tungsten Arc Welding, and 450°C; but below the melting
45 g p
point of the metals being g
joined.
Diffusion Bonding processes. Brazing and Soldering
g g Comparison with welding and the brazing process
1. The
Th compositionii off the
h brazing
b i alloy
ll isi significantly
i ifi l
[15 Marks] different from that of the base metal.
2 The strength of the brazing alloy is substantially lower
2.
than that of the base metal.
3. The melting point of the brazing alloy is lower than that
off the
h base
b metal,
l so the
h base
b metall is not melted.
l d
4. Capillary action or capillary attraction draws the
molten filler metal into the joint,
joint even against the flow of
gravity.
Brazing process has several distinct
Brazing process has several distinct
advantages:
g
Brazing metals are typically alloys such as,
1. All metals can be joined. y Brazing brass (60% Cu, 40%Zn)
g
2. Suited for dissimilar metals. y Manganese bronze
y Nickel silver
3. Quick and economical.
y Copper silicon
4. Less defects.
d f y Silver alloys (with/without phosphorous)
l ll ( h h h h )
y Copper phosphorous
5 Corrosion prone
5.
Contd… Contd…
y Extremely clean surface needed. y A popular composition is 75% borax and 25% boric
y Fluxes used are combinations of borax, boric acid, acid.
chlorides fluorides,
chlorides, fluorides tetra‐borates
tetra borates and other wetting y Sodium
S di cyanide
id is
i used
d in
i brazing
b i tungsten to copper.
agents.
g y Base materials not melted.
melted

Contd…
GATE‐2005 IES‐2006 S O 20 0
ISRO‐2010
Which is not correct statement about the function of
The strength of a brazed joint Which one of the following is not a fusion welding flux in brazing
(a) Decreases with increase in gap between the two
g p process? (a) To avoid thermal distortion and cracking
joining surfaces (a) Gas welding (b) To dissolve surface oxide coatings which have formed
(b) Increases with increase in gap between the two (b) Arc welding prior to brazing
joining surfaces (c) Brazing (c) To prevent oxides from forming during the brazing
(c) Decreases up to certain gap between the two (d) Resistance welding
i ldi operation
i on both
b h the
h base
b metall and
d the
h brazing
b i
joining surfaces beyond which it increases material
(d) Increases up to certain gap between the two
I t t i b t th t (d) To facilitate the wetting process by reducing the
joining surfaces beyond which it decreases viscosity of the melt
Braze Welding y Done with an oxyacetylene torch. Soldering

y Capillary action is not required. y By definition, soldering is a brazing type of operation
y Edge preparation needed. where

h th filler
the fill metal
t l has
h a melting
lti t
temperature
t
y Can join cast iron.

iron below 450°C.
45
y Strength of the filler metal is low.
y Soldering is used for a neat leak‐proof joint or a low

resistance electrical joint.
y Not
N suitable
i bl for
f high‐temp.
hi h application.
li i
Fig. Braze Welding
Contd… Contd…
Effective soldering generally involves six important

S ld M t l
Solder Metals S ld l
Solder Flux
steps: y Ammonium
A i chloride
hl id or rosin
i for
f soldering
ld i tinti
y Most solders are alloys of lead and tin.
(1) Design of an acceptable solder joint,
y Hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride for soldering
( ) Selection
(2) l off the
h correct solder
ld for
f the
h job,
b y Three commonly used alloys contain 60, 50, and 40%
(3) Selection of the proper type of flux, galvanized iron
tin and all melt below 240
240°C
C.
(4) Cleaning the surfaces to be joined, y Some fluxes are corrosive and should be removed after
(5) Application of flux,
flux solder,
solder and sufficient heat to
allow the molten solder to fill the joint by capillary use
action and solidify,
solidify and
(6) Removal of the flux residue, if necessary.

Contd…
GATE‐2014(PI)
y Silver solders uses for higher‐temperature
g p service,,
Brazing and Soldering are
d ld
y
Difficulties with Grey Cast Iron
Electrical and Electronic purpose.
Soldering and brazing are difficult of grey cast Iron due
(a) plastic joining methods
to surface contamination with graphite having a very low
(b) o oge eous jo
(b) homogeneous joining methods
g et ods
surface energy.
(c) autogenous joining methods
(d) heterogeneous joining methods
IES‐1994 IAS‐1996 W ldi d i

Welding design and defect
dd f
Match List ‐ I with List ‐ II and select the correct Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using Welding
W ldi Problem
P bl Causes
C
answer using the codes given below the Lists: the codes given below the lists Cracking of weld metal High joint rigidity
List I (Filler)
List ‐ List II (Joining process)
List ‐ List –II
List List‐II
List II Cracking of base metal Excessive stresses
A. Cu, Zn, Ag alloy 1. Braze welding. (Filler rod material) (Joining process) Spatter Arc blow
B Cu, Sn, alloy
B. Cu Sn alloy 2
2. Brazing A. Mild steel 1. MIG welding Distortion Poor joint selection
B. Bronze 2. Soldering
C. Pb, Sb, alloy 3. Soldering Slag inclusion Improper cleaning in multi-
C. Brass 3. Brazing
D.Iron oxide and aluminium p powder 4.
4 TIG welding of
g pass welding
aluminium D Lead and tin alloy
D. L d d ti ll 4. Th
Thermitit welding
ldi
5. Braze welding Porosity Excessive H2, O2, N2, in the
Codes:A B C D A B C D Codes:A B C D A B C D welding atmosphere or Damp
( ) 2
(a) 1 3 ‐ (b) 1 2 4 ‐ (a) 1 5 3 2 (b) 4 3 2 5 electrodes
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 2 ‐ 3 4 (c) 4 3 5 2 (d) 1 3 5 4 Lamellar Tearing inclusions such as Mn Fe and S
in the base metal and/or
h b l d
residual stress
IES‐2004 IES‐2003, ISRO‐2011 C k
Cracks
y Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in
Match List I (Welding problems) with List II (Causes) and select
( ) ( ) Match List I(Welding Defects) with List II (Causes) and
( ) ( ) the weld metal or base metal or base metal and weld
the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: select the correct answer using the codes given below the
List I List II Lists: metal boundary.
A. Cracking of weld metal 1. Excessive stresses List‐I List II y Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks,
B. Cracking of base metal 2. High joint rigidity (Welding Defects) (Causes)
C
C. Porosity 3
3. Failure to remove slag
g/
transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks in
A Spatter
A. S 1. D
Damp electrodes
l d
from previous deposit
B. Distortion 2. Arc blow
the weld crater.
D. Inclusions 4. Oxidation
5. E
Excessive H
i H2, O
O2, N
N2, in
i C Slag inclusion
C. 3
3. Improper cleaning in y Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate
the welding atmosphere multi‐pass welding tensile strength of material.
Codes:A B C D A B C D D. Porosity 4. Poor joint selection
(a) 2 1 5 3 (b) 3 4 2 1 Codes:A B C D A B C D y These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during
(c) 2 4 5 3 (d) 3 1 4 2 (a) 4 2 3 1 (b) 4 2 1 3 solidification of weld metal.
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 2 4 3 1
HAZ Cracking
HAZ Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cracking
Hydrogen Induced Cracking
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base y Due to the presence of moisture, grease, rust etc.,
metal,
metal high sulphur and carbon contents,
contents high arc travel y Cracking in heat affected zone may be caused by:
g y y
hydrogen may enter the weld pool and get dissolved in
h d h ld l d di l d i
speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld (i) Hydrogen in welding atmosphere the weld metal.
bead and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.
metal
y During cooling hydrogen diffuses to the HAZ.
(ii) hot cracking
y Cracking may develop due to residual stresses assisted by
g y p y
(iii) low ductility hydrogen coalesence.
y The factors that determine the probability of hydrogen
(iv) high residual stresses
induced embrittlement and cracking of weld are:
(v) brittle phase in the microstructure (a) Hydrogen content
(b) fracture toughness of weld and HAZ
Fig. Various Types of Cracks in Welds
f k ld (c) stress to which the joint is exposed as a result of
the weld thermal cycle.
Residual stress Porosity
y The residual stresses result from the restrained expansion y Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the
and contraction that occur during localized heating and solidifying weld metal.
cooling in the region of weld deposit. y These gases are generated from the flux or coating
y The magnitude of residual stresses depends on the weldment constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used
design support and clamping of the components being
design, during welding or from absorbed moisture in the
welded, their materials, welding process used, part coating.
dimensions,, welding g sequence,
q ,p
post weld treatment,, size of
y Porosity
P it can alsol b controlled
be t ll d if excessively
i l high
hi h
the deposited weld beads, etc.
welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc
y Residual stresses should not have a harmful effect on the
l
lengths
th are avoidedid d flux
fl and
d coated
t d electrodes
l t d are
strength performance of weldments, reduces fatigue
strength,
g Mayy cause distortion. This residual stress mayy properly baked.
result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not
important as far as a ductile material.
Solid Inclusion
Solid Inclusion
y Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other
nonmetallic material entrapped in the weld metal as
these may not able to float on the surface of the
solidifying weld metal.
metal
y During arc welding flux either in the form of granules or
coating after melting,
melting reacts with the molten weld metal
removing oxides and other impurities in the form of slag
and it floats on the surface of weld metal due to its low
density.
y Slag
Sl i l i
inclusion can be
b prevented d if proper groove isi
selected, all the slag from the previously deposited bead
Fig Different Forms of Porosities
Fig. Different Forms of Porosities i removed,
is d too high
hi h or too low
l welding
ldi currents and
d Fig Slag Inclusion in Weldments
Fig. Slag Inclusion in Weldments
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) long arcs are avoided.Page 66 of 240 Rev.0
Lack of Fusion
Lack of Fusion Imperfect Shape, Distortions
p p
I l t P t ti
Incomplete Penetration y Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and
y Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the size of the weld bead.
y Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not
base
b metall and
d weld
ld metall or subsequent
b beads
b d ini y During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the
upto the desired level or root faces have not reached to weld bead or both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and
multipass welding because of failure to raise the
melting point in a groove joint. it can result in the early failure of the joint. Main reasons for
temperature off base
b metall or previously
i l deposited
d i d weld
ld undercutting are the excessive welding currents, long arc lengths
layer to melting point during welding. y If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root and fast travel speeds.
face or small root gap or too narrow groove angles are y Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and
y Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of
used then it results into poor penetration. small size of electrodes. Overlap may occur due to low currents,
surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper longer arc lengths and slower welding speeds.
speeds
welding technique and correct size of electrode. y Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages,
slow travel speeds and large size electrodes are used. Excessive
root penetration and sag occur if excessive high currents and slow
travel speeds are used for relatively thinner members.
y Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large
heat input during welding.
IES 2011 C ti l
y Enumerate four defects caused due to residual stresses in
welded joints.
[2 Marks]
Ans.
1 Distortion
1.
2. Cracking in the base metal
g
3. Lamellar Tearing
4. Reduction of fatigue strength
IES‐2004 GATE‐2003 IES‐2004

Consider the following statements: Match the following
M h h f ll i
Consider the following statements:
Work material Type of joining
The magnitude of residual stresses in welding The size of the heat affected zone (HAZ) will increase with
P Aluminium
P. Aluminium 1
1. Submerged Arc Welding
d
dependsd upon
Q. Die Steel 2. Soldering 1. Increased starting temperature
1. Design of weldment R. Copper Wire 3. Thermit Welding 2. Increased welding speed
2. Support and clamping of components
S d l i f S. Titanium sheet 4. Atomic Hydrogen Welding
3. welding process used 5. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
3. Increased thermal conductivity of the base metal
4. Amount of metal melted / deposited 6
6. L
Laser Beam Welding
B W ldi 4 Increase in base metal thickness
4.
7. Brazing Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) P 2
(a) P ‐ Q 5
Q ‐ R 1
R ‐ S ‐ 3
S
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 ( ) 1, 2 and 3
(a) d (b) 1 and 3
d
(b) P ‐ 6 Q ‐ 3 R ‐ 4 S ‐ 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 (c) P ‐ 4 Q‐ 1 R ‐ 6 S ‐ 2 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
(d) P ‐ 5 Q ‐ 4 R ‐ 2 S ‐ 6
IES‐1992 20 0
JWM 2010 IES‐1998
Assertion ((A)) : Spatter
p g defects.
is one of the welding
Weld spatter occurs due to any of the following Reason (R) : In submerged arc welding process, An arc welded joint is shown in the above figure.
except there is no spatter of molten metal. The part labelled 'B' in the figure
g is known as
(a) High welding current (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (a) Weld preparation
(b) Too small an electrode correct explanation of A (b) Penetration
(c) Arc (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (c) Reinforcement
(d) Wrong polarity
l i correct explanation
l i off A (d) Slag
Sl
IES‐2004 IAS‐2003 GATE‐1996

Assertion (A): A sound welded joint should not only Tool material not suited to resistance welding is Preheating before welding is done to
be strong enough but should also exhibits a good (a) Make the steel softer
amount of ductility
Reason (R): Welding process is used for fabricating (a) Aluminium oxide (b) Stellite (b) Bum away oil, grease, etc, from the plate surface
mild steel components only (c) High speed steel (d) Masonite (c) Prevent cold cracks
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct (d) Prevent plate distortion
explanation of A
p
((d)) A is false but R is true
IES 2011 GATE‐2001 IES 2012

IES ‐
Cold‐cracking in steel weldments
Cold cracking in steel weldments depends on Brittle welds are mainly obtained due to
Two plates of the same metal having equal
1. Carbon equivalent thickness are to be butt welded with electric arc. (a) Wrong electrode, faulty preheating and metal
2. Heat input When the plate thickness changes, welding is hardened by air
3
3. Effective thickness achieved by (b) Faulty welds, faulty sequence and rigid joints
3. Hydrogen content in weld pool (a) Adjusting the current (c) Wrong speed, current improperly adjusted and faulty
(b) Adjusting
djust g tthee du
duration
at o oof cu
current
e t preparation
(a) 1 2 and 3 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) Changing the electrode size (d) Uneven heat, improper sequence and deposited
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only
metal shrinks
( )
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) Changing
Ch i the
th electrode
l t d coating
ti
3
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES 2012
IES ‐ GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 IES 2012
IES ‐
Which of the following are associated with Heat Within the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in a fusion Statement ((I):) Hydrogen
y g induced cracking g occurs in the
Affected Zone? welding process, the work material undergoes heat effected zone adjacent to fusion zone and
classified as solid state cracking
1 Cold cracking
1. Cold cracking (a) microstructural changes but does not melt Statement (II):Hydrogen from burning of flux coating
2. Notch toughness (b) neither melting nor microstructural changes penetrates martensitic micro cracks preventing healing
3. Hydrogen embrittlement (c) both melting and microstructural changes after as well as enlarging them.
them
solidification (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
4
4. Stress corrosion cracking
g true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) melting and retains the original microstructure after Statement (I)
(b) 1 3 and 4 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only solidification ((b)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are individuallyy
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only Statement (I)
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false

Lathe
h
B S K M d l
By S K Mondal
L th
Lathe L th
Lathe General classifications used when describing lathes
y A lathe is a large
g machine that rotates the work,, and y Bed ‐ this is a bottom pan on the lathe that catches chips,
chips y Swing ‐ the largest diameter of work that can be rotated.
rotated
cutting is done with a non‐rotating cutting tool. The cutting fluids, etc. y Distance Between Centres ‐ the longest length of
shapes cut are generally round, or helical. The tool is
typically moved parallel to the axis of rotation during y carriage ‐ this part of the lathe carries the cutting tool and workpiece
cutting. moves based on the rotation of the lead screw or rod. y Length of Bed ‐ Related to the Distance Between
y head stock ‐ this end of the lathe contains the driving y Lead
L d screw ‐ A large
l screw with
ith a few
f threads
th d per inch
i h used
d C t
Centres
motor and gears. Power to rotate the part is delivered for cutting threads. It has ACME threads with included angle y Power ‐ The range of speeds and feeds, and the
f
from here. This typically has levers that let the speeds
h Thi t i ll h l th t l t th d of 29o for easy engagement and disengagement of half nut.
nut
horsepower available
and feeds be set. y Lead rod ‐ a rod with a shaft down the side used for driving
y ways ‐ these are hardened rails that the carriage rides
th h d d il th t th i id normal cutting feeds.
feeds
on. y The critical parameters on the lathe are speed of rotation
y tail stock ‐
t il t k this can be used to hold the other end of the
thi b d t h ld th th d f th (speed in RPM) and how far the tool moves across the work
part. for each rotation (feed in IPR)
Number of Spindle Speed IES 2001

IES ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐
y Number of spindle speed is in a geometric progression.
progression The spindle speed range in a general purpose lathe Feed gear box for a screw cutting lathe is designed
y If n number of spindle speed is required with N1 is the is divided into steps which approximately follow on the basis of
minimum speed then (a) Arithmetic progression (a) Geometric progression
N1 , N1r, N1r 2 , N1r 3 ,.............N1r n−1 (b) Geometric progression (b) Arithmetic progression
N1 = N min and N1r n−1 = N max (c) Harmonic progression (c) Harmonic progression
1 ((d)) Logarithmic progression
g p g ((d)) None.
⎛ N ⎞ n−1
Therefore, Step Ratio ( r ) = ⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟
⎝ N min ⎠
y The values of step ratios are 1.06, 1.12, 1.26, 1.41, 1.58 and 2

T i
Turning Threading
y Turning
Turning ‐ produces a smooth and straight outside radius y Threading
Threading ‐ The cutting tool is moved quickly cutting
on a part. threads.
h di
Threading IES 1998
IES ‐ IES 1993, ISRO‐2009
IES – 1993 ISRO 2009
y In one revolution of the spindle, carriage must travel A single start thread of pitch 2 mm is to be produced It is required to cut screw threads of 2 mm pitch on
the pitch of the screw thread to be cut. on a lathe having a lead screw with a double start a lathe. The lead screw has a pitch of 6 mm. If the
N s Pz s = N L Lz L thread of pitch 4 mm. The ratio of speeds between spindle speed is 60 rpm, then the speed of the lead
the spindle and lead screw for this operation is screw will be
P = Pitch of the screw thread to be cut
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2: 1 (a) 10 rpm (b) 20 rpm
L = Pitch of the lead screw
(c) 1: 4 (d) 4: 1 (c) 120 rpm (d) 180 rpm
z s = Number of start of the screw thread to be cut
z L = Number of start of the lead screw
icg = gear ratio i dl ( N s ) to
ti off spindle i ( N L ) gear train
t carriage t i
Facing Tapering P ti /Sl tti /G i

Parting/Slotting/Grooving
y Facing ‐ The end of the part is turned to be square.
square y Tapering
Tapering ‐ the tool is moves so as to cut a taper (cone y A tool is moved in/out of the work.
work shallow cut will leave
shape). a formed cut, a deep cut will cut off the unsupported
part.

D illi /B i
Drilling/Boring K li
Knurling S i i
Spinning
y Drilling/Boring ‐ a cutter or drill bit is pushed into the y Knurling is a manufacturing process whereby a y Metal Spinning is a process by which circles of metal are
end to create an internal feature. visually‐attractive diamond‐shaped (criss‐cross) shaped over mandrels (also called forms) while mounted
pattern is cut or rolled into metal. on a spinning lathe by the application of levered force
y This pattern allows human hands or fingers to get a with various tools.
better grip on the knurled object than would be
provided by the originally‐smooth metal surface.
ISRO‐2007 Reaming Tapping

y A tap enters the workpiece axially through the end and
y A reamer enters the workpiece axially through the end cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The
Spinning operation is carried out on
and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap
(a) Hydraulic press tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.
and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a
(b) Mechanical press more accurate diameter and a smoother internal
finish.
(c) Lathe
(d) Milling
Milli machine
hi
W k h ldi D i f L th
Work holding Devices for Lathes L th h k
Lathe chucks
y Held between centers y Lathe chucks are used to support
pp a wider varietyy of
y 3 jaw self centering chuck (Disc type jobs being held
workpiece shapes and to permit more operations to be
performed than can be accomplished when the work is
in chucks ) held between centers.
y 4 jaw independently adjusted chuck y Three‐jaw, self‐centering chucks are used for work that
y Held in a collet (Slender rod like jobs being held in has a round or hexagonal cross section. 3 Jaw Chuck 4 Jaw Chuck
collets ) y Each jaw in a four‐jaw independent chuck can be moved
y Mounted on a face plate (Odd shape jobs, being held inward and outward independent of the others by means
in face plate)
p ) of a chuck wrench. Thus they can be used to support a
wide
id variety
i t off work
k shapes.
h
y Mounted on the carriage
y Combination four‐jaw chucks are available in which each
y Mandrels j
jaw can beb moved d independently
i d d tl or can be
b moved d
y MagneticFor-2015 (IES,
chuck – for GATE
thin job & PSUs) Page of
simultaneously by means 72 aofspiral
240 cam. Rev.0
T i
Turning F l f T i
Formula for Turning
D1 − D2
cut d = DOC =
y Depth of cut, mm
2
y Average diameter of workpiece D1 + D2
Davgg = mm
Collets Magnetic Chuck
Magnetic Chuck 2
Time CT = L + A + O
y Cutting Time,
fN
y Metal Removal Rate

M RR =
(πD 2
1 − π D 22 )= π D a v g d fN
4 / fN
πD1N
Face Plate
Face Plate y Cutting Speed, V = ,m / min
1000
Example IES 2010

IES 2010 IES 2003
IES ‐
How much
h machining
h time will
ll be
b required
d to reduce
d
In turning a solid round bar, if the travel The time taken to face a workpiece of 72 mm
of the cutting tool in the direction of diameter, if the spindle speed is 80 r.p.m. and cross‐
the diameter of a cast iron rod from 120 mm to 116 mm feed is 0.3 mm/rev, is
f d motion
feed i i 1000 mm, rotational
is i l
over a length of 100 mm by turning using a carbide (a) 1.5 minutes (b) 3.0 minutes
speed
p of the workpiece
p is 5500 rpm,
p , and ( ) 5.4 minutes
(c) i t (d) 8.58 minutes
i t
insert. Cutting velocity is 100 m/min and feed rate = 0.2 rate of feed is 0.2 mm/revolution, then
mm/rev. th machining
the hi i time
ti will
ill be
b
(a) 10 seconds (b) 100 seconds
(c) 5 minutes (d) 10 minutes
GATE 2013 (PI) C D

GATE‐2013 (PI) Common Data IAS 2002
IAS ‐ IES 2004
IES ‐
A disc of 200 mm outer and 80 mm inner diameter is A 150 mm long, 12 mm diameter 304 stainless steel A medium carbon steel workpiece is turned on a
faced of 0.1 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 1 mm. The rod is being reduced in diameter to 11∙5 mm by lathe at 50 m/min. cutting speed 0.8 mm/rev feed
facing operation is undertaken at a constant cutting turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N = 400 and 1.5 mm depth of cut. What is the rate of metal
speed of 90 m/min in a CNC lathe. The main rpm and the tool is travelling at an axial speed of removal?
(tangential) cutting force is 200 N. 200 mm/min. The time taken for cutting is given by (a) 1000 mm3/min
Assuming approach and over‐travel of the cutting (a) 30 s (b) 36 s (b) 60,000 mm3/min
tool to be zero,
zero the machining time in min is ( ) 1 minute
(c) i t (d) 45 s (c) 20,000 mm3/min
(a) 2.93 (b) 5.86 (c) 6.66 (d) 13.33 ((d)) Can not be calculated with the g
given data

T i T L th
Turning Tapers on Lathes Using a Compound Slide
Using a Compound Slide Using a Compound Slide contd..
y Limited movement of the compound slide
y The angle is determined by
y Using a compound slide,
d ld y Feeding is by hand and is non‐uniform. This is
D−d
responsible for low‐productivity and poor surface tan α =
y Using form tools, finish. 2l
α = Half taper angle
y Can be employed
p y for turning g short internal and
D = Diameter of stock
y Offsetting the tailstock, and external tapers with a large angle of (steep) taper.
d = smaller diameter
l = length of the taper
y Using taper turning attachment.
IES 2006
IES ‐ E l
Example Off tti th t il t k
Offsetting the tailstock
For taper turning on centre lathes, the method of Find the angle at which the compound rest should y It is necessary to measure the tailstock offset when using
swiveling the compound rest is preferred for: be set up to turn taper on the workpiece having a this method.
(a) Long jobs with small taper angles length of 200 mm, larger diameter 45 mm and the y This method is limited to small tapers (Not exceeding 8o
(b) Long jobs with steep taper angles smaller 30 mm. ) over long lengths.
(c) Short jobs with small taper angles y By
B offsetting
ff tti the
th tailstock,
t il t k the
th axisi off rotation
t ti off the
th job
j b
((d)) Short jjobs with steep
p taper
p angles
g is inclined by the half angle of taper.
Off tti th t il t k Contd..

Offsetting the tailstock IES 1992
IES ‐ IAS 2002
IAS ‐
y Tailstock offset (h) can be determined by Tail stock set over method of taper turning is The amount of offset of tail stock for turning taper
L(D − d ) preferred for on full length of a job 300 mm long which is to have
h= or h = L tan α (a) Internal tapers its two diameters at 50 mm and 38 mm respectively
2l is
(b) Small tapers
(c) Long slender tapers (a) 6 mm (b) 12 mm
((d)) Steep tapers
p p (c) 25 mm (d) 44 mm

IES 1998
IES ‐ F t l
Form tool Taper Turning Attachment
Taper Turning Attachment
A 400 mm long shaft has a 100 mm tapered step at y Special form tool for generating the tapers is used.
used The y Additional equipment is attached at the rear of the lathe.
lathe
the middle with 4° included angle. The tailstock feed is given by plunging the tool directly into the work. y The cross slide is disconnected from the cross feed nut.
offset required to produce this taper on a lathe This method is useful for short external tapers, where y The
Th cross slide
lid is
i then
th connected
t d to
t the
th attachment.
tt h t
would be the steepness is of no consequence, such as for
y As the carriage is engaged, and travels along the bed, the
(a) 400 sin 4
4° (b) 400 sin 22° chamfering.
attachment will cause the cutter to move in/out to cut
(c) 100 sin 4° (d) 100 sin 2° the taper.
y For turning tapers over a comprehensive range is the use
p turning
of taper g attachment.
E i t l tti
Errors in tool settings IES 2010
IES 2010
The effect of centering error
when the tool is set above the
center line as shown in the figure
results
lt effectively
ff ti l ini
1. Increase in rake angle.
2. Reduction
R d ti in i rake
k angle.
l
3. Increase in clearance angle.
y Setting the tool below the centre decrease actual rake angle, 4. Reduction
R d i in i clearance
l angle.
l
while clearance angle increases by the same amount. Thus Which of these statements is/are
cutting force
f increased.
d correct?
t?
y Setting the tool above the centre causes the rake angle to (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 4 only
increase, while clearance angle reduces. More rubbing with ( ) 2 and
(c) d 4 only
l (d) 1, 2, 3 and
d4
flank.
Turret Lathe Capstan Lathe
p
T t L th
Turret Lathe
A turret lathe, a number of tools can be set up on the
machine and then quickly be brought successively into
working position so that a complete part can be
machined without the necessity for further adjusting,
changing tools, or making measurements.

Capstan lathe Turret lathe
slide since the saddle is Saddle moves along the bed,
Short slide, bed
clamped on the bed in position. thus allowing the turret to be of IES 2012
IES ‐ i d i h i
Turret indexing mechanism
g size.
large Lathe machine with turret can turn a work piece of
y The
h hexagonal
h l turret is rotated
d (for
(f indexing)
d ) by
b a
Light duty machine, generally for Heavy duty machine, generally limited length only because,
components
p whose diameter is for components
p with large
g (a) Cross slide motion is obstructed by turret Geneva mechanism where a Geneva disc having six
less than 50 mm. diameters, such as 200 mm.
(b) Turret cannot work on a long job radial slots is driven by a revolving pin. Before starting
Too much overhang of the turret Since the turret slides on the
when it is nearing cut. bed, there is no such difference. (c) Chuck cannot be replaced by a face plate
rotation, the locking pin is withdrawn by a cam lever
Ram type turret lathe,
Ram‐type lathe the ram and Saddle type lathes,
Saddle‐type lathes the main ((d)) Turret replaces
p the loose centre
the turret are moved up to the turret is mounted directly on the
mechanism.
h The
h single
l rotation off the
h disc
d holding
h ld the
h
cutting position by means of the saddle, and the entire saddle indexing pin is derived from the auxiliary shaft with the
capstan Wheel. As the ram is and turret assembly
moved toward the headstock, the reciprocates. help of another single revolution clutch as indicated.
t
turret
t is
i automatically
t ti ll locked
l k d into
i t
position. y For automatic lathe: Ratchet and Pawl mechanism
A t ti L th
Automatic Lathe Swiss type Automatic Lathe Or Sliding Headstock Automatics
Swiss type Automatic Lathe Or Sliding Headstock Automatics
y The term automatic is somewhat loosely applied, but is y Headstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock
normally restricted to those machine tools capable of against the cutting tools.
producing identical pieces without the attention of an y There is no tailstock or turret
operator, after each piece is completed. Thus, after y High spindle speed (2000 – 10,000 rpm) for small job
setting up and providing an initial supply of material, diameter
further attention beyond replenishing the material y The cutting tools (upto five in number including two on
supply is not required until the dimensions of the work the rocker arm) are fed radially
pieces change owing to tool wear.
y Used for lot or mass production of thin slender rod or
y A number of types of automatic lathes are developed tubular
b l jobs,
j b like
lik components off small
ll clocks
l k and d wrist
i
that can be used for large volume manufacture watches, by precision machining.
application such as single spindle automatics,
application, automatics Swiss type
automatics, and multi‐spindle automatics.
Norton type Tumbler gear quick change Gear box

Norton type Tumbler‐gear quick‐change Gear box N t t T bl i k h G b
Norton type Tumbler‐gear quick‐change Gear box
l i S i dl i h
Multi Spindle Automatic Lathe
y For increase in rate of production of jobs usually of y It comprises
p a cone of g
gears 1 to 8 mounted on shaft S2.
smaller size and simpler geometry. y The tumbler gear can slide on shaft S1. It can mesh with any
gear on shaft S2 through an intermediate gear which is
y Having four to eight parallel spindles are preferably used.
located
ocated o
on a sswinging
g g aand
d ssliding
d g lever
e e so tthat
at itt ca
can eengage
gage
y Multiple spindle automats also may be parallel action or gears 1 to 8 of different diameters, on shaft S2.
progressively working type. y The lever can be fixed in any desired ratio position with the
help of a stop pin.
y The drive is usually from the driving shaft S1 to the driven
shaft S2.
GATE 2002
GATE ‐ GATE 2008
GATE – 2008 GATE 2008
GATE ‐2008 Contd….
A lead‐screw
l d with
ith half
h lf nuts
t in
i a lathe,
l th free
f to
t rotate
t t The figure shows an incomplete schematic of a
conventional lathe to be used for cutting threads
in both directions has with different pitches. The speed gear box Uv, is
shown and the feed gear box Us, is to be placed. P, Q.
(a) V‐threads
R and S denote locations and have no other
(b) Whitworth threads significance. Changes in Uv, should NOT affect the
pitch of the thread being cut and changes in Us, The correct connections and the correct placement of Us are
(c) Buttress threads should NOT affect the cutting speed. given by
((a)) QQ and E are connected. Us,, is placed between P and Q.
p Q
(d) ACME threads (b) S and E are connected. Us is placed between R and S.
((c)) Q
Q and E are connected. Us,, is placed between Q and E.
p Q
Contd….. (d) S and E are connected. Us, is placed between S and E.
IES 2004
IES ‐ G 99
GATE‐1994 IES 1996
IES ‐
Match List I (Cutting tools) with List II (Features) To get good surface finish on a turned job,
job In turning of slender rods, it is necessary to keep
and select the correct answer using the codes given one should use a sharp tool with a …..feed the transverse force minimum mainly to
below the Lists: and……
d speed
d off rotation
t ti off the
th job.
j b (a) Improve the surface finish
List I List II (b) Increase productivity
((a)) Minimum, minimum
A Turning
A. T i toolt l 1. Chi l edge
Chisel d (c) Improve cutting efficiency
B. Reamer 2. Flutes
(b) Minimum, maximum
((d)) Reduce vibrations and chatter.
C. Milling cutter 3. Axial relief ( ) Maximum,
(c) M i maximum
i
4. Side relief ((d)) Maximum,, minimum
Codes: A B C A B C
( ) 1
(a) 2 3 (b) 4 3 2
(c) 4 2 3 (d) 1 3 2
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 1999
IES ‐ IES 2009
IES ‐
What is the number of jaws in self centred chuck?
What is the number of jaws in self‐centred Which one of the following sets of forces are Which one of the following methods should be used
(a) Eight encountered by a lathe parting tool while groove for turning internal taper only?
(b) Six
Si cutting? (a) Tailstock offset
(c) Four (a) Tangential, radial and axial (b) Taper attachment
(d) Three (b) Tangential
T ti l and
d radial
di l (c) Form tool
(c) Tangential and axial ((d)) Compound rest
p
(d) Radial and axial

IES 1992
IES ‐ IES 2006
IES ‐ IES 1997
IES ‐
Which of the following statement is incorrect with It is required to cut screw threads with double start Consider the following operations:
reference of lathe cutting tools? and 2 mm pitch on a lathe having lead screw pitch 1. Under cutting 2. Plain turning
(a) The flank of the tool is the surface below and of 6 mm. What is the speed ratio between lathe 3. Taper
T t
turning
i 4. Th d cutting
Thread tti
adjacent to the cutting edges spindle and lead screw?
The correct sequence of these operations in machining a
(b) The nose is the corner, or chamfer joining the side
Th i th h f j i i th id (a) 1 : 3 (b) 3: 1 product is
cutting and the end cutting edges (c) 2 : 3 (d) 3: 2 ((a)) 2, 33, 4
4, 1 ((b)) 33, 2, 4
4, 1
(c) The heel is that part of the which is shaped to (c) 2, 3, 1, 4 (d) 3, 2, 1, 4
produce the cutting edges and face
(d) The base is that surface of the shank which against
pp g
the support and takes tangent
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 2007
IES ‐
A capstan lathe is used to mass produce, in batches
mass‐produce, Assertion (A): In a multi spindle automatic lathe, the
multi‐spindle
of 200, a particular component. The direct material turret tool holder is indexed to engage the cutting tools
cost is Rs 4 per piece, the direct labour cost is Rs 3 one by y one for successive machining g operations.
p
per piece and the overhead costs are 400% of the Reason (R): Turret is a multiple tool holder so that for
labour costs. What is the production cost per piece? successive machining g operation,
p , the tools need not be
changed.
(a) Rs 19 (b) Rs 23
((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct
( ) Rs
(c) R 166 (d) RsR 15 explanation of A
((b)) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is not the
IES 1995
IES ‐ IES 1996
IES ‐ IES 2003
IES ‐
C
Consider the following g characteristics: Assertion (A): Special purpose machine tools and Which one of the following mechanisms is
1. Multiple operations can be performed automatic machine tools are quite useful for job employed for indexing of turret in an automatic
2 Operator
2. Operator'ss fatigue is greatly reduced.
reduced shops lathe?
3. Ideally suited for batch production Reason (R): Special purpose machine tools can do (a) Whitworth (b) Rack and pinion
4 A break‐down
4. break down in one machine does not affect the special types of machining work automatically ( ) Ratchet
(c) R t h t and
d pawll (d) Geneva
G wheel
h l
flow of products. (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
5 Can accommodate modifications in design of
5. correctt explanation
l ti off A
components, within certain limits. (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
The characteristics which can be attributed to special correct explanation of A
purpose machines would include
(a) 1,
1 3 and 4 (b) 1, 1 2 and 4
(c) 2, 3 and For-2015
5 (d) (IES, GATE
1, 2 and 5 & PSUs) (d) A is false but R isPage
true78 of 240 Rev.0
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 2001
IES ‐ IES 1995
IES ‐
For the manufacture of screw fasteners on a mass The indexing of the turret in a single spindle
single‐spindle Assertion ((A):) In a Swiss ‐ type
yp automatic lathe,, the
scale, which is the most suitable machine tool? automatic lathe is done using turret is given longitudinal feed for each tool in a
specific order with suitable indexing.
(a) Capstan lathe (a) Geneva mechanism
Reason (R): A turret is a multiple tool holder to
(b) Single‐spindle automatic lathe (b) Ratchet and Pawl mechanism facilitate machining with each tool by indexing
(c) CNC turning centre (lathe) (c) Rack and pinion mechanism without the need to change the tools.
((d)) CNC machiningg centre ((d)) Whitworth mechanism (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
IES 1992
IES ‐ IAS 2007
IAS ‐ IAS 2002
IAS ‐
Maximum production of small and slender parts is Which one of the following is the characteristic for Consider the following statements related to Turret
done by capstan lathe? lathe:
(a) Watch maker
maker'ss lathe (a) Rate of production is low 1 Turret is mounted directly on the saddle.
1. saddle
(b) Sliding head stock automatic lathe (b) Labour cost is high 2. Turret is mounted on an auxiliary slide.
(c) Multi‐spindle automatic lathe (c) Used for handling jobs of varying shapes and sizes 3. Much heavier and larger jobs than Capstan lathe can
((d)) Capstan
p lathe ((d)) Capstan
p head is mounted on a slide be produced.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 only (d) 2 only
IAS 1996
IAS ‐ IAS 2004
IAS ‐ IAS 2001
IAS ‐
Apart from hexagonal turret, the elements (s) in a Swiss type screw machines have Consider the following operations and time
turret lathe include (s) (a) Turrets (b) Radial slides required on a multi spindle automatic machine to
(a) Cross‐slide
Cross slide tool post ( ) Spindle
(c) S i dl carriers
i (d) Tool
T l postst produce a particular job
(b) Cross‐slide tool post and rear tool post 1. Turning …1.2 minutes
(c) Cross‐slide tool post and tail stock 2. Drilling
D illi …1.6
6 minutes
i t
((d)) Teal tool p
post and tail stock 3. Forming …0.2 minute
4. Parting …0.6 minute
The time required to make one piece (cycle time) will be
(a) 0.6 minutes (b) 1.6 minutes
( ) 3.6
(c) 6 minutes
i t (d) 0.9 minute
i t
IAS 1995
IAS ‐ IAS 1994
IAS ‐ IAS 1998
IAS ‐
Assertion ((A):) In a multi‐spindle
p automat,, the turret A multi spindle automat performs four operations
multi‐spindle Assertion (A): For thread cutting, the spindle speed
is indexed to engage each of the cutting tool with times 50, 60, 65 and 75 seconds at each of its selected on a lathe, is very low.
mounted on it. work centers. The cycle time (time required to Reason (R): The required feed rate is low in
Reason(R): Turret is a multiple tool holder so that manufacture one work piece) in seconds will be threading operation.
the machining can be continued with each tool
without the need to change the tool. (a) 50 + 60 + 65 + 75 ( ) Both
(a) B th A and d R are individually
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (b) (50 + 60 + 65 + 75) /4 correct explanation of A
correct explanation of A (c) 75/4 (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the ((d)) 75 correct explanation of A
correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
IAS 1998
IAS ‐ IES 2011
Consider the following statements associated with In Norton type feed gearbox for cutting Whitworth
the lathe accessories: standard threads with a standard TPI Leadscrew, power
1 Steady rest is used for supporting a long job in
1. flows from:
between head stock and tail stock. (a) Spindle to Tumbler gear to Norton cone to Meander
drive to Leadscrew
2. Mandrel
M d l is i usedd for
f turning
t i small ll cylindrical
li d i l job.
j b
(b) Spindle to Norton cone to Tumbler geat to Meander
3. Collects are used for turning disc‐shaped job. drive to Leadscrew
Of these statements: (c) Spindle t o Tumbler gear to Meander drive to Norton
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct cone to Leadscrew
(c) 3 alone is correct (d) 1 alone is correct (d) Spindle to Norton cone to Meander drive to Tumbler
gear to Leadscrew
g
IAS 2000
IAS ‐ Drilling D illi
Drilling
Consider the following features: y Drilling is a operation that cuts cylindrical holes.
holes
1. All spindles operate simultaneously,
2. One
O piece
i i completed
is l t d each
h time
ti th tools
the t l are
withdrawn and the spindles are indexed
3. The tool slide indexes or revolves with the spindle
carrier
Which of these features are characteristics of a multi‐
p
spindle automatic machine used for bar work?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 By S K Mondal
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
TYPES OF DRILL PRESSES
TYPES OF DRILL PRESSES D illi O ti
Drilling Operations Chip formation
of a drill
y Vertical or pillar type
V ti l ill t
y Radial Arm type
y Gang drill
g
y Multi Spindle drill
y Numerical Control drill
Drill D ill
Drill IES 2004
IES ‐
y The twist drill does most of the cutting with the tip of
the bit. Consider the following statements:
•There are flutes The helical flute in a twist drill provides the necessary
to carry the chips 1. Clearance
Cl angle
l for
f the
th cutting
tti edge
d
up from the
2. Rake angle for the cutting edge
cutting edges to
the top of the 3. Space for the chip to come out during drilling
hole where they 4. Guidance for the drill to enter into the workpiece
are cast off. Which of the statements given above are correct?
( ) 1 and
(a) d2 (b) 2 and d3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
IES 2003
IES ‐ D ill
Drill D ill
Drill
The purpose of helical grooves in a twist drill is to y Axial rake angle is the angle between the face and the line y Drill sizes
si es are typically
t picall measured across the drill points with
ith
1. Improve the stiffness parallel to the drill axis. At the periphery of the drill, it is a micrometer
2. Save
S a tool
t l material
t i l equivalent to the helix angle.
3. Provide space for chip removal y Most widely used material is High Speed Steel
y The lip clearance angle is the angle formed by the portion of
4. Provide rake angle for the cutting edge y The drill blanks are made by forging and then are twisted to
the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles to
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: provide the torsional rigidity.
rigidity Then the flutes are machined
Codes: the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill.
and hardened before the final grinding of the geometry.
( ) 1 and
(a) d2 (b) 2 and d3 y Lead
L d off the
th helix
h li is
i the
th distance
di t measured
d parallel
ll l to
t the
th drill
d ill
y Deep hole drilling requires special precautions to take care of
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 axis, between corresponding point on the leading edge of the
the removal of large volume of chips.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) land in one complete revolution.
GATE 1996
GATE‐ IES 1997
IES ‐ P i t A l (2β)
Point Angle (2β)
y The point angle is selected to suit the hardness and brittleness of
The rake angle in a drill The rake angle in a twist drill the material being drilled.
drilled
(a) Increases from centre to periphery (a) Varies from minimum near the dead centre to a y Harder materials have higher point angles, soft materials have
maximum value at the periphery lower point angles.
(b) decreases
d f
from centre
t tot periphery
i h
y An increase in the drill point angle leads to an increase in the
(c) Remains constant (b) Is maximum at the dead centre and zero at the thrust force and a decrease in the torque due to increase of the
(d) Is irrelevant to the drilling operation periphery
i h orthogonal
h l rake
k angle.
l
(c) Is constant at every point of the cutting edge y This angle (half) refers to side cutting edge angle of a single point
tool.
tool
(d) Is a function of the size of the chisel edge. y Standard Point Angle is 118°
y It is 116° to 118° for medium hard steel and cast iron
y It is 125° for hardened steel
y It is 130°
3 to 140°4 for brass and bronze
y It is only 60° for wood and plastics
H li A l (ψ)
Helix Angle (ψ) IES 1992
IES ‐ GATE 1997
GATE‐
y Helix angle is the angle between the leading edge of the A drill for drilling deep holes in aluminum should Helix angle of fast helix drill is normally
land and the axis of the drill. Sometimes it is also called have (a) 35o
as spiral angle.
(a) High helix angle (b) Taper shank 6 o
(b) 60
y The helix results in a positive cutting rake
(c) Small point angle (d) No lip (c) 90o
y This angle is equivalent to back rake angle of a single
point cutting tool. (d) 5o
y Usual – 20
20° to 35
35° – most common
y Large helix : 45° to 60° suitable for deep holes and softer
workk materials
i l
y Small helix : for harder / stronger materials
y Zero helix : spade drills for high production drilling
micro‐drilling and hard work materials
IES 1992
IES ‐ Cutting Speed in Drilling
Cutting Speed in Drilling
Low helix angle drills are preferred for drilling IFS‐2011 y The cutting speed in drilling is the surface speed of the
holes in twist drill.
Discuss deep‐hole drilling keeping in mind speed and π DN
(a) Plastics (b) Copper
feed, mentioning the technique of applying coolant.
V= m / min
i
(c) Cast steel (d) Carbon steel 1000
[5‐marks]

D illi Ti
Drilling Time MRR i D illi
MRR in Drilling E l
Example
y Time for drilling the hole A hole
h l with
ith 40‐mm diameter
di t and
d 50‐mm depth
d th is
i to
t
⎛ π D2 ⎞
L MRR = ⎜ 3
⎟ fN , mm / min be drilled in mild steel component.
p The cutting
g
T= , min
i ⎝ 4 ⎠
fN speed can be taken as 65 m/min and the feed rate as
0.25 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the
material
t i l removall rate.
t
Some Formulae for Drilling

Some Formulae for Drilling GATE 2002
GATE‐ GATE 2004
GATE‐
D
Cone height (h) = The time taken to drill a hole through a 25 mm thick Through holes of 10 mm diameter are to be drilled
2 tan β plate with the drill rotating at 300 r.p.m. and in a steel plate of 20 mm thickness. Drill spindle
f moving at a feed rate of 0.25 mm/revolution is speed is 300 rpm, feed 0.2 mm/ rev and drill point
U t chip
Uncut hi thickness
thi k (t ) = i β
sin
2 (a) 10 sec (b) 20 sec angle is 120°. Assuming drill over travel of 2 mm, the
D time for producing a hole will be
Width of cut (b) = ( ) 60
(c) 6 sec (d) 100 sec
2sin β (a) 4 seconds (b) 25 seconds
⎡ ( 2r / D ) tan
t ψ⎤ ( ) 100 seconds
(c) d (d) 110 secondsd
Orthogonal rake angle (α ) = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin β ⎦
GATE 2012
GATE‐ IES 2002
IES ‐ IES 1994
IES ‐
In
I a single
i l pass drilling
d illi operation,
ti a through
th h hole
h l off The arm of a radial drilling machine is being raised The ratio between two consecutive spindle speeds
at a speed of 3.9 m/min by single start square for a six‐speed drilling machine using drills of
155 mm diameter is to be drilled in a steel p
plate of 550 threads of 6 mm pitch and 30 mm diameter. The diameter 6.25 to 25 mm size and at a cutting velocity
mm thickness. Drill spindle speed is 500 rpm, feed speed of the screw of 18 m/min is
(a) Is 650 rpm (a) 1.02
1 02 (b) 1.32
1 32
is 0.2 mm/rev and drill point angle is 118°. Assuming
(b) Is 180 rpm (c) 1.62 (d) 1.82
2 mm clearance
l att approach
h and
d exit,
it the
th total
t t l drill
d ill (c) Is 130 rpm
time ((in seconds)) is ((d)) Cannot be determined as the data is insufficient
(a) 35.1 (b) 32.4
(c) 31.2 For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)

(d) 30.1 Page 83 of 240 Rev.0
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 2002
IES ‐ GATE 2014
GATE ‐
What is the drilling time for producing a hole in an A 31.8 mm H.S.S. drill is used to drill a hole in a cast A hole
h l off 20 mm diameter
di t isi to
t be
b drilled
d ill d in
i a steel
t l block
bl k
MS sheet of 25 mm thickness using an HSS drill of iron block 100 mm thick at a cutting speed 20
20 mm diameter? The cutting speed and feed for m/min and feed 0.3 mm/rev. If the over travel of of 4
40 mm thickness. The drilling
g is p
performed at
drill are 20 m/min and 0.25 mm/revolution drill is 4 mm and approach 9 mm, the time required rotational speed of 400 rpm and feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev.
respectively, Neglect time taken for setting up, to drill the hole is
approaching and travelling of tools. (a) 1 min 40 s (b) 1 min 44 s The required approach and over run of the drill together
(a) 0.314
0 314 min (b) 0.236
0 236 min ( ) 1 min
(c) i 49 s (d) 1 mini 53 s i equall to
is t the
th radius
di off drill.
d ill The
Th drilling
d illi ti
time (i
(in
(c) 0.438 min (d) 0.443 min
minute)) is
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.25 (c) 1.50 (d) 1.75
GATE‐2014 (PI) IAS 1999

IAS ‐ GATE 2007 (PI) Linked S‐1
GATE – 2007 (PI) Li k d S 1
To drill a 10 mm diameter hole through a 20 mm Blind holes 10 mm diameter, 50 mm deep are
An HSS drill of 20 mm diameter with 5 mm cone thick M.S. plate with a drill bit running at 300 rpm being drilled in steel block. Drilling spindle
height is used to drill a through hole in a steel work‐
work and a feed of 0.25 mm per revolution, time taken speed is 600 rpm,
rpm feed 0.2
0 2 mm/rev,
mm/rev point angle of
will be drill is 120o.
piece of 50 mm thickness. Cutting speed of 10
(a) 8 s (b) 16 s
m/min and feed rate of 0.3 mm/rev are used. The
Machining time (in minutes) per hole will be
(c) 24 s (d) 32 s
(a) 0.08
0 08 (b) 0.31
0 31 (c) 0.44
0 44 (d) 0.86
0 86
drilling time, in seconds, neglecting the approach
and over travel,
travel is _______
GATE 2007 (PI) Linked S‐2
GATE – 2007 (PI) Li k d S 2 IAS 1994
IAS ‐ IES 1999
IES ‐
Blind holes 10 mm diameter, 50 mm deep are The time (in minutes) for drilling a hole is given by pp
Match List‐I (Drill bits) with List‐II (Applications) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the Lists:
being drilled in steel block. Drilling spindle
Depth of the hole + h List‐I List‐II
speed is 600 rpm,
rpm feed 0.2
0 2 mm/rev,
mm/rev point angle of t= A Core
A. C d ill
drill 1. T enlarge
To l a hole
h l to t a certain
t i depth
d th so as to
t
Feed × RPM
drill is 120o. where 'h' is the
accommodate the bolt head of a screw
B. Reamer 2. To drill and enlargeg an alreadyy existing
g hole in a
During the above operation, the drill wears out (a) Length of the drill casting
after p producingg 200 holes. Taylor’s
y tool life (b) Drill diameter C. Counter bore drill 3. To drill a hole before making internal
thread
h d
equation is of the form VT0.3 = C, where V = (c) Flute length of the drill D. Tap drill 4. To improve the surface finish and dimensional
cutting speed in m/minute and T = tool life in (d) Cone
C h i ht off the
height th drill.
d ill accuracy of the already drilled hole
Code:A B C D A B C D
minutes. Taylor’s constant C will be (a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 2 3 1 4
( ) 15
(a) ( ) 72
(b) ( ) 93
(c) ( ) 490
(d) (c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 2 4 1
R i
Reaming Reamer
y Reaming
g removes a small amount of material from the
surface of holes.
y It is done for two purposes: to bring holes to a more exact
size and to improve the finish of an existing hole.
Reaming, Boring, Broaching y Multiage cutting tools that has many flutes, which may be
straight
i h or in
i a helix
h li are used.
d
y No special machines are built for reaming. The same
machine that was employed for drilling the hole can be used
for reaming by changing the cutting tool.
y Only a minimum amount of materials should be left for
removal by reaming. As little as 0.1 mm is desirable, and in
no case should the amount exceed 0.4 mm.
B S K M d l
By S K Mondal y A properly reamed hole will be within 0.025 mm of the
correct size and have a fine finish.
Reamer Flutes
Reamer Flutes T fR
Types of Reamers
y The reamer flutes are either straight or helical.
y The helical flutes promote smoother cutting and should be The principal types of reamers are:
used specifically for holes that are not continuous, such as 1. Hand reamers
y y p
those with keyways parallel to the axis of the hole.
a. St i ht
Straight
y The cutting action of the helical flutes is smoother and helps
in preventing chatter. b. Taper
y The reamers are termed as left hand or right hand, 2. Machine or chucking reamers
depending upon the direction in which they are moved,
l ki from
looking f th shank
the h k to
t the
th cutting
tti portion.
ti a. Rose
y The right‐hand reamer with right‐hand helix is used for b. Fluted
roughing cuts,
cuts since the tool tends to go into the workpiece 3. Shell reamers
Sh ll
more efficiently and thereby promotes the material removal.
4. Expansion reamers
y A right
right‐hand
hand reamer with left left‐hand
hand flutes is used for
finishing cuts. 5. Adjustable reamers
R i
Reaming R i
Reaming
y To meet quality requirements, including both finish and y Reamers,, like drills,, should not be allowed to become dull. Rose Reamer
accuracy (tolerances on diameter, roundness, The chamfer must be reground long before it exhibits
excessive wear. Sharpening is usually restricted to the Rose chucking reamers
straightness, and absence of bell bell‐mouth
mouth at ends of starting
t ti taper
t or chamfer.
h f Each E h flute
fl t mustt be
b groundd exactly
tl are ground d cylindrical
li d i l
holes). Reamers must have adequate support for the evenly or the tool will cut oversize. and have no relief
cutting edges, and reamer deflection must be minimal. y Reamers tend to chatter when not held securely,
securely when the b hi d the
behind th outer
t edges
d
y Reaming speed is usually two‐thirds the speed for work or work holder is loose, or when the reamer is not of the teeth. All cutting
drilling the same materials.
materials However,
However for close tolerances properly
p p yg ground.
is done on the beveled
be eled
and fine finish, speeds should be slower. y Irregularly spaced teeth may help reduce chatter. Other cures
ends of the teeth
for chatter in reaming are to reduce the speed, vary the feed
y Feeds
F d are usually ll much h higher
hi h than
th th
those f drilling
for d illi rate, chamfer the hole opening, use a piloted reamer, reduce
and depend upon material. the relief angle on the chamfer, or change the cutting fluid.
y Recommended cutting fluids are the same as those for y Any
A misalignment
i li b
between the
h work k piece
i and
d the
h reamer
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) will cause chatter and Page 85 ofreaming.
improper 240 Rev.0
drilling.
g
Chucking Reamer Shell Reamer IFS‐2011
Fluted chucking Shell reamers often are What is the main difference between rose reamer
reamers have h relief
li f usedd for
f sizes
i over 20
behind the edges of the mm to save cutting‐tool and chucking reamer ? Write in short about shell
t th as well
teeth ll as beveled
b l d material.
t i l Th
The shell,
h ll reamer.
ends. They can cut on made of HSS for smaller
all portions of the teeth.
teeth si es and with
sizes ith carbide [
[5‐marks]
k ]
Their flutes are edges for larger sizes or
relatively short and they for mass production
mass‐production
are intended for light work.
finishing cuts.
cuts
Trepanning
y Trepanning is a annular groove producing operation IES 1999
IES ‐ IES 1999
IES ‐
which leaves a solid cylindrical core in the centre. In
Which one of the following processes results in the Consider the following statements regarding
trepanning a cutter consisting of one or more cutting
best accuracy of the hole made? reaming process:
edges placed along the circumference of a circle is used
to produce the annular groove. (a) Drilling (b) Reaming 1 Reaming generally produces a hole larger than its
1.
(c) Broaching (d) Boring own diameter
2. Generally
G ll rake
k angles
l are nott provided
id d on reamers.
3. Even numbers of teeth are preferred in reamer
design.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1,
1 2 and 3
Trepanning Tool
IES 1998
IES ‐ 1998 IES 1994
IES ‐ GATE 2007 (PI)
GATE – 2007 (PI)
Match List
List‐II with List II and select the correct answer
List‐II In reaming process Reaming is primarily used for achieving
using the codes given below the lists: (a) Metal removal rate is high (a) Higher MRR
List‐II
List List‐II
List II
(b) High
Hi h surface
f fi i h is
finish i obtained.
bt i d (b) Improved
I d dimensional
di i l tolerance
t l
A. Reaming 1. Smoothing and squaring surface
(c) High form accuracy is obtained (c) Fine surface finish
around the hole for proper seating
B. Counter‐boring 2.Sizing and finishing the hole (d) High dimensional accuracy is obtained. (d) Improved positional tolerance
C Counter‐sinking
C. Counter sinking 3.3 Enlarging the end of the hole
D. Spot facing 4. Making a conical enlargement at the
end of the hole
( ) 3
(a) 2 4 1 ( ) 2
(b) 3 1 4
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 2 3 4 1
GATE 2014 (PI)
GATE – 2014 (PI) IES 1993
IES ‐ IES 1998
IES ‐
A hole of 30 mm diameter is to be produced by reaming. A component requires a hole which must be within
Reaming is a process used for
R i i d f
The minimum diameter permissible is 30.00 mm while the two limits of 25.03 and 25.04 mm diameter.
(a) creating a circular hole in metals the maximum diameter p permissible is 330.055 mm. In this Which of the following statements about the
regard, consider the following statements about the reamer size are correct?
(b) cutting a slot on the existing hole surface
g g reamer size:
1 Reamer size cannot be below 25.03
1. 25 03 mm.
mm
1. The minimum diameter of the reamer can be less than 30 mm.
(c) finishing an existing hole surface 2. The minimum diameter of the reamer cannot be less than 30 mm. 2. Reamer size cannot be above 25.04 mm.
3. The maximum diameter of the reamer can be more than 30.05 mm. 3. Reamer size can be 25.04 mm.
(d) making non‐circular holes in metals 4.The maximum diameter of the reamer must be less than 30.05 mm.
4. Reamer size can be 25.03
4 5 3 mm.
Of these statements
(a) 1 and 4 are correct (b) 1 and 3 are correct
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 2 and 4 are correct
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
IAS 1999
IAS ‐ IAS 2003
IAS ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐
For reaming operation of blind hole, the type of Match List I ((Operation)
p ) with List II ((Application)
pp ) and select Shell reamers are mounted on
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
reamer required is (a) Tool holders (b) Amour plates
List‐I List‐II
(a) Straight flute reamer (
(Operation) ) (
(Application) ) ( ) Arbor
(c) Ab (d) Shanks
Sh k
(b) Right hand spiral fluted reamer (A) Reaming 1. Used for enlarging the end of a hole to give it a
(c) Left hand spiral fluted reamer conical
i l shape
h f a short
for h distance
di
(B) Boring 2. Used for enlarging only a limited portion of the
((d)) None of the above
hole
(C) Counter boring 3. Used for finishing a hole
(D) Counter sinking 4
4. Used for enlarging a hole
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 1 2 4 3
Boring
Boring
y Boring always involves the enlarging of an existing hole,
which may have been made by a drill or may be the result of a
core in a casting.
g
y An equally important and concurrent purpose of boring may
be to make the hole concentric with the axis of rotation of
the workpiece and thus correct any eccentricity that may
have resulted from the drill drifting off the centerline.
Concentricity is an important attribute of bored holes.
y When boring is done in a lathe, the work usually is held in a
chuck or on a faceplate. Holes may be bored straight,
tapered, or to irregular contours.
y Boring is essentially internal turning while feeding the tool
parallel to the rotation axis of the workpiece.
B i
Boring B i
Boring
y The same principles are used for boring as for turning.
turning y Because the tool overhang will be greater, feeds and IES 2009
y The tool should be set exactly at the same height as the depths of cut may be somewhat less than for turning to
axis of rotation.
rotation Slightly larger end clearance angles prevent tool vibration and chatter.
sometimes have to be used to prevent the heel of the tool y In some cases, the boring bar may be made of tungsten
from rubbing on the inner surface of the hole.
hole carbide because of this material
material'ss greater stiffness.
stiffness
y The boring tool is a single‐point cutting tool.
y Hole quality, finish boring can typically achieve holes
within tolerances of IT9.
y Surface finishes better than Ra 1 micron can be achieved.
F l f B i
Formula for Boring IES 1993
IES – 1994 ISRO 2008
The main purpose of boring operation, as compared Enlarging an existing circular hole with a rotating
D1 + D2 to drilling is to: single point tool is called
y Average diameter of workpiece Davg = mm
2 (a) Drill a hole (a) Boring (b) Drilling
(b) Finish the drilled hole (c) Reaming (d) Internal turning.
Time CT = L + A + O
y Cutting Time, (c) Correct the hole
fN
((d)) Enlarge
g the existing
g hole
y Metal Removal Rate
M RR =
(πD 2
1 − π D 22 )= π D a v g d fN
4 / fN
IES 1992, ISRO‐2010
IES – 1992 ISRO 2010 IES 2000
IES ‐ IES 1996
IES ‐
Which of the machine tools can be used for boring Which one of the following sets of tools or tools and Which of the following statements are correct?
1. Lathe processes are normally employed for making large 1. A boring machine is suitable for a job shop.
2. Drilling
D illi machine
hi diameter holes? 2. A jig ji boring
b i machine
hi isi designed
d i d specially
i ll for
f doing
d i
3. Vertical milling machine (a) Boring tool more accurate work when compared to a vertical
4. Horizontal milling machine (b) BTA tools
t l (Boring
(B i and d trepanning
t i association)
i ti ) and
d milling
illi machine.
hi
gun drill 3. A vertical precision boring machine is suitable for
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 1, 3, 4
(c) Gun drill and boring tool boring holes in cylinder blocks and liners.
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
((d)) Boringg tools and trepanning
p g ((a)) 1, 2 and 3 ((b)) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3.

IES 1995
IES ‐ JWM 2010
The effects of setting a boring tool above centre Consider the following operations regarding boring
height leads to a/an. machines :
(a) Increase in the effective rake angle and a decrease in 1. Counterboring
C t b i
the effective clearance angle. 2. Countersinking
(b) Increase
I i both
in b th effective
ff ti rakek anglel andd effective
ff ti 3. Trepanning
Broaching
clearance angle.
Which of the above operations is/are correct ?
(c) Decrease in the effective rake angle and an increase
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
in the effective clearance angle.
( ) d l (d) 1 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) l
(d) Decrease in both effective rank angle and effective
g
clearance angle.
Broaching B hi
Broaching B h C t ti
Broach Construction
y Broaching
g is a multiple‐tooth
p g operation
cutting p with the y The material removal using the broach teeth is shown
tool reciprocating. schematically in Fig. shown in below. The dotted line in
y Since in broaching g the machining g operation
p is the figure indicates the amount of material being
completed in a single‐stroke as the teeth on the cutting removed by successive individual teeth.
tool, called broach, are at gradually increasing height
corresponding to the feed per tooth of a milling cutter.
y The shape of the broach determines the shape of the
machined part.
y Broaching was originally developed for machining
internal keyways, but looking at the advantages, it has
been extensively used in the mass production of
automobile
t bil componentt manufacture
f t f various
for i other
th
surfaces as well.
B h C t ti
Broach Construction B h C t ti
Broach Construction
y The broach is composed of a series of teeth, each tooth y The last set of teeth is called the finishing or sizing teeth.
teeth y The rear pilot helps to keep the broach to remain square
standing slightly higher than the previous one. This rise Very little material will be removed by these teeth. with the workpiece as it leaves the workpiece after
per tooth is the feed per tooth and determines the y The necessary size will be achieved by these teeth and broaching.
material removed by the tooth. hence all the teeth will be of the same size as that y Broaching speeds are relatively low, of the order of 6 to 15
y There are basically three sets of teeth present in a broach required finally.
finally With the progress of time,
time when the m/min However,
m/min. However the production rate is high with the
as shown in Fig. shown above. first set of teeth wear out, the next set of teeth will be cycle times being about 5 to 30 seconds, including the
y The
Th roughing
hi teeth
t th that
th t have
h th highest
the hi h t rise
i per tooth
t th able to provide the sizing function.
function workpiece and tool handling times.
times The low cutting
remove bulk of the material. y The pull end of the broach (Fig. shown in above) is speeds are conducive to very high tool life with very
y The semi‐finishing teeth, whose rise per tooth is smaller, attached
tt h d tot the
th pulling
lli mechanism
h i off the
th broaching
b hi small tool wear rates.
rates
remove relatively smaller amounts of material compared machine with the front pilot aligning the broach
to the roughing teeth. properlyl with
ith respectt to
t the
th workpiece
k i axis
i before
b f th
the
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) actual cutting starts.Page 89 of 240 Rev.0
B h C t ti
Broach Construction Ad t fb hi
Advantages of broaching
y Broaches are generally made of high speed steel in view y For smooth operation, it is essential that at least two or 1. It is the fastest wayy of finishingg an operation
p g
with a single
stroke.
of its high impact strength. Sometimes, the titanium three teeth be simultaneously engaged.
2. Since all the machining parameters are built into the
nitride coating helps to improve the tool life further. spacing s =1.75
y The thumb rule for tooth spacing, 1 75 l , mm broach very little skill is required from the operator.
broach, operator
Also, the carbide insert‐type broaches are used more for y The cut per tooth f is kept in the range 0.05 mm – 0.09 3. Broaching machine is simple since only a single
surface broaching of cast iron for very large volume reciprocating
p g motion is required
q for cutting.
g
mm. 4. Final cost of the machining operation is one of the lowest
production to reduce the frequent resharpening of the
y In the normal speed BUE may be a problem. To avoid for mass production.
broach, which is a very difficult operation.
this a copious supply of the cutting fluid is provided. 5. Any
A type off surface,
f i
internall or external,
l can be
b generated d
y Standard broaches are available for common and more with broaching.
often used forms,
forms such as round and square holes,holes 6 Many surfaces,
6. surfaces which are very difficult or impossible by
keyways, etc. other means, can be done by broaching. For example, square
hole and internal splines.
7. Good surface finish and fine dimensional tolerances can be
achieved by broaching, often better than boring or reaming
Li it ti fb hi
Limitations of broaching IES 2007
IES ‐ IES 1993
IES ‐
1. C
Custom made broaches are veryy expensive
p and can Among the following machining processes, which Assertion (A): Soluble oils are employed with
therefore be justified only for very large volume can be used for machining flat surfaces? broaching machine.
production.
1 Shaping
1. 2
2. Milling 3
3. Broaching Reason (R): Soluble oils have excellent cooling
2. A broach has to be designed for a specific application effect.
and can be used only for that application. Hence, the Select the correct answer using the code given below:
lead time for manufacture is more for custom designed (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only ( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th
broaches. ((c)) 2 and 3 onlyy ((d)) 1, 2 and 3 correct explanation of A
3. Broaching, being a very heavy metal removal (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
operation, requires that the workpiece is rigid and correct explanation of A
capable
bl off withstanding
ith t di theth large
l f
forces. (c) A is true but R is false
4. Broaching can only be carried out on the workpiece
whose
h geometryt is
i such
h that
th t there
th i no interference
is i t f f
for (d) A is false but R is true
the broach movement for the cutting.
IES 1993, 2001
IES – 1993 2001 IES 2001
IES ‐ IAS 2004
IAS ‐
Assertion (A): No separate feed motion is required The screw and nut in a broaching machine are Which one of the following is true for the last few
during broaching. changed from square thread to ACME thread. The teeth of a broach which are meant for fine
Reason (R): The broaching machines are generally power requirement of the machine at the same finishing?
hydraulically operated. r.p.m. will (a) They have equal diameter
( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th (a) Remain same (b) They
Th have
h i
increasing
i diameter
di t
correct explanation of A (b) Decrease (c) They have decreasing diameter
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (c) Increase (d) They have alternately increasing and decreasing
correct explanation of A ((d)) Depend
p on the operator
p diameter.
IES 2005
IES ‐ 2005 IES 2002
IES ‐ Milling
(
Match List I (Tool) ) with List II (Element
( of Tool)) and Match List I with List II and select the correct answer:
select the correct answer using the code given below the List I (Machine tool) List II (Features)
Lists:
List I List II A Lathe
A. 1
1. Push or pull tool
A Broach 1. Tang B. Drilling machine 2. Rachet and pawl
B. Reamer 2. Pilot mechanism
C. Drill 3. Front taper C. Shaper 3. Dividing head
D. Carbide insert face mill 4. Bond D Broaching
D. B hi machine
hi 4. H ll tapered
Hollow d spindle
i dl
5. Sweeper tooth 5. Face plate
Codes:A B C D A B C D Codes:A B C D A B C D B S K M d l
By S K Mondal
(a) 2 5 1 3 (b) 1 3 4 5 (a) 2 4 5 1 (b) 5 3 2 4
(c) 2 3 1 5 (d) 1 5 4 3 (c) 2 3 5 4 (d) 5 4 2 1
Milli
Milling Milli
Milling U illi dd illi
Up milling and down milling
Milling machines of various types are widely used y 2‐D
D contouring
t i likelik cam profiles,
fil clutches
l t h etc
t and
d 3‐D
D
for the following purposes using proper cutting
tools called milling cutters: contouring
g like die or mould cavities
y Flat surface in vertical, horizontal and inclined planes y Cutting teeth in piece or batch production of spur gears,
y Making
M ki slotsl t or ribs
ib off various
i sections
ti
straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets,
y Slitting or parting
y Often producing surfaces of revolution clutches
l h etc.
y Making helical grooves like flutes of the drills y Producing some salient features like grooves,
grooves flutes,
flutes
y Long thread milling on large lead screws, power screws,
gushing and profiles in various cutting tools, e.g., drills,
worms etc and short thread milling for small size
fastening screws, bolts etc. taps, reamers, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.
U illi dd illi
Up milling and down milling Ad t fD Milli
Advantages of Down Milling Di d t fD Milli
Disadvantages of Down Milling
y In down milling, though the cut starts with a full chip 1.
1 Suited to machine thin and hard to hold parts since
hard‐to‐hold
thickness, the cut gradually reduces to zero. This helps in the workpiece is forced against the table or holding 1. It cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash
eliminating the feed marks present in the case of up device by the cutter.
milling and consequently better surface finish. eliminator and the table jibs have been tightened.
2. Work need not be clamped as tightly.
y Climb milling also allows greater feeds per tooth and 3. Consistent
C i t t parallelism
ll li and
d size
i may be b maintained,
i t i d
longer cutting life between regrinds than the 2. It cannot be used for machining castings or hot rolled
particularly on thin parts.
conventional milling.
milling 4. It may be used where breakout at the edge of the steel, since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.
y Up milling needs stronger holding of the job and down workpiece could not be tolerated.
milling
illi needs
d backlash
b kl h freef screw‐nutt systems
t f
for 5. It requires upto 20% less power to cut by this method.
feeding.
6. It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) deep, thin slots. Page 91 of 240 Rev.0
IES 2007
IES ‐ IES 1997
IES ‐ IES 2010
IES 2010
What is the process of removing metal by a milling Consider the following g statements: Assertion (A): Climb or down milling operation ensures
In Up milling process, smoother operation of the machine tool and longer tool life
cutter which is rotated against the direction of
as compared to the conventional up milling operation.
travel of the work piece, called? 1. The cutter starts the cut from the machined surface and
proceeds upwards. Reason (R):( ) In climb or down milling operation, the
(a) Down milling (b) Up milling rotational motion of the cutter as well as the feed motion of
2. The cutter starts the cut from the top p surface and
( ) End
(c) E d milling
illi (d) Face
F milling
illi the work‐piece
work piece are in the same direction,
direction and the depth of
proceeds downwards.
cut is maximum at the entry point as the cutter engages the
3. The job is fed in a direction opposite to that of cutter workpiece.
p
rotation.
i
4. The job is fed in the same direction as that of cutter explanation of A
rotation.
rotation
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct
Of these statements correct are: explanation of A
( ) 1 and
(a) d3 (b) 1 and d4 (c) A is true but R is false
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 (d) A is false but R is true
Cl ifi ti f illi hi
Classification of milling machines Cl ifi ti f illi hi
Classification of milling machines
IAS‐2009 main (a) According to nature of purposes of use: ((c)) According g to the orientation of the spindle(s).
p ( )
y General purpose y Plain horizontal knee type
Define the term ‘ feed in milling’
Define the term feed in milling. [2‐Marks]
[2‐Marks] y Horizontal axis ((spindle)
p ) and swiveling
g bed type
yp
y Si l purpose
Single
y Vertical spindle type
y Special purpose y Universal head milling machine
(b) According to configuration and motion of the (d) According to mechanization / automation and
work‐holding g table / bed production rate
p
y Knee type y Hand mill (milling machine)
y Planer and rotary y table type
yp vertical axis milling
g machines
y Bed type
y Tracer controlled copy milling machine,
y Planer type
y Milling
g machines for short thread milling g
y Rotary table type y Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) milling machine
Cl ifi ti f illi tt
Classifications of milling cutters Cl ifi ti f illi tt
Classifications of milling cutters Sl b Pl i illi tt
Slab or Plain milling cutters
(a) Profile sharpened cutters – where the geometry of (b) Form relieved cutters – where the job profile
the machined surfaces are not related with the tool becomes the replica of the
shape, viz; Tool form e.g.,
Tool‐form, e g viz.;
viz ;
i. Slab or plain milling cutter: – straight or helical i. Form cutters
fluted ii. Gear (teeth) milling cutters
ii. Side milling cutters – single side or both sided type iii. Spline
p shaft cutters
iii. Slotting cutter iv. Tool form cutters
iv. Slittingg or p
parting
g tools v T‐slot cutters
v. T slot cutters
v. End milling cutters – with straight or taper shank vi. Thread milling cutter
vi Face milling cutters.
vi. cutters
Sid d l t illi tt
Side and slot milling cutters Slitti ti t l
Slitting saw or parting tool E d illi tt E d ill
End milling cutters or End mills
F illi tt
Face milling cutters U ff li d ( illi )
Use of form relieved cutters (milling)
Tool form cutters
T slot cutter
T‐ l t tt G t th illi tt
Gear teeth milling cutters S li shaft cutters
Spline h ft tt

St ddl illi
Straddle milling IES 1995, ISRO‐2010
IES – 1995 ISRO 2010 G illi
Gang milling
In a milling operation two side milling cutters are
mounted with a desired distance between them so
that both sides of a work piece can be milled
simultaneously. This set up is called.
(a) Gang milling (b) Straddle milling
(c) String milling (d) Side milling.
IES 2006
IES ‐ IES 2009
IES ‐
IAS‐2009 Main Gang milling is a For machining, which one of the following gang
(a) Milling process for generating hexagonal surfaces milling operations is employed?
With a sketch, explain the principle of working
(b) Process
P off cutting
tti gears (a) Threads
and variations of bed‐type milling machine. (b) Bores
(c) Process in which two or more cutters are used
[9‐marks] simultaneously (c) Grooves
((d)) Milling
g operation
p combined with turning
g ((d)) Steps
p on p
prismatic p
parts
T i b l ( illi )
Turning by rotary tools (milling cutters) I d i
Indexing Si l Pl i I d i
Simple or Plain Indexing
y Plain indexing is the name given to the indexing method
carried out using any of the indexing plates in
conjunction with the worm.

IES 2004, ISRO‐2011
IES – 2004 ISRO 2011 IES 2000
IES ‐ IAS 1994
IAS ‐
One brand of milling machine has the following two One of the index plates of a milling machine A standard dividing head is equipped with the
index plates supplied along with the indexing head: dividing head has the following hole circles: 15; 16; following index plates
Plate 1: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 hole circles 17; 18; 19; 20 1 Plate with 12,
1. 12 16,
16 17,
17 18,
18 19,
19 20 holes circles
Plate 2: 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 hole circles A gear wheel of 34 teeth has to be milled by simple 2. Plate with 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes circles
It is proposed to mill a spur gear of 28 teeth using simple indexing method.
method To machine each tooth,tooth the index 3. Plate with 37, 39, 41,43,47,49 holes circles
indexing method. Which one of the following combinations crank has to be rotated through
of index plate and number of revolutions is correct? For obtainingg 244 divisions on a work p piece byy simple
p
( ) 17 holes
(a) h l in i the
th 20‐hole
h l circle
i l indexing
(a) Plate 1: 1 revolution and 9 holes in 18 hole circles
(b) 18 holes in the 20‐hole circle (a) Hole plate 2 alone can be used
(b) Plate 2:2 1 revolution
re olution and 9 holes in 21 hole circles
(c) 1 revolution and 3 holes in 17‐hole circle (b) Hole plates 1 and 2 can be used
(c) Plate 2: 1 revolution and 9 holes In 33 hole circles
(d) 1 revolution and 2 holes in 18
18‐hole
hole circle ( ) Hole
(c) H l plates
l t 1 and d 3 can be
b used d
( ) Plate 1: 1 revolution and 9 holes In 15 hole circles
(d)
(d) Any of the three hole plates can be used
Milli V l it
Milling Velocity Milli Ti
Milling Time Example
y The cutting speed in milling is the surface speed of the A C50 steel flat surface of dimensions 100 mm × 250
milling cutter. y Time for one pass =
L + 2 × A minutes mm is to be produced on a horizontal axis milling
πDN
πDN fZN machine. An HSS slab mill with a 100 mm diameter
V= y Approach distance,
2
⎛D⎞ ⎛D ⎞
2
A = ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ − d ⎟ = d (D − d )
and 150 mm width is to be used for the purpose. The
1000 ⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ milling cutter has 8 teeth.
Calculate the machining time assuming that entire
stock can be removed in one depth of 2 mm.
stock can be removed in one depth of 2 mm
Given,
Feed, f = 0.13 mm/tooth,
Cutting speed, V = 20 m/min.
g p
MRR i Milli
MRR in Milling Some Formulae for Milling
Some Formulae for Milling GATE 2014
GATE ‐
Considering the parameters defined in the discussion of 2f d Two
T separate
t slab
l b milling
illi operations,
ti 1 and
d 2, are
speeds and feeds, etc, the MRR is given below, Maximum uncut chip thickness (t max ) =
NZ D performed with identical milling
p g cutters. The depth
p of
Where,
Where
f d
Average uncut chip thickness (t a vg ) = cut in operation 2 is twice that in operation 1. The other
MRR = w×d × F NZ D
f2
cutting parameters are identical. The ratio of maximum
where, w = width of cut, d = depth of cut
p Peak to valley surface roughness (h max ) = uncutt chip
hi thicknesses
thi k i operations
in ti 1 and
d 2 is
i …………
4DN 2 Z 2

GATE 1995
GATE ‐ GATE 1993
GATE ‐ IES 2003
IES ‐
List
List‐II List
List‐ II A milling cutter having 8 teeth is rotating at 150 In milling machine, the cutting tool is held in
(Manufacturing Processes) (Condition) rpm. If the feed per tooth is 0.1 mm, the table speed position by
(A) Finish
Fi i h turning
t i 1. B kl h eliminator
Backlash li i t in mm per minute is (a) Chuck (b) Spindle
(B) Forming 2. Zero rake (a) 120 (b) 187 (c) Arbor (d) Tool holder
(C) Thread cutting 3. Nose radius ( ) 125 (d) 70
(c)
(D) Down milling 4. Low speed
( ) 2
(a) 3 4 1 (b) 3 4 1 2
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 4 1 2 3
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 1994
IES ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐
The arbor of a milling machine is used to hold Consider the following operations: A set of eight form relieved milling cutters for each
which one of the following? 1. Cutting key ways on shafts module is provided to enable cutting of gears of
(a) Spindle (b) Over‐arm
Over arm 2. Cutting
C tti external
t l screw threads.
th d different
(c) Cutting tool (d) Mandrel 3. Cutting teeth of spur gears (a) Materials
4. Cutting external splines. (b) Types
T e.g. spur, helical,
h li l etc.
t
Those which can be performed with milling cutters (c) Number of teeth
would include (d) Width of gears
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2,3
2 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 .
GATE 1992
GATE ‐ IES 1995
IES ‐ IES 2005
IES ‐
In horizontal milling process…………. (up/down) Assertion (A): Up milling or climb milling is Which one of the following statements is correct?
milling provides better surface finish and………….. commonly used for machining castings and In up‐milling operation, the undeformed chip thickness,
(up‐down)
(up down) milling provides longer tool life. forgings. a)) Is
I zero att the
th start
t t off the
th cutt andd increases
i t a
to
Reason (R): Up milling can be done on universal maximum value just before the tooth disengages the
milling machines.
machines workpiece.
k i
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the b) Increases to the maximum value at the centre of the
correctt explanation
l ti off A travel and decreases towards the end of tooth
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the engagement.
correct explanation of A c) Has a maximum value just after the cut is started and
(c) A is true but R is false p to zero at the end of the cut.
drops
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) (d) A is false but R isPage
true96 of 240 d) Remains unchanged. Rev.0
IES 1993
IES ‐ IES 2002
IES ‐ IES 2004
IES ‐
Climb milling is chosen while machining because Assertion ((A): ) Virtually y all modern milling
g machines The cutting speed of a milling cutter while cutting
are capable of doing down‐milling. brass is:
(a) The chip thickness increases gradually
Reason (R): In down‐milling the cutter tends to push
(b) It enables
bl the
th cutter
tt tot dig
di in
i andd depth
d th off cutt the work along and lift it upward from the table. This (a) 45 to 60 m/min (b) 30 to 40 m/min
(c) The specific power consumption is reduced action tends to eliminate any effect in looseness in the (c) 25 to 35 m/min (d) 15 to 20 m/min
feed screw and nut of the milling machine table and
(d) Better surface finish can be obtained results in smooth cut.
explanation of A
IES 1999
IES ‐ IES 2002
IES ‐ GATE – 2012 (PI) Common Data S1
A straight teeth slab milling cutter of 100 mm A side and face cutter 125 mm diameter has 10 teeth. Data for a plain milling operation are given below.
below
diameter and 10 teeth rotating at 200 r.p.m. is used It operates at a cutting speed of 14 m/min with a Length of workpiece 200 mm
to remove a layer of 3 mm thickness from a steel bar. table traverse 100 mm/min. The feed per tooth of
Cutter diameter 100 mm
If the table feed is 400 mm/minute, the feed per the cutter is
tooth in this operation will be No. of teeth 4
(a) 10 mm (b) 2.86
2 86 mm
(a) 0.2 mm (b) 0.4 mm Cutter speed 100 rpm
(c) 0.286 mm (d) 0.8 mm
( ) 0.5 mm
(c) (d) 0.66 mm Feed 200 mm/min
Depth of cut 2 mm
Total clearance (entry
( and exit)) 5 mm
Mean undeformed chip p thickness (in microns) is
(a) 142 (b) 100 (c) 71 (d) 50
GATE – 2012 (PI) Common Data S2 IES 2004

IES ‐ IAS 2001
IAS ‐
(
Match List I (Milling g pproblem)) with List II ((Probable Which one of the following statements are correct in respect of
Data for a plain milling operation are given below.
below up‐milling
illi and d down‐milling?
d illi ?
causes) and select the correct answer using the codes
Length of workpiece 200 mm 1. In up‐milling the cutter rotates in a direction opposite to that of
given below the Lists: workpiece travel whereas in down‐milling the cutter rotates in a
Cutter diameter 100 mm List I List II di
direction
i similar
i il to that
h off workpiece
k i travel.
l
2. In down‐milling chip will be thin at the beginning and increase to a
No. of teeth 4 A. Chatter 1. Too high feed maximum at the end of the cut and reverse will be the case for a chip p
B. Poor surface finish 2. Lack of rigidity in machine f
formed d by
b up‐milling.
ll
Cutter speed 100 rpm 3. Down‐milling is desirable with milling cutters having a high radial
fixtures, bar or workpiece
g when compared
rake angle p to up‐milling.
p g
Feed 200 mm/min C Loss
C. L off accuracy 3. Hi h cutting
High i load
l d 4. Down‐milling forces the work‐piece against the milling table to
Depth of cut 2 mm D. Cutter burrs 4. Radial relief too great exert more pressure while up‐milling tends to lift the workpiece from the
table.
Total clearance (entry
( and exit)) 5 mm 5. Not enough h lubricant
l b Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
g g p
Machining time for a single pass (in seconds) is Codes:A B C D A B C D Codes:
( ) 2
(a) 1 5 3 ( ) 2
(b) 1 3 5 (a) 1,1 2 and 3 (b) 1 2 and 4
1,
(a) 60 (b) 66 (c) 126
For-2015 (IES, GATE &(d) 150
PSUs) 2 Page
3 97(d)of 2404 Rev.0
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 4 5 2 3 5
IAS 1998
IAS ‐ IAS 2001
IAS ‐ IAS 2000
IAS ‐
Which of the following g statements are true of face Which of the following mechanisms are suitable for Consider the following mechanisms:
milling? indexing the table of rotary transfer line? 1. Geneva gearing
1. Face milling g cutter is held on an arbor. 1 Rack and pinion
1. 2
2. Ratchet and pawl 2. Rack
R k and d pinion
i i
2. It has two rake angles∙ axial rake and radial rake. 3. Lead screw 4. Geneva mechanism 3. Ratchet and pawl
3 The maximum chip thickness equals the feed per
3.
tooth. Select the correct answer by using the codes given below: Which of these mechanisms are used to index the work
4 The chip thickness varies from a minimum at the
4. Codes: table on a transfer machine?
start of cut to a maximum at the end of cut. (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (c) 1,
1 3 and 4 (d) 1, 1 2 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1,
1 2 and 3
Codes :
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
IAS 2003
IAS ‐ S 99
IES‐1994 IES 2012
IES ‐
A milling cutter of 70 mm diameter with 12 teeth is Which one of the following operations is carried out Statement ((I):
) Vibrations in milling g are induced due to
operating at a cutting speed of 22 m/min and a feed at the minimum cutting velocity if the machines are interrupted cutting operation.
of 0.05 mm/tooth. The feed per minute is equally rigid and the tool work materials are the Statement (II):Vibrations can be suppressed to a large extent
by using equal spacing of teeth along the periphery of the
(a) 110 m/min (b) 35 mm/min same? cutters.
( ) 6 mm/min
(c) / i (d) 60 6 mm/min
/ i (a) Turning ( ) Both
(a) B h Statement
S (I) and
d Statement
S (II) are individually
i di id ll
(b) Grinding true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
(c) Boring
((d)) Milling
g true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
p of
Statement (I)
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2002
IES‐
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
Match List I with List II and select the correct
the code given below the lists :
answer: Gear Manufacturing
G M f t i
List I (Machine tools) List II (Machine tool parts)
A. Lathe 1. Flute A. Lathe 1. Lead strew
B. Shaper 2. Universal indexing B. Milling machine 2. Rocker arm
C. Shaper
p 33. Universal indexing
g
C D illi
C. Drilling machine
hi 3. Leadscrew
L d
D. Drilling machine 4. Flute
D. Milling machine
C d
Codes
g 4. Rocker arm
4 Codes:A B C D A B C D
A B C D A B C D (a) 4 2 3 1 (b) 1 3 2 4 By S K Mondal
((a)) 2 4 1 3 (b) 3 4 1 2 (c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 1 2 3 4
(c) 2 1 For-2015
4 (IES,
3 GATE
(d) &3 PSUs)
1 4 2 Page 98 of 240 Rev.0
M f t fG
Manufacture of Gears F i dG ti
Forming and Generation Sunderland method using rack type cutter
Manufacture of gears needs several processing operations in
sequentiall stages depending
d d upon theh materiall and d type off the
h Gear teeth are produced by machining based on y The rack type HSS cutter (having rake and
gears and quality desired. Those stages generally are: clearance angles) reciprocates to accomplish the
y Preforming the blank without or with teeth Forming
g – where the p
profile of the teeth are obtained as
machining
hi i ( tti ) action
(cutting) ti while
hil rolling
lli t
type
y Annealing of the blank, if required, as in case of forged or
cast steels the replica of the form of the cutting tool (edge); e.g., interaction with the gear blank like a pair of rack
y Preparation of the gear blank to the required dimensions milling, broaching etc. and pinion.
by machining
y Producing teeth or finishing the preformed teeth by b Generation – where the complicated tooth profile are
machining
y Full or surface hardening of the machined gear (teeth), if provided by much simpler form cutting tool (edges)
required
y Finishing teeth, if required, by shaving, grinding etc through rolling type, tool – work motions, e.g., hobbing,
y Inspection of the finished gears
gear shaping etc. External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter (Sunderland method)
Sunderland method using rack type cutter G h i
Gear shaping G h i
Gear shaping
y Gear shaping is similar to the rack type cutting process, y Generation method is characterised by
y automatic indexing
g
y Applications of this method (and machine) include:
A li ti f thi th d ( d hi ) i l d and ability of a single cutter to cover the entire range of
excepting that, the linear type rack cutter is replaced by a
number of teeth for a given combination of module and
y Moderate size straight and helical toothed external circular cutter where both the cutter and the blank pressure anglel and d hence
h provides
id high
hi h productivity
d ti it and d
rotate as a pair of spur gears in addition to the economy.
spur gears with high accuracy and finish
reciprocation of the cutter. y The gear type cutter is made of HSS and possesses proper
y Cutting the teeth of double helical or herringbone rake and clearance angles.
y The additional advantages of gear shaping over rack type
gears with a central recess (groove) cutting are:
¾ Separate
p indexing g is not required
q at all
y Cutting teeth of straight or helical fluted cluster gears
C i h f i h h li l fl d l
¾ Straight or helical teeth of both external and internal
y However this method needs, though automatic, few
However this method needs though automatic few p g
spur gears can be p produced with high g accuracyy and
finish
indexing operations. ¾ Productivity is also higher.
G H bbi
Gear Hobbing G H bbi
Gear Hobbing Ad t fG H bbi
Advantages of Gear Hobbing
y The HSS or carbide cutter having
g teeth like g g
gear milling (a) The method is versatile and can generate spur,
cutter and the gear blank apparently interact like a pair y Having
H i lesser
l number
b (only
( l three)
th ) off tool
t l – work
k
helical, worm and worm wheels.
of worm and worm wheel.
motions,, hobbing
g machines are much more rigid,
g , strong
g (b) Since gear hobbing is a continuous process,
process it is
y The
Th hob
h b (cutter)
( ) looks
l k and d behaves
b h lik a single
like i l or
multiple start worms. and productive than gear shaping machine. rapid; economical and highly productive.
( ) The
(c) Th method
th d produces
d accurate
t gears and d is
i suitable
it bl
y But hobbing provides lesser accuracy and finish and is for medium and large batch production.
used
d only
l for
f cutting straight
h or helical
h l l teeth
h (single)
( l ) off (d) The cutter is universal, because it can cut all gears of
same module, irrespective of number of teeth on the
external spur gears and worm wheels.
wheels
gear.
(a) Straight (b) helical tooth and (c) worm wheel
Di d t f H bbi
Disadvantages of gear Hobbing Milli
Milling Milli
Milling
(a) Gear hobbing cannot generate internal gears and y Gear teeth can be p
produced byy both disc and end mill type
yp g
Production of gear teeth byy form milling
g are characterised
form milling cutter. by:
bevel gears. y Use of HSS form milling cutters
(b) Enough h space has
h to be
b there
h in component y Use of ordinary milling machines
configuration for hob approach. y Low p
production rate for
⎯ Need of indexing after machining each tooth gap
Applications of Hobbing
pp g ⎯ Slow speed and feed
y Low accuracy and surface finish
y The gears produced by gear hobbing are used in y Inventory problem – due to need of a set of eight cutters for
automobiles, machine tools, various instruments, clocks Fig. (a) disc type and end mill type for each module – pressure angle combination
( ) single
(b) g helical and y End mill type
yp cutters are used for teeth of large
g ggears and / or
and other equipments. (c) double helical teeth module.
Sh i Pl i d Sl tti
Shaping, Planning and Slotting F d i f h f
Fast production of teeth of spur gears
y Straight toothed spur gear can be produced in shaping Parallel multiple teeth
machine. shaping
y Both productivity and product quality are very low in y It is similar to ordinary
this process which therefore, is used, if at all, for making shaping but all the tooth gaps
one or few teeth on one or two pieces of gears as and are made simultaneously,
simultaneously
when required for repair and maintenance purpose. without requiring indexing,
y Planning
Pl i andd slotting
l tti machines
hi work k on the th same by a set of radially in feeding
principle. Planning machine is used for making teeth of single point form tools.
l
large gears whereas
h slotting
l tti for
f internal
i t l gears. y This
Thi oldld process was highly
hi hl
productive but became almost
obsolete
b l t for
f very high
hi h initial
i iti l
Fig‐ gear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping machine
and running costs.
F d i f h f
Fast production of teeth of spur gears M f t f b lli
Manufacture of gears by rolling
Broaching y The straight and helical teeth of disc or rod type external
y Teeth of small internal and external spur gears; straight steel gears of small to medium diameter and module are
or single helical,
helical of relatively softer materials are generated by cold rolling by either flat dies or circular
produced in large quantity by broaching. dies.
y This
Thi method
th d leads
l d tot very high
hi h productivity
d ti it and d quality
lit y Such rolling imparts high accuracy and surface integrity
but cost of machine and broach are very high. of the teeth which are formed by material flow unlike
cutting.
cutting
y Gear rolling is reasonably employed for high productivity
andd high
hi h quality
lit though
th h initial
i iti l machinery
hi costs
t are
relatively high.
y Larger size gears are formed by hot rolling and then
finished by machining.
Powder Metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy Wire EDM
Wire EDM Casting
y Small size high quality external or internal spur, bevel or y Geometrically accurate but moderately finished straight y Sand casting
spiral gears are also produced by powder metallurgy toothed metallic spur gears, both external and internal y Metal mould casting
process. type, can be produced by wire type Electro
Electro‐discharge
discharge y Die casting
Di ti
y Large size gears are rolled after briquetting and sintering Machining (EDM).
y Investment casting
for more strength and life.
life
y Shell mould casting
y Powder metallurgically produced gears hardly require
y Centrifugal casting
any further
f th finishing
fi i hi work. k
G fi i hi
Gear finishing process G h i
Gear shaving
yO
One of the g
goals of the g gp
gear finishing process in g
gears is y A micro finishing film is affixed to the mold and the yG g is a g
Gear shaving g operation
gear finishing p g
with high
to obtain a certain level of toughness in the gear teeth to mold is placed relative to a gear tooth so that the micro efficiency and high precision.
reduce and/or eliminate bending and contact fatigue finishing film rests against a tooth surface having the y When a work g
gear has been shaved byy a shaving
g cutter
failures. undulation error. with a true involute profile, the ''mid‐concave''
y Reduction of index undulation errors associated with phenomena inevitably exist around the pitch points of
y The grit size of the micro finishing film is such as to
helical gear teeth caused by the grinding process during the work gear tooth flanks.
the manufacture of the gears without degrading other remove approximately 2 to 3 millionths of gear material
y Aiming at this problem, a new‐style shaving cutter with
gear accuracies
i (e.g.
( profile,
fil tooth
t th spacing)
i ) below
b l l l
levels with each pass through the teeth by the mold.
mold Multiple unequal depth gashes is designed and manufactured.
required for precision (AGMA16 or DIN1) gears. passes are made by hand until the undulation error is
y This paper analyses the forming of the gash on the basis
y A mold ld off the
th space between
b t severall gear teeth
t th is i reduced to an acceptable value.
value During the process the of the slotting principle, and proposes a gash‐designing
obtained, with the mold having a length equal to or micro finishing film is replaced after approximately 3 or method.
greater than the wavelength of the undulation error to be 4 passes and the process is repeated for each tooth of the y Experiment has proven that the shaved gear has a better
reduced. gear. surface finish that achieves the anticipated effect.
G b i hi
Gear burnishing G L i
Gear Lapping IES 1992
IES ‐
y Gear lapping is used to finish hardened gears by Gear lapping
y It is designed
d d to remove or reduce
d gear tooth
h nicks
k and
d
(a) An operation after heat treatment
correcting small errors in spacing, profile, helix
burrs along with improving the smoothness of the
burrs, (b) An
A operation
ti prior
i tot heat
h t treatment
t t t
angle, and eccentricity.
tooth's active p
profile finish. (c) An independent operation for gear reconditioning
y The operation is performed with all forms of gears (d) None of the above
y The action of the burnishing
g dies on the tooth surface
running
i together
t th with
ith mating
ti gears, and
d castt iron
i
allows the machine to accomplish these quality toothed laps,
p , under a flow of fine oil mixed with
improvements without altering the tooth profile or lead. an abrasive compound.
y Both internalFor-2015 (IES, gears

and external GATEare
& PSUs)
possible to burnish. Page 101 of 240 Rev.0
IES 1999
IES ‐ IES 2006
IES ‐ IES 2005
IES ‐
Consider the following processes for the Which of the following is/are used for cutting In helical milling, the ratio of the circumference of
manufacture of gears: internal gears? the gear blank to the lead of the helix determines
1 Casting
1. 1 Gear hobber
1. 2
2. Gear shaper the:
2. Powder metallurgy 3. Rack cutter 4. Jig borer (a) Proper speed to use
3. Machining from bar stock Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (b) Proper
P f d and
feed d depth
d th off cutt required
i d
4. Closed die forging
4 g g ((a)) Onlyy 1 and 2 ((b)) Onlyy 2 and 3 (c) Angle setting of the machine table
The correct sequence in increasing order of bending (c) Only 1 and 4 (d) Only 2 (d) Gear ratio for table screw and dividing head
strength of gear teeth is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 1, 2, 4, 3
( ) 2, 1, 4, 3
(c) (d) 2, 1, 3, 4
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 1996
IES ‐ IES 2000
IES ‐ 2000
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using Gear cutting on a milling machine using an involute Which one of the following processes of gear
the code given below the lists:
profile cutter is a manufacture results in best accuracy of the involute
List I List II
(a) Gear forming process gear tooth profile?
(Type of work) (Manufacturing)
(b) Gear generating process. (a) Milling
A. High rate production of worm Gears and 1. Gear shaving
worm wheel (c) Gear shaping process (b) Hobbing
H bbi
B. Generating internal gears and Cluster gears 2. Gear milling ((d)) Highly
g y accurate g
gear p
producing
gpprocess. (c) Rotary gear shaper
C. Finishing of gear tooth profiles 3. Gear hobbing (d) Rack type gear shaper
D. Repair and piece production of gears 4. Gear shaping
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 3 1 4 2
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 1996
IES ‐ IES 2009
IES ‐
Assertion ((A): ) Gears p produced by y employing
p y g form‐ Consider the following processes of gear By which one of the following machines the teeth of
cutting principle using gear‐milling cutter on a milling manufacture: an internal spur gear can be cut accurately?
machine are not very accurate.
Reason (R): Production of the correct gear tooth profile 1 Milling with form cutter
1. (a) Milling machine
employing form‐cutting principle would require a 2. Rack type gear shaper (gear planer) (b) Slotting machine
separate cutter for cutting different numbers of teeth 3. Rotary gear shaper (gear shaper) (c) Hobbing machine
even for the same module and also errors are associated
with inaccurate operation
p of indexing
g mechanism. 4. Gear hobbing
4 g ((d)) Gear‐shaping
p g machine
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of The correct sequence of these processes in increasing
A order of accuracy of involute profile of the gear
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct
explanation of A
(a) 3, 2, 4, 1 (b) 2, 3, 4, 1
(c) A is true but R is false ( ) 3, 2, 1, 4
(c) (d) 2, 3, 1, 4
IES 2004
IES ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐ IES 2003
IES ‐
Gear shaping is a process of manufacturing gears. In gear hobbing A spur gear of 40 teeth is machined in a gear
Which one of the following principles is employed by it? (a) Only hob rotates hobbing machine using a double start hob cutter.
( ) Form
(a) F cutting
tti withith cutter
tt (b) Only
O l gear blank
bl k rotates
t t The speed ratio between the hob and the blank is
(b) Generating tooth form with a reciprocating cutter (c) Both hob and gear blank rotate (a) 1:20 (b) 1:40
(c) Generating tooth form by a rotating cutter (d) Neither hob nor gear blank rotates ( ) 40: 1 (d) 20: 1
(c)
(d) Generating form with a reciprocating and revolving
cutter
IES 2008
IES ‐ IES 1999
IES ‐ IES 1997
IES ‐
Which machining processes are used for gear A 60 teeth gear when hobbed on a differential
60‐teeth Which of the following motions are not needed for
manufacture? hobber with a two‐start hob, the index change gear spur gear cutting with a hob?
1 Form milling
1. 2
2. Broaching ratio is governed by which one of the following 1 Rotary motion of hob
1.
3. Roll forming 4. Hobbing kinematic balance equations? 2. Linear axial reciprocator motion of hob
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 revolution of gear blank = 1/60 of hob revolutions 3. Rotary motion of gear blank
((a)) 1, 2 and 3 ((b)) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 revolution of gear blank = 2/60 of hob revolutions 4. Radial advancement of hob.
4
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 revolution of hob = 2/60 of blank revolutions Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
((d)) 1 revolution of hob = 1/60 of blank revolutions (a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1, 1 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IES 2007
IES ‐ GATE 2007 (PI)
GATE – 2007 (PI) IES 1993
IES ‐ 1993
Which of the following methods are gear generating Which one of the following gear manufacturing Internal gear cutting operation can be performed by
processes? processes is NOT based on generation principle? (a) Milling
1 Gear shaping
1. ( ) Gear
(a) G H bbi
Hobbing (b) Gear
G Sh i
Shaping (b) Shaping
Sh i with ith rack
k cutter
tt
2. Gear hobbing (c) Shaping with pinion cutter
((c)) Gear Milling
g ((d)) Gear Shaving
g
3. Gear milling (d) Hobbing
Select the correct answer using
g the code g
given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only

IAS 1998
IAS ‐ IES 2006
IES ‐ IES 1996
IES ‐
Assertion (A): Internal gears are cut on a gear Which of the following cannot be cut by hobbing For the manufacture of full depth spur gear by
shaper. process? hobbing process, the number of teeth to be cut = 30,
Reason (R): Hobbing is not suitable for cutting (a) Helical gears (b) Bevel gears module = 3 mm and pressure angle = 20
20°.. The radial
internal gear. (c) Worm gears (d) Spur gears depth of cut to be employed should be equal to
( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th (a) 3.75
3 75 mm (b) 4.50
4 50 mm
correct explanation of A (c) 6.00 mm (d) 6.75 mm
IES 1995
IES ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐ IAS 2003
IAS ‐
While cutting helical gears on a non differential
non‐differential Gear burnishing process for Which one of the following is not a feature of gear
gear hobber, the feed change gear ratio is (a) Removing residual stresses from teeth roots hobbing process?
(a) Independent of index change gear ratio (b) Surface
S f fi i hi
finishing (a) High rate of production
(b) dependent on speed change gear ratio (c) Under‐cut gears (b) Generation of helical gears
(c) Interrelated to index change gear ratio (d) Cycloidal gears (c) Very accurate tooth profile
((d)) Independent
p of speed
p and index changeg g
gear ratio. ((d)) Generation of internal g
gears
IAS 2001
IAS ‐ IES 1994
IES ‐
Consider the following motions and setting in a Consider the following machine tools:
hobbing machine: 1. Hobbing machine
1 Hob rotation
1.
2. Job rotation
2. Gear
G shaping
h i machine
3. Broaching machine.
hi
Screw Thread
S Th d
3. Axial reciprocating hob rotation
4. Tilting
4 g of hob to its helix angle
g
The teeth of internal spur gears can be cut in
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
Manufacturing
f i
Which of these motions and setting in a hobbing (c) 1and 3 (d) 2 and 3
machine are required to machine a spur gear?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
( ) 1, 2 and
(c) d 4 (d) 1, 3 and d4
By S K Mondal
Thread Cutting
Thread Cutting Thread Cutting on Lathe
Thread Cutting on Lathe
Processes, Machines and Tools External Internal y Can cut both external and
Used For Producing Screw Threads • Threading on a lathe • Threading (on a lathe or Internal thread
• Threading g on a NC lathe NC lathe)) y Thread cutting g is a form‐
(a) Machining • With a die held in a stock • With a tap and holder cutting operation an
((manual)) ((manual NC,, machine,, accuratelyy shaped
p tool is
(b) Rolling • With an automatic die semiautomatic, or used (with zero rake)
((turret lathe or screw automatic)) y The lead screw and the
( ) G i di
(c) Grinding machine) or NC lathe • With a collapsible tap split nut, which provide
y milling
• By g ((turret lathe,, screw positive motion of the
• By Grinding machine, or special carriage relative to the
threadingg machine)) rotation of the spindle.
spindle
•By milling
Th d T i
Thread Tapping Thread Milling
Thread Milling
C i h d ih i
Cutting Threads with Dies y Highly accurate threads,
y Straight
g and tapered
p external threads can be cut q
quicklyy y Cutting
g internal thread byy a multiple‐point
p p tool is called
particularly in larger
manually by means of threading dies. thread tapping, and the tool is called a tap.
sizes, are often form‐
y Dies are made of carbon or high
high‐speed
speed tool steel y A hole of diameter slightly larger than the minor milled Either a single or
milled.
diameter of the thread must already exist. a multiple‐form Cutter
Th flutes
•The fl t on tap
t create t cutting
tti may be used.
used
edges on the thread profile and y The milling cutter is
provide
d space for
f theh chips
h andd tilted
il d at an angle l equall
the passage of cutting fluid. to the helix angle of the
•Taps are made of either carbon thread
h d and d is
i fed
f d inward
i d
g p
or high‐speed steel and coated radially to full depth
(a) Solid threading die; (b) solid‐adjustable threading die while
hil the
h work k is
i
with TiN.
stationary.
Th d G i di
Thread Grinding Th d R lli
Thread Rolling GATE 2003
GATE ‐
y Grinding can produce y Thread rolling
g is used to p
produce threads in substantial Quality screw threads are produced by
very accurate threads,
h d and d quantities.
it also permits threads to (a) Thread milling
be produced in hardened y Cold
Cold‐forming
forming process operation in which the threads are (b) Thread chasing
Th d h i
materials. formed by rolling a thread blank between hardened dies
(c) Thread cutting with single point tool
y A single‐ribbed
single ribbed grinding that cause the metal to flow radially into the desired
wheel is employed, but shape. (d) Thread casting
multiple‐ribbed
multiple ribbed wheels y Chip less process,
process
are used occasionally.
fast and economical.
y Centerless thread
grinding is used for y Mechanical properties
making g headless sets are good.
g
screws.
IES 2011 IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 2007
IES ‐
External threads can be produced by : For producing both internal and external Screw threads are produced on solid rods by using
1. Rolling screw threads, the method used is which of the following?
2. Grinding ( ) Thread
(a) Th d chasing
h i with ith multiple‐rib
lti l ib chasers
h (a) Dies (b) Punch
(c) Mandrel (d) Boring bar
33. Milling
g ((b)) Thread milling
g and multiple‐thread
p cutters
(a) 1 and 3 only (c) Thread tapping with taps
(b) 1 and 2 only (d) Die
Di threading
h di with i h self‐opening
lf i die
di heads
h d
(c) 2 and 3only
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(d)
IES 2012
IES ‐
ISRO‐2011 ISRO‐2010 The differential screw is used in a
(a) Turnbuckle
Which of the following screw thread is adapted for Internal and external threads can be produced
(b) Micrometer
Mi t
power transmission in one direction on tapered surfaces conveniently by (c) Vernier Caliper
(a) Acme threads (a) Universal milling machine (d) Coupler
( )
(b) Buttress threads (b) Plano
l miller
ll
(c) Square threads (c) Planetary milling machine
(d) Multiple threads (d) lathe
IES 2012
IES ‐ IES 2012
IES ‐
Multistart threads are used to get Which of the following screw threads is adopted for
(a) Smaller linear displacement power transmission in either direction
(b) Larger
L li
linear di l
displacement
t with
ith assured
d self
lf locking
l ki (a) ACME threads
(c) Larger linear displacement with no guarantee of self
locking
(b) Square threads
(c) Buttress threads
Shaper, Planner, Slotter
((d)) None of the above ((d)) Multiple
p threads
B S K M d l
By S K Mondal

Sh
Shaper Sh
Shaper Quick return motion Mechanism
Quick return motion Mechanism
y The relative motions between the tool and the workpiece,
shaping and planing use a straight‐line cutting motion with a
single‐point
g p cuttingg tool to g
generate a flat surface.
y In shaping, the workpiece is fed at right angles to the cutting
motion between successive strokes of the tool.
y For either shaping or planing, the tool is held in a clapper box
which pprevents the cutting g edge
g from being g damaged
g on the
return stroke of the tool.
y Relatively
y skilled workers are required
q to operate
p shapers
p and
planers, and most of the shapes that can be produced on
them also can be made byy much more p productive p processes,
such as milling, broaching, or grinding.
Q i k t ti M h i
Quick return motion Mechanism
y In shaping, the cutting tool is held in the tool post Ram Drive Feed Mechanism
located in the ram, which reciprocates over the work y The mechanical ram drive is a slotted arm quick return y Table feed is intermittent and is accomplished on the
with a forward stroke, cutting at velocity V and a quick motion mechanism,
motion mechanism
return stroke at velocity VR. return (non cutting) stroke when the tool has cleared
y The rpm rate of the drive crank (Ns) drives the ram and th workpiece.
the k i
determines the velocity of the operation.
y The cross feed is given to the table with the help of a
cutting stroke angle
y The stroke ratio, Rs = cross feed screw which is actuated by a pawl which
3600 engages a notched wheel (ratchet) keyed to the screw.
Cl ifi ti f Sh M hi
Classification of Shaper Machine F l
Formula Hydraulic Shaper
Shapers, as machine tools usually are classified NL(1 + m)
according to their general design features as follows, y Cutting speed, V =
1000
1 Horizontal
1. w
y Number of strokes, N s =
a. Push‐cut f
b. Pull‐cut or draw cut shaper L(1 + m)
y Time of one stroke, t = min
2. Vertical 1000V
a. Regular or slotters L(1 + m) Lw(1 + m)
y Total time, T = Ns = min
b
b. Keyseaters 1000v 1000vf
3. Special purpose

Advantages of hydraulic shaping
Planer Slotter
y Planing can be used to produce horizontal, vertical, or y Slotting machine is basically a vertical axis shaper.
shaper Thus
y 1. Cutting speed remains constant throughout most of the cutting inclined flat surfaces on workpieces that are too large to the workpieces, which cannot be conveniently held in
stroke, unlike the crank shaper where the speed changes continuously.
be accommodated on shapers. shaper, can be machined in a slotter.
y 2. Since the power available remains constant throughout, it is possible y Planing is much less efficient than other basic y Generally, keyways, splines, serrations, rectangular
to utilise the full capacity of the cutting tool during the cutting stroke.
machining processes,
processes such as milling,
milling that will produce grooves and similar shapes are machined in a slotting
y 3. The ram reverses quickly without any shock due the hydraulic such surfaces. machine.
cylinder utilised. The inertia of the moving parts is relatively small.
y Planing
Pl i and d planers
l h
have l
largely
l been
b replaced
l d byb planer
l y The
Th stroke
t k off the
th ram isi smaller
ll ini slotting
l tti machines
hi
y 4. The range and number of cutting strokes possible are relatively large
in hydraulic shaper. milling machines or machines that can do both milling than in shapers to account for the type of the work that
and
d planing.
l i i handled
is h dl d in
i them.
th
y 5. More strokes per minute can be achieved by consuming less time for
reversal and return strokes.
Sl tt
Slotter Sl tt
Slotter
y The types of tools used in a slotter are very similar to
those in a shaper, except that the cutting actually takes
place in the direction of cutting.
y However, in view of the type of surfaces that are possible
in the case of slotter,
slotter a large variety of boring bars or
single‐point tools with long shanks are used.
IAS 1994
IAS ‐ GATE 2012 (PI)
GATE‐2012 (PI) GATE 2005
GATE ‐
Stroke of a shaping machine is 250 mm. It makes 30 In
I a shaping
h i process, the
th number
b off double
d bl strokes
t k per A 600 mm x 30 mm flat surface of a plate is to be
double strokes per minute. Overall average speed of finish machined on a shaper. The plate has been
operation is minute is 330 and the q
quick return ratio is 0.6. If the fixed with the 600 mm side along the tool travel
(a) 3.75 m/min (b) 5.0 m/min length of the stroke is 250 mm, the average cutting direction. If the tool over‐travel at each end of the
( ) 7.5 m/min
(c) / i (d) 15 m/min
/ i plate is 20 mm, average cutting speed is 8 m/min,
velocity in m/min is feed rate is 0.3 mm/stroke and the ratio of return
time to cutting time of the tool is 1:2, the time
( ) 3.0
(a) (b) 4.5 ( ) 7.5
(c) (d) 12.0
required for machining will be
(a) 8 minutes (b) 12 minutes
(c) 16 minutes (d) 20 minutes

IES 1994, ISRO‐2008
IES – 1994 ISRO 2008 GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 IES 2004
IES ‐
Given that, average cutting speed = 9 m/min, the A castt iron
i block
bl k off 200 mm length
l th is
i being
b i shaped
h d in
i a Consider the following alignment tests on machine
return time to cutting time ratio is = 1 : 2, the feed tools
rate = 0.3 mm/stroke, the clearance at each end of shaping
p g machine with a depth
p of cut of 4 mm,, feed of 1 Straightness
1. 2
2. Flatness
cut = 25 mm and that the plate is fixed with 700 mm 0.25 mm/stroke and the tool principal cutting edge angle 3. Run out 4. Parallelism
side along the direction of tool travel, the time
required for finishing one flat surface of a plate of of 30o. Number of cutting strokes per minute is 60. Which of the above alignment tests on machine tools are
size 700 x 30 mm in a shaper, will be common to both lathe and shaper?
Ui
Using specific
ifi energy for
f cutting
tti J/mm3 the
as 1.49 J/ th
(a) 10 min (b) 12.5 min (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
average
g ppower consumption
p ((in watt)) is …………. (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
( ) 15 min
(c) i (d) 20 mini
IES 2001
IES ‐ IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 1997
IES ‐
Assertion ((A):) Longitudinal
g g motion of the
cutting Which of the following are the advantages of a
In
I a shaper
h machine,
hi the
th mechanism
h i for
f tool
t l feed
f d is
i
tool and cross‐wise feed motion of the job generates hydraulic shaper over a mechanically driven shaper?
(a) Geneva mechanism flat surfaces in p planning gp
process. 1 More strokes per minute can be obtained at a given
1.
Reason (R): Jobs used in planning machines are cutting speed.
(b) Whitworth mechanism generally long and heavy compared to shaping. 2. The
Th cutting
tti stroke
t k has
h a definite
d fi it stopping
t i point.
i t
(c) Ratchet and Pawl mechanism (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 3. It is simpler in construction.
(d) Ward‐ Leonard system 4. Cutting speed is constant throughout most of the
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the cuttingg stroke.
l ti off A
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
IES 1995
IES ‐ IAS 1995
IAS ‐
In a mechanical shaper, the length of stroke is Size
Si off a shaper
h is
i given
i by
b
ISRO‐2010
increased by The cutting speed of the tool in a mechanical
(a) Increasing the centre distance of bull gear and crank (a) Stroke length (b) Motor power shaper
h i
is
pin (a) Maximum at the beginning of the cutting stroke
(c) Weight
g of the machine (d) Table size.
(b) Decreasing
D i th centre
the t distance
di t off bull
b ll gear and d (b) Maximum at the end of the cutting stroke
crank pin
((c)) Maximum at the middle of the cutting
g stroke
(c) Increasing the length of the ram
(d) Minimum at the middle of the cutting stroke
((d)) Decreasing
g the length
g of the slot in the slotted lever

Abrasive Machining Processes
GATE‐2014 (PI)
GATE‐2014 (PI) Process Features
Match the following Grinding Uses wheels, accurate sizing, finishing, low MRR;
can be done at high speeds .
Group I (Mechanism) Group II (Machines)
Creep feed Uses wheels with long cutting arc, very slow feed
P Quick return 1 Lathe grinding
d rate and large depth of cut
dl d h f
Q Apron 2 Shaping Abrasive High MRR, to obtain desired shapes and
R Intermittent indexing 3 Gear hobbing Grinding & Finishing machining
Abrasive water
approximate sizes
Water jets with velocities up to 1000 m/sec carry
S Differential mechanism
S e e t a ec a s 4 Milling
4 g
jet Machining abrasive particles (silica and garnet)
Honing "Stones" containing fine abrasives; primarily a
(a) P1 Q2 R4 S3
(a) P1‐Q2‐R4‐S3 (b) P2 Q1 R4 S3
(b) P2‐Q1‐R4‐S3 h l finishing process
hole ‐ fi i hi
(c) P4‐Q1‐R2‐S3 (d) P2‐Q3‐R1‐S4 Lapping Fine particles embedded in soft metal or cloth;
By S K Mondal primarily a surface‐finishing process
i il f fi i hi
Grinding Why is high velocity desired in grinding?
yG g is the most common form of abrasive
Grinding y It is desired to off set the adverse effect of very high
machining. negative rake angle of the working grit, to reduce the
y It is a material cutting
gpprocess which engages
g g an abrasive force per grit as well as the overall grinding force.
tool whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive
material known as grit.
y These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points,
high hot hardness, and chemical stability and wear
resistance.
y The grits are held together by a suitable bonding
material to give shape of an abrasive tool. Fig- cutting action of abrasive grains
y Grinding can be compared with milling with an infinite
number of cutting edge.
Advantages of Grinding
Advantages of Grinding Applications of Grinding
Applications of Grinding On which factors does the transverse roughness
p p gg
of workpiece depend during grinding?g
y Dimensional accuracy
Di i l y Surface finishing
S f fi i hi
y Good surface finish y Slitting and parting y It mainly depends on the shape of the grits and overlap
cuts made by the grits in the transverse direction. Lateral
y Good form and locational accuracy
y y Descaling, deburring
g g plastic flow of the material as a result of ploughing also
influences the surface roughness.
y Applicable to both hardened and unhardened material y Stock removal (abrasive milling)
y Finishing of flat as well as cylindrical surface
y Grinding of tools and cutters and resharpening of the
same
G i di
Grinding Interaction of the grit with the workpiece Interaction of the grit with the workpiece
y If each abrasive grain is viewed as a cutting tool then in y Shape of grit is very important because it determines the y Grit with favourable geometry can produce chip in shear
grinding operation. grit geometry e.g. rake and clearance angle. mode.
High y The grits do not have definite geometry unlike a cutting y However,
However grits having large negative rake angle or
y Rake angle can be positive, zero, or negative ranging from tool. rounded cutting edge do not form chips but may rub or
+45o to ‐60
60o, dull,
dull rounded grits has large negative rake angle make a groove by ploughing leading to lateral flow of the
y Cutting speed is very high workpiece material.
y Very
V hi h specific
high ifi energy off cutting
i
Low
y Low shear angle
y Low feed rate
y Low depth of cut Fig‐ Grits engage shearing, ploughing and rubbing
How is chip accommodation volume is Specific energy consumption in grinding How may the specific grinding energy vary

related to material removal rate?
related to material removal rate? with material removal rate in grinding?
with material removal rate in grinding?
y Volume of chip accommodation space ahead of each grit y Specific grinding energy will start decreasing with
must be greater than the chip volume produced by each material removal rate because rake angle of the grit
grit to facilitate easy evacuation of the chip from the becomes more favourable with increase of grit depth of
grinding wheel. cut. However, if increase of material removal rate causes
chip accommodation problem in the available inter
inter‐grit
grit
space then specific energy may increase.
G Ratio Parameters for specify a grinding wheel
y The grinding ratio or G ratio is defined as thee cubic mm ( )
GATE ‐2011 (PI) 1) The type of grit material
of stock removed divided by the cubic mm of wheel lost. Grinding ratio is defined as 2) The grit size
volume of wheel wear 3)) The
Th bond
b d strength
t th off the
th wheel,
h l commonly l known
k
y In conventional grinding, the G ratio is in the range 20: 1 (a) as wheel hardness
volume of work material removed
to 80: 1.
1
volume of work material removed 4) The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e.
(b)
volume of wheel wear the amount of inter grit spacing
y The G ratio is a measure of grinding production and
reflects the amount of work a wheel can do during its
cutting speed 5) The type of bond material
(c)
useful life.
life feed 6) Other than these parameters, the wheel
longitudinal feed manufacturer may add their own identification code
(d)
y As the wheel losses material,
material it must be reset or transverse feed prefixing or suffixing (or both) the standard code.
repositionedFor-2015 (IES,
to maintain GATE & PSUs)
workpiece size. Page 111 of 240 Rev.0
Abrasive Comments and Uses
Material
Aluminium oxide Softer and tougher than silicon
carbide; use on steel,
steel iron,
iron brass
IES 2009
y 2 marks
Silicon carbide Used for brass,, bronze,,
aluminum, stainless steel and
cast iron
cBN (cubic boron For grinding hard, tough tool
nitride)) steels, stainless steel, cobalt and
nickel based superalloys, and
hard coatings
Diamond Used to grind nonferrous
materials tungsten carbide and
materials,
ceramics
Why is aluminium oxide preferred to Grit size

Grit size Why does single layer grinding wheel show progressive
rise of force during grinding of high speed steel?
silicon carbide in grinding steel?
silicon carbide in grinding steel? y The grain size affects material removal rate and the
surface quality of workpiece in grinding.
y Al2O3 is tougher than SiC.
SiC Therefore it is y Large grit‐
grit big grinding capacity,
capacity rough workpiece y The geometry of grit undergoes irreversible change in
preferred to grind material having high tensile surface the form of rounding or flattening due to wear caused by
strength like steel.
steel Moreover,
Moreover Al2O3 shows higher rubbing action of hard carbides present in high speed
y Fine
Fi grit‐
it smallll grinding
i di capacity,
it smooth
th workpiece
k i
steel.
chemical inertness than SiC towards steel leading surface
to much improved wear resistance during
g
grinding.
g
Grade Structure / concentration

Structure / concentration Why is coarse grain and open structured wheel
y The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make y The structure should be open for grinding wheels is preferred for stock removal grinding?
is preferred for stock removal grinding?
room for fresh sharp grit in order to avoid excessive rise engaged in high material removal to provide chip
of grinding force and temperature. accommodation space. y Coarse grit allows large grit protrusion and open
y A soft wheel should be chosen for grinding hard y The space between the grits also serves as pocket for structure provides large inter grit chip space. Thus in
material.
material holding grinding fluid.
fluid combination those two provide large space for chip
accommodation during stock removal grinding and risk
y A hard wheel should be chosen for grinding soft y Dense structured wheels are used for longer wheel life,
of wheel loading is minimized.
material.
t i l f holding
for h ldi precision
i i forms
f and
d profiles.
fil

B di M i l f G i di h l
Bonding Materials for Grinding wheels Bonding Materials for Grinding wheels
Bonding Materials for Grinding wheels B di M i l f G i di h l
Bonding Materials for Grinding wheels
Type of Bond Attributes Type of Bond Attributes
Vitrified bonds
Vitrified bonds Composed of clays and other ceramic Rubber bond For use in thin wheels, replaced by resin y They are composed of clays and other ceramic
substances, porous, strong, rigid, and bond.
bond substances.
unaffected by oils, water, or Oxychloride Limited use. y Vitrified wheels are p
porous,, strong,
g, rigid,
g , and unaffected
temperature. Brittle and can not be used b d
bond by oils, water, or temperature over the ranges usually
for high wheel speed. Metal bond Extensively used with super abrasive encountered in metal cutting. g
Resinoid, or Plastic bond, replaced shellac and wheels, high toughness, high accuracy, y The operating speed range in most cases is 1500 to 5000
phenolic
p rubber wheels,, not with alkaline large stock removal. m/min.
resins grinding fluid. Electroplated Used for small wheel, form wheel and
Shellac bond For flexible cut off wheels, replaced by bond p abrasive wheels,, for abrasive
thin super
resin bond. milling and ultra high speed grinding.
Replace by electroplated bond
What is the main short coming of vitrified Resinoid or phenolic resins

Resinoid, or phenolic Shellac bond
Shellac bond
bond? y Because plastics can be compounded to have a wide y At one time this bond was used for flexible cut off
range of properties, such wheels can be obtained to cover wheels.
Vitrified bond is brittle and can not with stand high a variety of work conditions. y At present use of shellac bond is limited to grinding
impact loads. This bond can not be used for high wheel y They have, to a considerable extent, replaced shellac and wheels engaged in fine finish of rolls.
speed due to risk of wheel breakage under centrifugal rubber wheels.
wheels
force.
y Resin bond is not recommended with alkaline grinding
fl id for
fluid f a possible
ibl chemical
h i l attack
tt k leading
l di t bond
to b d
weakening.
Rubber bond
Rubber bond Oxychloride bond Metal bond
Metal bond
y Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut off
cut‐off y It is less common type bond, but still can be used in disc y Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive
operation. grinding operation. It is used under dry condition. wheels. Extremely high toughness of metal bonded
y Rubber bond was once popular for finish grinding on wheels makes these very effective in those applications
bearings and cutting tools. where form accuracy as well as large stock removal is
desired.

Electroplated bond
Electroplated bond Brazed bond
Brazed bond Gl i
Glazing
y This
Thi bond
b d allows
ll large
l (30‐40%)
( %) crystal
t l exposure above
b y This
Thi is
i relatively
l ti l a recentt development,
d l t allows
ll crystal
t l y With continuous
ti use a grinding
i di wheel
h l becomes
b dull
d ll with
ith
the bond without need of anyy truing
g or dressing.
g This exposure
p as high
g 60‐80%. In addition g
grit spacing
p g can be the sharp
p abrasive g
grains becoming
g rounded.
bond is specially used for making small diameter wheel, precisely controlled. This bond is particularly suitable for y This condition of a dull grinding wheel with worn out
form wheel and thin super abrasive wheels. Presently it is very high material removal either with diamond or cBN grains is termed as glazing.
th only
the l bond
b d for
f making
ki wheels
h l for
f abrasive
b i milling
illi and
d wheel.
h l The
Th bond
b d strength
t th is
i much
h greater
t than
th provided
id d
ultra high
g speed
p grinding.
g g byy electroplated
p bond. This bond is expected
p to replace
p
electroplated bond in many applications.
L di
Loading Dressing G 20
GATE‐2014
y Some
S grinding
i di chips
hi gett lodged
l d d into
i t the
th spaces between
b t y Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which Match the Machine Tools (Group A) with the probable
ensures that grit cutting edges are exposed from the Operations (Group B):
the g
grits resulting
g in a condition known as loaded wheel. bond and thus able to penetrate into the workpiece Group A
G Group B
G B
material.
y Loading is generally caused during the grinding of soft P: Center Lathe 1: Slotting
y In dressing attempts are made to splinter the abrasive
and ductile materials. Q: Milling 2: Counter‐boring
grains to make them sharp and free cutting and also to
remove any residue left by material being ground.
ground R: Grinding 3: Knurling
y A loaded grinding wheel cannot cut properly and need
y Dressing therefore produces micro‐geometry. S: Drilling 4: Dressing
dressing.
dressing P Q R S P Q R S
( ) 1
(a) 2 4 3 ( )
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 3 4 2 1
Can a resin bonded cBN wheel be Is dressing necessary for single layer Truing

electrochemically dressed?
electrochemically dressed? wheel? y Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry
on the grinding wheel.
y Electrochemical dressing is not possible with resin y Conventional macro level dressing is not required y Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to
bonded wheel because it is not electrically conducting. because the wheel inherently has an open structure. ensure concentricity with specific mounting system.
However, touch dressing is carried out to obtain better
y Truing
T i and d dressing
d i are commonly l combined
bi d into
i t one
uniformity in grit height in order to improve surface
operation for conventional abrasive grinding wheels, but
finish of the workpiece.
are usually
ll two
t di ti tl separate
distinctly t operation
ti f super
for
abrasive wheel.

Balancing Grinding Wheels Creep feed grinding
Creep feed grinding State the basic advantage of a creep feed
y Because of the high rotation speeds involved,
involved grinding y This machine enables single pass grinding of a surface grinder over a conventional surface
grinder over a conventional surface
wheels must never be used unless they are in good with a larger down feed but slower table speed than that
balance.
balance adopted for multi pass conventional surface grinding.
adopted for multi‐pass conventional surface grinding. y Productivity is enhanced and life of the grinding wheel is
y Grinding wheel must be balanced Statically and y In creep‐feed grinding, the entire depth of cut is extended.
D
Dynamically.
i ll completed in one pass only using very small in feed
completed in one pass only using very small in‐feed
y A slight imbalance will produce vibrations that will cause rates.
waviness in the work surface. It may cause a wheel to
break, with the probability of serious damage and injury.
C li d i l G i di
Cylindrical Grinding
IES 2011 Conventional y Center type cylindrical grinding is commonly used far
Center‐type
What is creep feed grinding? Discuss its salient producing external cylindrical surfaces.
f t
features, advantages,
d t and
d application.
li ti y The grinding wheel revolves at an ordinary cutting
[10 marks] speed, and the workpiece rotates on centers at a much
slower speed.
speed
y Grinding machines are available in which the workpiece
i held
is h ld in
i a chuck
h k for
f grinding
i di both
b th external
t l and
d internal
i t l
cylindrical surfaces.
What are the characteristic features of a C t l
Centerless G i di
Grinding C t l
Centerless G i di
Grinding
universal cylindrical grinder?
universal cylindrical grinder? y Centerless grinding makes it possible to grind both y The regulating wheel controls the rotation and
external and internal cylindrical surfaces without longitudinal motion of the workpiece and usually is a
y Characteristic features of a universal cylindrical grinder requiring the workpiece to be mounted between centers plastic‐ or rubber
plastic rubber‐bonded
bonded wheel with a fairly wide face.
not possessed by plain cylindrical grinder are: or in a chuck. y The workpiece is held against the work‐rest blade by the
• Swivelling wheel head y This eliminates the requirement of center holes in some cutting forces exerted by the grinding wheel and rotates
• Swivelling wheel head slide workpieces and the necessity for mounting the at approximately the same surface speed as that of the
• Swivelling head stock workpiece thereby reducing the cycle time.
workpiece, time regulating wheel.
regulating wheel
y Two wheels are used. The larger one operates at regular
grinding
i di speeds
d and d does
d th actual
the t l grinding.
i di Th
The
smaller wheel is the regulating wheel. It is mounted at
an anglel to
t the
th plane
l off the
th grinding
i di wheel.
h l
Centerless Grinding
C t l
Centerless G i di
Grinding C t l
Centreless i t l G i di
internal Grinding
The axial feed is calculated by the equation y This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and
tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g. cylindrical liners,
F = π dN sinθ
various bushings etc).
where y The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll,
F = feed (mm/min) pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the
d = diameter of the regulating wheel (mm) grinding wheel.
N = revolutions per minute of the regulating wheel
θ = angle
g of inclination of the regulating
g g wheel
State the disadvantages of centreless S f G i di hi
Surface Grinding Machines
cylindrical grinding machine?
cylindrical grinding machine? y Surface grinding machines are used primarily to
grind flat surfaces.
• It does not grind concentrically with centres. y However formed irregular surfaces can be
formed,
• Large diameter short workpiece are difficult to produced on some types of surface grinders by use
control in the process of a formed wheel.
wheel
• It may not improve workpiece perpendicularity. Four basic types of surface grinding machines are:
1 Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
1.
2. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
3. Horizontal
H i l spindle
i dl and
d rotary table
bl
4. Vertical spindle and rotary table
Is transverse feed provided in vertical L i
Lapping Ch t i ti fl i
Characteristics of lapping process
spindle reciprocating table surface grinder?
spindle reciprocating table surface grinder? y Lapping is basically an abrasive process in which loose y Use of loose abrasive between lap and the workpiece
abrasives function as cutting points finding momentary y Usually lap and workpiece are not positively driven but
y Usually no transverse feed is provided in such machine. support from the laps. are guided in contact with each other
The wheel diameter is kept larger than the width of the y Material removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to y Relative motion between the lap and the work should
workpiece surface to be ground. .03 mm but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in certain cases.
03 mm but many reach 0 08 to 0 1mm in certain cases change continuously so that path of the abrasive grains
h ti l th t th f th b i i
of the lap is not repeated on the workpiece.
y Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. However, soft
steel, copper, brass, hardwood as well as hardened steel
and glass are also used.

Ab i fl i
Abrasives of lapping V hi l t i l f l i
Vehicle materials for lapping Technical parameters affecting lapping processes are
y Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5 ~100 μm
d SiC i i y Machine oil
M hi il y unit pressure
it
y Cr2O3, grain size 1
grain size 1 ~ 2 μm
2 μm y Rapeside oil y the grain size of abrasive
y B4C3, grain size 5 ‐
g 5 60 μm
μ y grease
g y concentration of abrasive in the vehicle
y Diamond, grain size 0.5 ~ 5 μm y lapping speed
H i
Honing H i
Honing H i
Honing
y Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone y It is desired that
carries out a combined rotary and reciprocating motion 1. Honing stones should not leave the work surface
while the workpiece does not perform any working 2. Stroke
St k length
l th mustt cover the
th entire
ti workk length.
l th
motion.
3. In honing rotary and oscillatory motions are
y Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface,
surface such combined to produce a cross hatched lay pattern.
as automobile cylindrical walls. The honing stones are
held against the workpiece with controlled light
pressure. The honing head is not guided externally but,
instead floats in the hole,
instead, hole being guided by the work y The honing stones are given a complex motion so as
surface. to prevent every single grit from repeating its path Fig. Honing tool Fig. Lay pattern produced by combination of rotary and
over the work surface.
surface oscillatory motion
ill i
Th iti l t
The critical process parameters are Buffing
y Buffing
g is a p g operation
polishing p p
in which the workpiece
y 1. rotation speed
t ti d
is brought into contact with a revolving cloth wheel that
y 2. oscillation speed
2 oscillation speed has been charged with a fine abrasive, such as polishing
rough.
y 3. length and position of the stroke
3 g p y The wheels are made of disks of linen, cotton,
broadcloth, or canvas, and achieve the desired degree of
y 4. honing stick pressure firmness through the amount of stitching used to fasten
th layers
the l off cloth
l th together.
t th
y Negligible amount of material is removed in buffing
while
hil a very high
hi h luster
l t is i generated
t d on theth buffed
b ff d
surface.
y The
Th dimensional
di i l accuracy off the
th parts
t is
i nott affected
ff t d by
b
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 117 of 240 the buffing operation. Rev.0
Super Finishing
S Fi i hi
Super Finishing State the specific application of a planetary
internal grinder.
internal grinder
y Planetary internal grinders find application for grinding
holes in workpieces of irregular shape or large heavy
workpieces.
Fig. super finishing of end face
of a cylindrical work piece in radial mode Fig. super finishing operation in plunge mode
IIn this
hi case the
h abrasive
b i stone covers the h section
i off the
h
In this both feeding and oscillation of the super
workpiece requiring super finish. The abrasive stone is
finishing stone is given in the radial direction.
slowly
l l fedf d in
i radial
di l direction
di i while
hil its
i oscillation
ill i i
is
imparted in the axial direction. It reduce surface
roughness
h and
d increase
i b i load
bearing l d capacity.
it
GATE 1995
GATE ‐ GATE 1998
GATE ‐ GATE 1998
GATE ‐
Among the conventional machining processes, Ideal surface roughness, as measured by the In machining using abrasive material, increasing
maximum specific energy is consumed in maximum height of unevenness, is best achieved abrasive grain size
(a) Turning (b) Drilling when, the material is removed by (a) Increases the material removal rate
(c) Planning (d) Grinding (a) An end mill (b) Decreases the material removal rate
(b) A grinding
i di wheel
h l (c) First decreases and then increases the material
(c) A tool with zero nose radius removal rate
(d) A ball mill. (d) First increases and then decreases the material
removal rate
GATE 2000
GATE ‐ GATE 2002
GATE ‐ GATE 2006
GATE ‐
Abrasive material used in grinding wheel selected The hardness of a grinding wheel is determined by If each abrasive grain is viewed as a cutting tool,
for grinding ferrous alloys is the then which of the following represents the cutting
(a) Silicon carbide (b) Diamond (a) Hardness of abrasive grains parameters in common grinding operations?
(c) Aluminium oxide (d) Boron carbide (b) Ability of the bond to retain abrasives (a) Large negative rake angle, low shear angle and high
(c) Hardness of the bond cutting speed
((d)) Abilityy of the g
grinding
g wheel to p
penetrate the work (b) Large positive rake angle, low shear angle and high
piece cutting
tti speedd
(c) Large negative rake angle, high shear angle and low
cutting speed
(d) Zero rake angle,
g highg shear angle
g and highg cuttingg
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 118 of 240
speed Rev.0
GATE 1997
GATE ‐ IES 2005
IES ‐ IES 2009
IES ‐
List I List II Consider the following statements in respect of Which one of the following is NOT used as abrasive
(A) Grinding 1. Surface for oil retention grinding? material in grinding wheels?
(B) Honing
H i 2. S f
Surface f max. load
for l d 1 The pitch of the grit cutting edges is larger than the
1. (a) Aluminium oxide
capacity pitch of the milling cutter. (b) Silicon carbide
(C) Super‐finishing 3. Surface of limiting friction 2. The
Th cutting
tti angles
l off the
th grits
it have
h a random
d (c) Cubic boron nitride
D)) Burnishingg 4.
4 Surface of matte finish geometry. ((d)) Manganese
g oxide
3. The size of the chip cuts is very small for grinding.
5. Surface for pressure sealing
6
6. Surface for interference fit.
fit Which of the statements g given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 1 2 and 3
IES 1997
IES ‐ IES 1996
IES ‐ IES 2001
IES ‐
Which one of the following materials is used as the Grinding wheel is said to be loaded when the Specific cutting energy is more in grinding process
bonding material for grinding wheels? (a) Metal particles get embedded in the wheel surface compared to turning because
(a) Silicon carbide blocking the interspaces between cutting grains.
grains (a) Grinding (cutting) speed is higher
(b) Sodium silicate (b) Bonding material comes on the surface and the (b) The wheel has multiple cutting edges (grains)
(c) Boron carbide wheel
h l becomes
b bl t
blunt. (c) Plaguing force is significant due to small chip size
((d)) Aluminum oxide (c) Work piece being ground comes to a stop in ((d)) Grinding
g wheel undergoes
g continuous wear
cylindrical grinding.
((d)) Grinding
g wheel stops
p because of veryy large
g depth
p of
cut
IES 1996
IES ‐ IES 1994
IES ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐
Specific energy requirements in a grinding process The ratio of thrust force to cutting force is nearly 2.5 Assertion (A): Vitrified bond is preferred for thin
are more than those in turning for the same metal in grinding wheels.
removal rate because of the (a) Turning (b) Broaching Reason (R): Vitrified bond is hard brittle.
brittle
(a) Specific pressures between wheel and work being (c) Grinding (d) Plain milling (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
high.
high correctt explanation
l ti off A
(b) Size effect of the larger contact areas between wheel (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
andd work.
k correct explanation of A
(c) High cutting velocities ((c)) A is true but R is false
(d) High heat produced during grinding. (d) A is false but R is true

IES 2000
IES ‐ IES 1995
IES ‐ IES 2010
IES 2010
Assertion ((A):) The ratio of cutting
g force to thrust force is Soft materials cannot be economically grind due to In relation to the peripheral or surface
very high in grinding process as compared to other
machining processes. (a) The high temperatures involved speeds of the grinding wheel and that of the
Reason (R): Random orientation and effective negative (b) Frequent
F t wheel
h l clogging
l i workpiece in cylindrical grinding of alloy
rake angles of abrasive grains increase the cutting force (c) Rapid wheel wear steel workpieces, the grinding wheel speed is
and adversely affect the cutting action and promote
rubbing action. (d) Low work piece stiffness (a) Less than the speed of the workpiece
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct (b) Same as the speed of the workpiece
explanation of A
(c) Double the speed of the workpiece
correct explanation of A (d) 65 to 75 times the speed of the workpiece.
IES 2009
IES ‐ IES 2002
IES – 2001 ISRO 2009
Given that the peripheral speed of the grinding Which of the following materials are used in The marking on a grinding wheel is '51
51 A 36 L 5 V 93
93'..
wheel of 100 mm diameter for cylindrical grinding grinding wheel? The code '36' represents the
of a steel work piece is 30 m/s, what will be the 1 Aluminium oxide
1. (a) Structure
estimated rotational speed of the grinding wheel in 2. Cubic boron nitride (b) Grade
revolution per minute (r.p.m.)?
3. Silicon carbide (c) Grain‐ size
(a) 11460 (b) 5730
g the codes g
given below: ((d)) Manufacturer's number
( ) 2865
(c) 86 (d) 95
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES 2000
IES ‐ IES 1995
IES ‐ IES 1993
IES ‐
The sequence of markings "S S 14 K 14 S
S" on a grinding In the grinding wheel of A 60 G 7 B 23, B stands for Tool life in the case of a grinding wheel is the time
wheel represents respectively (a) Resinoid bond (b) Rubber bond (a) Between two successive regrinds of the wheel
(a) Bond type,
type structure,
structure grade,
grade grain size and abrasive ( ) Shellac
(c) Sh ll bond
b d (d) Silicate
Sili t bond.
b d (b) Taken
T k forf the
th wheel
h l to
t be
b balanced
b l d
type (c) Taken between two successive wheel dressings
(b) Abrasive
Ab i type,
t grain
i size,
i grade,
d structure
t t and
d bond
b d (d) Taken for a wear of 1mm on its diameter
type
(c) Bond type, grade, structure, grain size and abrasive
type
(d) Abrasive type, structure, grade, grain size and bond
yp
type
IES 2001
IES ‐ IES 1994
IES ‐ IES 1999
IES ‐
Assertion (A): Hard wheels are chosen for grinding Consider the following statements regarding Consider the following reasons:
hard metals. grinding of high carbon steel: 1. Grinding wheel is soft
Reason (R): In hard wheels only the abrasive grains 1 Grinding at high speed results in the reduction of
1. 2. RPM off grinding
i di wheel
h l is
i too
t low
l
are retained for long time. chip thickness and cutting forces per grit. 3. Cut is very fine
( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th 2. Aluminium
Al i i oxide
id wheels
h l are employed.
l d 4. An improper cutting fluid is used
correct explanation of A 3. The grinding wheel has to be of open structure. A grinding wheel may become loaded due to reasons
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the Of these statements stated at
correct explanation of A (a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1 and 2 are correct (a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
(c) A is true but R is false (c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 2 and 3 are correct (c) 2 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
IES 2001
IES ‐ IES 1993
IES ‐ IES 2000
IES ‐
Dry and compressed air is used as cutting fluid for In centre less grinding, the work piece centre will be Consider the following advantages:
machining (a) Above the line joining the two wheel centres 1. Rapid process
(a) Steel (b) Aluminium (b) Below
B l theth line
li joining
j i i the
th two
t wheel
h l centres
t 2. Work
W k with ith keyways
k can be
b ground
d
(c) Cast iron (d) Brass (c) On the line joining the two wheel centres 3. No work holding device is required.
(d) At the intersection of the line joining the wheel Which of these are the advantages of centre less
centres with the work p
plate p
plane. g
grinding?
g
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES 1996
IES ‐ IES 1993
IES ‐ IES 2007
IES ‐
A grinding wheel of 150 mm diameter is rotating at Consider the following parameters: Honing Process gives surface finish of what order?
3000 rpm. The grinding speed is 1. Grinding wheel diameter. (a) 10 µm (CLA) (b) 1.0 µm (CLA)
2. Regulating
R l ti wheel
h l diameter.
di t ( ) 0.1 µm (CLA)
(c) (d) 0.01 µm (CLA)
3. Speed of the grinding wheel.
4. Speed of the regulating wheel.
5. Angle between the axes of grinding and regulating
wheels.
Among these parameters,
parameters those which influence the
axial feed rate in centreless grinding would include
( ) 2, 4 and
(a) d 5 (b) 1, 2 and d3
(c) 1, 4 and 5 (d) Page 3, 4121
andof5 240 Rev.0
IES 1992
IES ‐ IES 2012
IES ‐ IES 2001
IES ‐
CLA value for Honing process is () g gp
Statement (I): Honing is an abrading process to remove (
Match List‐I (Cuttingg Tools)) with List‐II ((Applications)
pp )
stock from metallic surfaces. and select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) 6 (b) 0.05 ‐ 3.0 below the lists:
( ) g y
Statement (II):Honing is commonly done on internal
( ) 0.05 ‐ 1.0 (d) 0.025 ‐ 0.1
(c) surfaces. List I List II
((a)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are A. Trepanning tool 1. For surface finishing by
h i
honing
explanation of Statement (I) B. Side milling cutter 2. For machining gears
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are C Hob
C. H b cutter 3. F cutting
For i keyways
k i shafts
in h f
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct D. Abrasive sticks 4. For drilling large diameter
explanation of Statement (I) holes
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false Codes:A B C D A B C D
( ) 1
(a) 3 2 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 4 2 3 1
IES 1992
IES ‐ IES 1992
IES ‐ IAS 2004
IAS ‐
A surface finish of 0.025 – 0.1 micrometer CLA values Buffing wheels are mode of The size effect refers to the increase in specific
is to by produced. Which machining process would (a) Softer metals (b) Cotton fabric cutting energy at low values of under formed chip
you recommend? ( ) Carbon
(c) C b (d) Graphite
G hit thickness. It is due to which one of the following?
(a) Grinding (b) Rough turning (a) Existence of ploughing force
( ) Lapping
(c) L i (d) Honing
H i (b) Work
W k hardening
h d i
(c) High strain rate
(d) Presence of high friction at chip‐tool interface.
IAS 2000
IAS ‐ IAS 1999
IAS ‐ IAS 2001
IAS ‐
Consider the following statements in respect of a Assertion (A): The grade of a grinding wheel is a Consider the following statements:
The set‐up for internal centreless grinding consists of a
grinding wheel of specification, 51‐A‐ 36‐L‐7‐R‐23, measure of hardness of the abrasive used for the regulating wheel, a pressure roll and a support roll, between
using the standard alphanumeric codification: wheel. which the tubular workpiece is supported with the grinding
wheel within the tube, wherein
1. Abrasive used in the wheel is aluminum oxide Reason (R): Grading is necessary for making right 1.The grinding wheel, workpiece and regulating wheel centers
2. The
Th grain i size
i off abrasive
b i is i medium
di selection of the wheel for a particular work.
work must lie on one line
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 2.The directions of rotation of workpiece and grinding wheel are
3. The wheel grade is medium hard same
4. It has an open structure correctt explanation
l ti off A 3.The directions of rotation of pressure roll, support roll and
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the regulating wheel are same
5. It has resinoid as bonding agent 4 The directions of rotation of grinding wheel and regulating
4.The
correct explanation of A wheel are same
Which (If these statements are correct?
(c) A is true but R is false Which of these statements are correct?
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d 3 (b) 1, 3 and d4 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(d) A is false but R is true122 of 240
(c) 2, 3 and For-2015
5 (d) (IES, GATE & PSUs)
1, 4 and 5 Page (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4 Rev.0
IAS 1997
IAS ‐ IAS 2007
IAS ‐ 2007 IAS 1999
IAS ‐
Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? Match List I with List II and select the correct answer Which one of the following processing sequences
using the code given below the Lists: will give the best accuracy as well as surface finish?
1. Drill press : Trepanning
List I List II
2. Centreless
C t l grinding:
i di Th
Throughh feeding
f di (a) Drilling,
Drilling reaming and grinding
(Machine Tool/ Cutting Tool) (Part/ Characteristics)
3. Capstan lathe: Ram type turret A. Screw cuttingg lathe1. Self locking
g taper
p (b) Drilling, boring and grinding
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: B. Drill 2. Chasing dial (c) Drilling, reaming and lapping
Codes: C. End mill 33. Wiperp insert ((d)) Drilling,
g reaming
g and electroplating
p g
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 D. Grinding wheel 4. Self releasing taper
55. Balance weights
g
( ) 1 and
(c) d3 (d) 2 and d3
((a)) 4 5 3 1 ((b)) 2 1 4 5
(c) 4 1 3 5 (d) 2 5 4 1
IAS 2001
IAS ‐ NC, CNC & Robotics Wh t i NC/CNC?
What is NC/CNC?
Which one of the following grinding wheels (with y NC is
i an acronym for
f Numerical
N i l Control
C t l and
d CNC is
i an
Grade, Grit and Bond) is suitable for cutter
grinding? acronym
y for Computer
p Numerical Control.
(a) K 60 vitrified (b) K 320 vitrified
( ) T 60
(c) 6 resinoid
i id (d) T 320 resinoid
i id
B S K M d l
By S K Mondal
What is the difference between NC and CNC ? What is the difference between NC and CNC ? Wh did CNC t t t d?

Where did CNC get started?
y The difference between NC and CNC is one of age and y Some
S off the
th enhancements
h t that
th t came along
l with
ith CNC y 1940 Jhon
Jh Parson
P developed
d l d first
fi t machine
hi able
bl to
t drill
d ill
capability.
y The earliest NC machines performed limited functions include: Canned Cycles,
y , Sub Programming,
g g, Cutter holes at specific
p coordinates p
programmed
g on p
punch
and movements controlled by punched tape or punch Compensation, Work coordinates, Coordinate system cards.
cards.
cards
rotation, automatic corner rounding, chamfering, and B‐ y 1951 MIT developed servo‐mechanism
y As the technology evolved, the machines were equiped
with
ith increasingly
i i l powerful
f l microprocessors
i (
(computers)
t ) spline
li interpolation.
i t l ti y 1952 MIT developed first NC machines for milling.
with the addition of these computers, NC machines
b
become CNC machines.
hi y 1970 First
Fi CNC machines
hi came into
i picture
i
y CNC machines have far more capability than their
Now‐a‐day’ss modified 1970
Now‐a‐day 1970’ss machines are used.
used
predecessor. contd…..
IAS 1996
IAS ‐ Do all machines speak the same CNC
Do all machines speak the same CNC Wh t i “C ti l C t l”
What is a “Conversational Control”
Assertion (A): The temperature control of an language y CNC machine
hi tool
t l builders
b ild offer
ff an option
ti what
h t is
i
electric iron is an example of servomechanism.
Reason (R): It is an automatic control system.
system y No, while there is fairly standard set of G and M codes, known as the conversational control. This control lets
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the there is some variation in their application. For example the operator/programmer use simple descriptive
l ti off A
a G0 or G00 command is universally regarded as the language to program the part. The control then
correct explanation of A command
d for
f rapid
id travel.
l Some
S older
ld machines
hi d not
do di l d a graphical
displayed hi l representation
t ti off the
th instructions
i t ti
((c)) A is true but R is false have a G00 command. On these machines, rapid travel is so the operator/programmer
p p g can verifyy the tool p
path.
commanded by using the F (feed) word address.
C C hi f h
Are CNC machines faster than C C hi
Are CNC machines more accurate GATE 1994
GATE ‐
conventional machines?
conventional machines? than conventional machines?
than conventional machines? CNC machines are more accurate than conventional
machines because they have a high resolution
encoder and digital read
read‐outs
outs for positioning.
y Yes, No, Sometimes. When it comes to making a single, y Yes, they can be. But like anything else it depends on
simple part it is hard to beat a conventional mill or lathe.
lathe who
h is
i running
i the
th machine,
hi h
how well
ll the
th machines
hi h
has T
True or false?
f l ?
CNC machines move faster in rapid travel than been maintained,, q
qualityy of setup
p and so on.
conventional machines.
NC/CNC Machines‐Advantages NC/CNC Machines‐Disadvantages IES 1999

IES ‐
y High
Hi h Repeatability
R t bilit and
d Precision
P i i e.g. Aircraft
Ai ft parts
t Consider the following statements regarding
y Costly setup, skilled operators numerically controlled machine tools:
y Volume of production is very high
y Computers, programming knowledge required
C t i k l d i d 1 They reduce non‐productive
1. non productive time
y Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g.
Turbines 2. They reduce fixturing
y Maintenance is difficult
y Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less 3. They reduce maintenance cost
scrap Which of these statements are correct?
y More safe, higher productivity, better quality (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
y Less
L paper work,
k faster
f t prototype
t t production,
d ti reduction
d ti (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
in lead times

IES 1995
IES ‐ NC/CNC/DNC
Consider the following characteristics of y Direct Numerical Control is a system that uses a Direct numerical control
production jobs: central computer to control several machines at the same
1 Processing of parts frequently in small lots
1. time
2. Need to accommodate design changes of products. y Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): the central
3. Low rate of metal removal computert downloads
d l d complete l t programs to
t the
th CNC
machines, which can be workstations or PCs, and can get
4. Need for holding
4 g close tolerances
th information
the i f ti for
f the
th machine
hi operations.
ti
The characteristics which favour the choice of
y The speed of the system is increased, large files can be
numerically controlled machines would include
handled and the number of machine tools used is
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 expanded.
( ) 1, 3 and
(c) d 4 (d) 1, 2 and d4
497 498
IES 2009
IES ‐ GATE 1993
GATE ‐
DNC In which of the following machining manual part With reference to NC machine, which of the
programming is done? following statement is wrong?
(a) CNC machining (b) NC machining (a) Both closed‐loop
closed loop and open‐loop
open loop control systems are
(c) DNC machining (d) FMS machining used
(b) Paper
P t
tapes, fl
floppy t
tapes and
d cassettes
tt are usedd for
f
data storage
(c) Digitizers may be used as interactive input devices
((d)) Post p
processor is an item of hardware
499
IES 2007
IES ‐ 20 0
JWM 2010 IES 2009
IES ‐
What are the main components of an NC machine? Consider the following g components
p g g numerical
regarding What is the purpose of satellite computers in
1. Part program control system : Distributed Numerical Control machines?
2. Machine
M hi Control
C t l Unit
U it 1 Programme of instructions
1. (a) To act as stand‐by
stand by systems
3. Servo motor 2. Machine control unit (b) To share the processing of large‐size NC programs
Select the correct answer using the code given below: 3. Processing
P i equipment
i (c) To serve a group of NC machines
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only Which of these are correct ? ((d)) To network with another DNC setup p
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only

IES 1999
IES ‐ 20 0
JWM 2010 IES 2002 S‐1
IES – 2002 S1
Consider the following components: g g y
Consider the following advantages of DNC systems : Match List I with List II and select the correct
1. A dedicated computer 1. Time‐sharing answer:
2 Greater computational capability
2. Greater computational capability List I List II
2. Bulk
B lk memory
(NC machine tool systems) (Features)
3. Telecommunication lines 3. Remote computer location
A NC system 1.
A. 1 It has an integrated automatic tool
Which of these components are required for a DNC changing unit and a component
y
system? Which of the above is/are correct ? indexingg device
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only B. CNC system 2. A number of machine tools are
(c) 1,
1 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 (c) 2 only (d) 1 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3 controlled byy a computer.
p No tape
p
reader, the part program is
transmitted directly to the
machine tool from the
computer memory
IES 2002 Contd….. From S‐1
IES – 2002 C td F S1 St M t
Stepper Motor
C. y
DNC system 33. The controller consists of IAS‐2011 main y The
Th stepper
t motor
t isi special
i l type
t off synchronous
h motor
t
soft‐wired computer and
hard‐ wired logic Graphic Explain, at least two, characteristics each of NC, which is designed
g to rotate through
g a specific
p angle
g
display of tool path is
also possible
CNC and DNC. (Called step) for each electrical pulse received from the
D. Machining centre 4. The instructions on tape is [10‐Marks] control unit.
prepared in binary
d i l form
decimal f and
d operatedd by
b
a series of coded
instructions
( ) 4
(a) 2 3 1 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 1 2 3 4
Basic CNC Principles
IAS‐2010 Main
IAS‐2009 main
Illustrate with the help of neat sketches the differences
What is the function of stepper motor?
between open loop and closed loop control in NC
between open‐loop and closed‐loop control in NC
[2 – marks] system. Why is feedback not possible in open‐loop
control system ?
[22‐ Marks]

GATE 2007
GATE ‐ IES 1994
IES ‐ IES 2002
IES ‐
Which type of motor is NOT used in axis or spindle Feed drives in CNC milling machines are provided In a CNC machine tool, encoder is used to sense and
drives of CNC machine tools? by control
(a) Induction motor (b) DC servo motor (a) Synchronous motors (a) Table position
(c) Stepper motor (d) Linear servo motor (b) Induction motors (b) Table velocity
(c) Stepper motors (c) Spindle speed
((d)) Servo‐motors. ((d)) Coolant flow
B i L th U it (BLU)
Basic Length Unit (BLU) GATE 1997
GATE ‐
y In NC machine, the displacement length per one pulse In a point to point control NC machine, the slides
output from machine is defined as a Basic Length Unit are positioned by an integrally mounted stepper
(BLU). motor drive. If the specification of the motor is
y In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represents 1 1o/pulse, and the pitch of the lead screw is 3.6 mm,
BLU.
BLU what is the expected positioning accuracy?
Bit = BLU ( a ) 1μ m (b) 10 μm
y Example: If one pulse makes a servo motor rotate by one (c ) 50 μm (d ) 100 μm
degree and the servo motor moves the table by 0.0001
mm, one BLU will be 0.0001 mm.
y The lead of a ball screw is related to the displacement
p
unit of the machine tool table.
GATE 2007 (PI)
GATE – 2007 (PI) GATE – 2008 (PI) l
Example
In a CNC machine feed drive, a stepper motor A stepper
t motor
t has
h 150 steps.
t The
Th output
t t shaft
h ft off the
th y A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a leadscrew
with step angle of 1.8o drives a lead screw with which drives the table of an NC machine tool. A
pitch of 2 mm.
mm The Basic Length Unit (BLU) for motor is directlyy coupled
p to a lead screw of p
pitch 4 mm,, digital encoder,
encoder which emits 500 pulses per
this drive is which drives a table. If the frequency of pulse supply to revolution, is mounted on the other end of the
leadscrew If the leadscrew pitch is 5 mm and the
leadscrew.
(a) 10 microns (b) 20 microns the motor is 200 Hz, the speed of the table (in mm/min) motor rotates at 600 rpm, calculate
(c) 40 microns (d) 100 microns is ( ) The
(a) Th linear
li velocity
l it off the
th table
t bl
(b) The BLU of the NC system
(a) 400 (b) 320 (c) 300 (d) 280
(c) The frequency of pulses transmitted by the encoder.

GATE – 2014(PI)
loop point‐to‐point
In an open loop, point to point controlled CNC drilling
IES 2011 C ti l
IES 2011 Conventional G
GATE – 20 0 ( )
2010 (PI) machine, a stepper motor, producing 200 angular steps per
y The table of a CNC machine is driven by a Lead screw which For a 3 –axes
axes CNC table, the slide along the vertical axis revolution,
revolution drives the table of a drilling machine by one
is rotated by a DC servomotor. A digital encoder which emits of the table is driven by a DC servo motor via a lead angular step per each pulse generated by a pulse generator
screw‐ nut mechanism. The lead screw has a pitch of 5
screw (shown in figure).
figure) Each angular step moves the table by
1000 pulses per second is mounted on the lead screw as a mm. This lead screw is fitted with a relative one Basic Length Unit (BLU) along X axis with a lead screw
feedback device. If the lead screw p
pitch is 6 mm and motor (incremental) circular encoder. The basic length unit having a pitch of 4 mm. If the frequency of pulse generator
rotates at 500 rpm, find (BLU) of the slide along the vertical axis of the table is is doubled, the BLU will
0.005 mm. When the table moves along the vertical axis
1. Basic length Units of the system by 9 mm, the corresponding number of pulses generated
2
2. Linear velocity of the table.
table by the encoder is ((a)) become
b d bl off previous
double i value
l
(a) 1400 (b) 1800 (c) 4200 (d) 9000 (b) become half of previous value
3. Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.
(c) remain the same
[5 Marks]
(d) become zero
Statement for Linked Answers questions: S‐1 GATE 2008 Q‐1

GATE – 2008 Q 1 (Statement in S‐2)
(St t t i S 2) GATE 2008 Q‐2
GATE – 2008 Q 2 (Statement in S‐3)
(St t t i S 3)
In the feed drive of a Point to Point open loop CNC
Point‐to‐Point The Basic Length Unit (BLU), i.e., the table A customer insists on a modification to change the BLU
drive, a stepper motor rotating at 200 steps/rev drives a movement corresponding to 1 pulse of the pulse of the CNC drive to 10 microns without changing the
table through a gear box and lead screw screw‐nut
nut mechanism generator, is table speed. The modification can be accomplished by
(pitch = 4 mm, number of starts = 1). (a) 0.5 microns (b) 5 microns
Output rotational speed
The gear ratio = Input rotational speed is given by U = 14 ( ) 50 microns
(c) i (d) 500 microns
i
The stepper motor (driven by voltage pulses from a pulse
generator)
t ) executest 1 step/pulse
t / l off the th pulse
l generator.
t
The frequency of the pulse train from the pulse
generator
t isi f = 10,000 pulses l per minute.
i t
IAS‐2010
IAS Main
2010 Main
GATE – 2009 (PI) GATE‐2014 (PI) In open‐loop NC system the shaft of a stepping motor is
The
h totall angular
l movement (in
( degrees)
d ) off a lead‐screw
l d Each
E h axis i off NC machine hi iis ddriven
i by a stepper
b t motor
t connected directly to the lead screw x‐axis
x axis of the
drive with a lead screw. The pitch of lead screw is p mm. machine table. The pitch of the lead screw is 3.0 mm.
with a pitch of 5.0
5 0 mm to drive the work
work‐table
table by a Th step
The t angle l off stepper
t motort per pulse l input
i t is
i α The number of step angles on the stepping motor is 200.
200
distance of 200 mm in a NC machine is degrees/pulse. The ratio of gear drive in stepper motor
Determine how closelyy the pposition of the table can be
d i is
drive i g(number
( b off turns
t off the
th motor t for
f each h single
i l
(a) 14400 (b) 28800 (c) 57600 (d) 72000 controlled, assuming that there are no mechanical errors
turn of the lead screw). The number of pulses required
in the p
positioning
g system.
y
t achieve
to hi a linear
li movementt off x mm is i
αg 360 g g 360 g Also, what is the required frequency of the pulse train
(a) x (b) x (c ) x (d ) x
360 p p 360 p pα and
d the
h corresponding
d rotationall speed
d off the
h stepping
motor in order to drive the table at a travel rate of 100
mm/min? [ Marks]
[8‐ k ]
Control Systems possible in CNC Machine GATE 1992
GATE ‐ P i tt i t t i ht li d
Point‐to‐point straight line mode
y Point to point mode: In a point to point type of NC system
point‐to‐point
(a) Control of position and velocity of the tool is
essential
(b) Control of only position of the tool is sufficient
(c) Control of only velocity of the tool is sufficient
((d)) Neither p
position nor velocityy need be controlled
GATE 2006
GATE ‐
NC contouring is an example of
(a) Continuous path positioning
(b) Point‐to‐point
P i tt i t positioning
iti i
(c) Absolute positioning
(d) Incremental positioning
GATE‐2005 C di t t
Co‐ordinate system
y All the machine tool use Cartesian Co ordinate system.
Co‐ordinate system
Which among the NC operations given below are
continuous path operations? y The first axis to be identified is the Z – axis, This is
followed by X and Y axes respectively.
respectively
Arc Welding (AW) Milling (M)
Drilling (D)
g Punching is Sheet Metal (P)
g
Laser Cutting of Sheet Metal (LC) Spot Welding (SW)
(a) AW, LC and M (b) AW, D, LC and M
(c) D, LC, P and SW (d) D, LC, and SW

Right‐hand coordinate systems Rev.0
IES 2000
IES ‐
Assertion (A): The axis of an NC drilling machine
spindle is denoted as z‐axis.
Reason (R): In NC machine tool, tool the axis
perpendicular to both x‐ and y‐axis is designated as
z axis
z‐axis
l ti off A
IES 1996
IES ‐
Assertion (A): Numerically controlled machines
having more than three axes do not exist.
Reason (R): There are only three Cartesian
coordinates namely x‐y‐z.
( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th
5 axes CNC vertical axis machining centre configuration
Absolute and Incremental Coordinate System
For-2015 (IES, GATE &

Absolute Coordinate System
PSUs)
Incremental Coordinate System
IES 2003 S‐1
IES ‐ 2003 S1 IES 2003 Contd.. From S‐1
IES – 2003 C td F S1
While part programming If incremental co ordinates system is used, the co
co‐ordinates co‐ GATE ‐2012 Same Q in GATE‐2012 (PI)
Q ( )
in CNC machines, the ordinates of each point A, B and C are A CNC vertical milling machine has to cut a
input of dimensional (a) A: X 5.0,
5 0 Y 10.0
10 0 (b) A: X 5.0,
5 0 Y 10.0
10 0 straight
t i ht slot
l t off 10 mm width
idth andd 2 mm depth
d th by
b a
information for the tool B: X 20.0, Y5.0 B: X 25, Y 15.0 cutter of 10 mm diameter between points (0, 0)
path can be given in the andd (100,
( 100)) on the
th XY plane
l (di
(dimensions
i i
in
absolute co‐ordinate C: X 10.0, Y 10.0 C: X 35, Y 5.0
mm). The feed rate used for milling is 50 mm/min.
system or in incremental ((c)) A: X 10.0, Y 55.0 ((d)) A: X 10.0, Y 55.0
Milling time for the slot (in seconds) is
co‐ordinate system. The B: X 15.0, Y 25.0 B: X 5.0, Y 20.0
(a) 120 (b) 170 (c) 180 (d) 240
above figure shows the C: X 15.0,
15 0 Y 35.0
35 0 C: X 10.0,
10 0 Y 10
10.00
route to be followed by the
tool from O to C, i.e., O ‐ A
‐ B ‐ C.
Th f ll i th t t b f ll d
The following are the steps to be followed P tP i
Part Programming
while developing the CNC part programs.
y FANUC CONTROLL
y Process planning
y Axes selection y SIEMENS CONTROLL
y Tool selection
y Cutting process parameters planning
y Job and tool setup planning
J pp g
y Machining path planning y For a CNC machine control unit (MCU) decides cutting
y Part program writing speed, feed,
speed feed depth of cut,
cut tool selection , coolant on off
y Part program proving and tool paths. The MCU issues commands in form of
numeric data to motors that position slides and tool
accordingly.
Table of Important G codes
CNC programming
CNC programming
Important things to know:
Programming Key Letters Code Meaning Format
y O ‐ Program number (Used for program identification)
G00 Rapid Transverse N__G00 X___ Y___ Z___
N G00 X Y Z
• Coordinate System y N ‐ Sequence number (Used for line identification) G01 Linear Interpolation N__G01 X___ Y___ Z___ F___
y G ‐
G Preparatory function G02 Circular Interpolation,
Circular Interpolation N G02 X Y Z
N__G02 X__ Y__ Z___ R___ F___
R F
• Units, incremental or absolute positioning y X ‐ X axis designation CW N__G02 X___ Y__Z__I ___J __K __ F __
y Y ‐ Y axis designation
g
G
G03 Circular Interpolation,
C l l N G X___ Y___ Z__R__F___
N__G03 X Y Z R F
• Coordinates: X,Y,Z, RX,RY,RZ y Z ‐ Z axis designation
CCW
y R ‐ Radius designation N__G03 X__ Y__Z__I __J __K __ F __
• Feed rate and spindle speed
F d d i dl d y F – Feed rate designation G04 Dwell N__G04P___
y S ‐ Spindle speed designation
G17 XY Plane
y H ‐
H Tool length offset designation
• Coolant Control: On/Off, Flood, Mist
C l C l O /Off Fl d Mi
y D ‐ Tool radius offset designation G18 XZ Plane
y T ‐ Tool Designation
g G19
9 YZ Plane
• Tool Control: Tool and tool parameters
T l C l T l d l y M ‐ Miscellaneous function
Table of Important G codes Table of Important G codes
Code Meaning
G20/G70 Inch Unit
Format Code Meaning Format
G44 Tool length compensation N__G44H__
N G44H
Rapid traverse: G00
G21/G71 Metric Unit (minus)
y G00:
G28 Automatic Return to Reference G49 Tool length compensation y to make the machine move at maximum speed.
t k th hi t i d
Point cancel
y It is used for positioning motion.
G40 Cutter compensation cancel G80 Cancel canned cycles
Ca ce ca ed cyc es G90 G00 X20 0 Y10 0
G90 G00 X20.0 Y10.0
G81 Drilling cycle N__G81 Z__R__F__
G41 Cutter compensation left N__G41D__ End
G90 Absolute positioning G90:
9
G
G42 C tt
Cutter compensation right
ti i ht N G D
N__G42D__ absolute
(
(20,10)
)
G91 Incremental positioning coordinates (10,10)
G43 Tool length compensation N G43H
N__G43H__ G92 Absolute preset, change the
Absolute preset change the N__G92X__Y__Z__
N G92X Y Z
(plus) datum position
Start (0,0)
Linear interpolation: G01 Circular interpolation: G02, G03 Circular interpolation: G02, G03

y G01: y G02, G03:
y For circular interpolation, the tool destination and the circle Y
y linear interpolation at feed speed.
p p center are programmed in one block
G91 G0l X200.0 Y100.0 F200.0 y G02 is clockwise interpolation, G03 is counterclockwise X R=-50mm
interpolation End Specify R with
Y
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫ sign before it:
G91: End G17 ⎨ ⎬ X __ Y __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;
incremental 100.0 ⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ I __ J __ ⎭ ≤180° +R
coordinates ⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫ ° ‐R
>180°
G18 ⎨ ⎬ X __ Z __ ⎨ ⎬ F __; Start R=50mm
⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ I __ K __ ⎭
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫
G19 ⎨ ⎬Y __ Z __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;
⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ J __ K __ ⎭ G91 G02 X60.0 Y20.0 R50.0 F300.0
Start 200 0
200.0 X End Circle center radius
Circle center, radius 9 5
G91 G02 X60.0 Y20.0 R‐50.0 F300.0
3
point
p ,
Circular interpolation: G02, G03 Circular interpolation: G02, G03 Circular interpolation: G02, G03
N0010 G92 X200.0 Y40.0 Z0 ; Annotation for Circular Interpolation
Y y Specify Center with I, J, K N0020 G90 G03 X140.0 Y100.0 I ‐60.0 F300；
End y I0.0, J0.0, and K0.0 can be omitted.
I J d K b itt d
N0030 G02 X120. 0 Y60.0 I‐ 50.0； G92:
y I, J, K are the incremental
Or To define working y If X,Y,Z are all omitted in the program, that means
distance from the start of
N0010 G92 X200.0 Y40.0 Z0；
N0010 G92 X200 0 Y40 0 Z0； coordinate start and end of arc are same points
start and end of arc are same points.
X the arc;
h
N0020 G90 G03 X140.0 Y100.0 R60.0 F300； N0020 G02 I20.0 (a full circle)
y Viewing the start of arc as N0030 G02 X120.0 Y60.0 R50.0；
Start the origin, I, J, K have
th i i I J K h y If I, J, K, and R all appears in circular interpolation
If I J K and R all appears in circular interpolation
Y
j positive or negative signs. G90: instruction, R is valid and I, J, and K are invalid
Center absolute 100 R50
i coordinates
di t 60 R60
40
X
O 90 120 140 200
GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 GATE 2007 (PI)
GATE – 2007 (PI) GATE 2004
GATE ‐
For the CNC part programming, match Group A with
Group B: The interpolator in a CNC machine controls During the execution of a CNC part program block
Group A Group B (a) Spindle Speed (b) Coolant flow N020 G02 X45.0 Y25.0 R5.0 the type of tool motion will
be
P: circular interpolation, counter I: G02 (c) Feed rate (d) Tool change
clock wise (a) Circular Interpolation – clockwise
Q: dwell II: G03 (b) Circular Interpolation ‐ counter clockwise
R: circular interpolation clock wise
R: circular interpolation, clock wise III: G04 ((c)) Linear Interpolation
p
S: point to point countering IV: G00 (d) Rapid feed
P Q R S P Q R S
( ) II
(a) III I IV ( )
(b) I III II IV
(c) I IV II III (d) II I III IV
GATE 2010
GATE ‐ IES 2009
IES ‐ GATE 2001
GATE ‐
In a CNC program block, N002 G02 G91 X40 Z40…, Interpolation
I t l ti in
i the
th controller
t ll refers
f to
t control
t l off In an NC machining operation, the tool has to be
G02 and G91 refer to moved from point (5, 4) to point (7, 2) along a
(a) Circular interpolation in counterclockwise direction which one of the following
g in a CNC machine? circular path with centre at (5, 2). Before starting the
and incremental dimension operation, the tool is at (5, 4). The correct G and M
(a) Loading/unloading of jobs on machine
(b) Circular
Ci l interpolation
i t l ti ini counterclockwise
t l k i direction
di ti code for this motion is
and absolute dimension (b) Loading/unloading of tools from the tool changer (a) N010 G03 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
(c) Circular interpolation in clockwise direction and (b) N010
N G X7.0
G02 X Y
Y2.0 I
I5.0 J
J2.0
(c) Axes of machine for contouring
incremental dimension (c) N010 G01 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
(d) Circular interpolation in clockwise direction and (d) Coolant and miscellaneous functions on machine (d) N010 G00 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
absolute dimension
GATE 2005
GATE ‐ GATE‐2014 (PI)
The tool of an NC machine has to move along a
Tool Compensation
circular arc from (5, 5) to (10,10) while performing an A CNC instruction G91G01X30Y40F100 commands the
y Tool‐Radius Compensation
operation. The centre of the arc is at (10, 5). Which movement of tool along the path at a feed rate of 100 y Left hand G41
L ft h d G
one of the following NC tool path commands y Right hand G42
performs the above mentioned operation? mm/min (G91‐ incremental format and G01‐ linear
y Cancel tool‐radius compensation G40
C l l di i G
(a) N010G02 X10 Y10 X5 Y5 R5 interpolation). The feed rate of the tool (in mm/min) y Tool‐Height Compensation
(b) N010G03
N G X10 X Y10
Y X5X Y5Y R5R along the X axis will be _______ y Positive G43
(c) N010G01 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5 y Negative G44
(d) N010G02 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5 y Cancel tool‐height compensation G49

GATE 2000
GATE ‐
Tool‐Radius Compensation Cancel Tool Compensation: G40
In finish machining of an island on a casting with
y Tool‐radius compensations make it possible to CNC milling machine, an end mill with 10 mm
program directly from the drawing, and thus eliminate y Note the difference between two ways
the tool‐offset calculation
th t l ff t l l ti diameter is employed. The corner points of the
N0060 G01 X2.000 Y1.700 island are represented by (0, 0), (0, 30), (50, 30), and
G41 (G42) D×× N0060 G40 G01 X2.000 Y1.700 M02
y D××: the radius of tool to compensate is saved in a memory unit that
D th di f t l t t i d i it th t
N0070 G40
7 4 M02 (50, 0). By applying cutter radius right
is named D×× compensation, the trajectory of the cutter will be
y G41/G42 is directly related with direction of tool movement and
which side of part is cut
which side of part is cut. (a) (‐5,
( 5 0),
0) (‐5,
( 5 35),
35) (55,
(55 35),
35) (55,
(55 ‐5),
5) (‐5,
( 5 ‐5)
5)
(b) (0, ‐5), (55, ‐5), (55, 35), (‐5, 35), (‐5, ‐5)
(c) (5, 5), (5, 25), (45, 25), (45, 5), (5, 5)
ramp off block effective to the end point
(d) (5,
5 55), (45,
45 55), (45,
45 25),
5 (5,5 25),
5 (5,5 55)
GATE 2014
GATE ‐
For machining a rectangular island represented by Tool‐Height Compensation g p
Tool‐Height Compensation
coordinates P(0, 0), Q(100, 0), R(100, 50) and S(0, 50) on
a casting using CNC milling machine, an end mill with a G43 (G44) H×× y Example:
diameter of 16 mm is used. The trajectory of the cutter y N0010 G91 G00 X12.0 Y80.0
G G G91:
y H××: specified memory unit used to save height
center to machine the island PQRS is y N0020 G44 Z‐32.0 H02； incremental
compensation of tool. coordinates
(a) (–8, –8), (108, – 8), (108, 58), (–8, 58), (–8, –8) y Positive compensation (G43):
y If we put 0.5mm into H02,
(b) (8,
(8 8),
8) (94,
(94 8),
8) (94,
(94 44),
44) (8,
(8 44),
44) (8,
(8 8) real position = specified position + value saved in H××
y real position = ‐32.0 ‐ 0.5 = ‐32.5
(c) (–8, 8), (94, 0), (94, 44), (8, 44), (–8, 8) y Negative compensation (G44):
(d) (0,
( 0),) (100,
( 0),
) (100,
( 50),
) (50,
( 0),
) (0,
( 0)) real position = specified position ‐
l iti ifi d iti value saved in H××
l d i H y Cancel tool‐height compensation: G49
Table of Important M codes GATE 2009

GATE ‐ 2009
p g g
Rules for programming
y M00 Program stop
M P
Block Format
y M01 Optional program stop
y M03 Spindle on clockwise
S i dl l k i N135 G01 X1.0
X1 0 Y1.0
Y1 0 Z0.125
Z0 125 F5
y M04 Spindle on counterclockwise Sample Block

• Restrictions on CNC blocks
y M05 Spindle stop • Each may contain only one tool move
y M06 Tool change • Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes
• Each may contain only one feed rate
y M08 Coolant on • Each may contain only one specified tool or spindle speed
y M09 Coolant off • The block numbers should be sequential
• Both the program start flag and the program number must be
y M10 Clamps on independent of all other commands (on separate lines)
• The data within a block should follow the sequence shown
y M11 Clamps off in the above sample
p block
y M02 or M30 Program stop, reset to start
IES 1993
IES ‐ 1993 IES 1996
IES ‐
A 'block'
means
block of information in N.C. machine program In manual programming and tape preparation for a
NC drilling machine, the spindle speed was coded
Example of CNC Programming
Example of CNC Programming
(a) One row on tape as S 684 (using the magic
magic‐three
three code). The spindle
speed in rpm will be y What Must Be Done To Drill A Hole On A CNC
(b) A word comprising several rows on tape
(a) 684 Vertical Milling Machine
g
(c) One complete instruction
((d)) One complete
p program
p g for a jjob (b) 68.4
(c) 840
((d)) 6840
4
Tool Home Top
p
View 2.) Z Axis Rapid Move
Top Just Above Hole Top
View View
3.) Turn On Coolant
)
55.) Z Axis Feed Move to
4.) Turn On Spindle
) O S i dl Drill Hole
1 ) X & Y Rapid To Hole Position
1.) X & Y Rapid To Hole Position
.100”
Front Front Front
View View View
Here’s The CNC Program! Tool At Home
Top Top Top O0001

O
View View 7.) Turn Off Spindle View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
6.) Rapid Z Axis Move
6 ) Rapid Z Axis Move
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
Out Of Hole 8.) Turn Off Coolant
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
9.) X&Y Axis Rapid N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z 1 M09
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
Move Home
Front Front Front N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
View View View N035 M30

Tool At Home Tool At Home
Top O0001
O Top O0001
O Top O0001
O
View O0001
View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N
Number Assigned to this program
b A i d hi
N005 Sequence Number N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
G54 Fixture Offset
G90 Absolute Programming Mode G
G00 R id M i
Rapid Motion
S600 Spindle Speed set to 600 RPM X1.0 X Coordinate 1.0 in. from Zero
M03 Spindle on in a Clockwise Direction Y1.0 Y Coordinate 1.0 in. from Zero
Front Front Front

View View View
Top O0001
O Top O0001
O Top O0001
O
View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
G43 Tool Length Compensation N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5 N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
H01 Specifies Tool length compensation
G01 Straight Line Cutting Motion N025 G00 Z 1 M09
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
Z.1 Z Coordinate .1 in. from Zero
Z‐.75 Z Coordinate ‐.75 in. from Zero
Front M08 Flood Coolant On Front 35
F3.5 Feed Rate set to 3.5 in/min.
35 / Front G00 Rapid Motion
Z
Z.1 Z Coordinate .1 in. from Zero
Z C di i f Z
View View View M09 Coolant Off
O0001
IES 1995
IES ‐ 1995
p
Top O0001 Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N G G S6 M View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N G G S6 M using the codes given below the lists:
Top
View N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 List I List II
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 (A function
f i connected d (A
(Associated
i d parameter))
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 with NC m/c tool)
N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
75 3 5 N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
N020 G01 Z .75 F3.5 A Interpolation
A. 1 Tape preparation
1.
N025 G00 Z.1 M09 N025 G00 Z.1 M09 B. Parity check 2. Canned cycle
N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 Front
F N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 C Preparatory function
C. 3 Drilling
3.
G91 Incremental Programming Mode D. Point to point control 4. Contouring
Front G28 Zero Return Command View N035 M30 5. Turning
M30 End of Program
View X0, Y0, Z0
X,Y,& Z Coordinates at Zero
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 1 2 5
(c) 5 1 3 2 (d) 1 4 3 2
IAS 2011 M i
IAS‐2011 Main APT L
APT Language
In an NC drilling g operation,
p , the tool tipp is at location (‐
( IFS 2011 y APT (Automatically Programmed Tools)
100, 0, 100). The datum (0, 0, 0) is left hand lower corner y The APT language consists of many different types of
on topp surface of the workpiece,
p , which is rectangular
g In NC machine, what is the purpose of the parity statements made up of the following valid letters, numerals
(300 mm x 300 mm x 1.5 mm thick). A thru' hole of 10 check ? What is the function of Data Processing and punctuation marks.
mm diameter is t o be drilled in the centre of the y Letters: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
workpiece. Using only rapid positioning and linear Unit (DPU) and Control Loop Unit (CLU) of MCU.
y Numerals: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
p
interpolation functions,, write the pprogram
g blocks,, in How is Feed Rate Number (FRN) expressed ? What / A slash divides a statement into two sections eg
A slash divides a statement into two sections. eg.,
absolute mode. GO/PAST,
Assume permitted cutting speed = 32 m/min and feed is indirect feedback ?
, A comma is used as a separator between the elements in
A comma is used as a separator bet een the elements in
rate = 150 mm/min. [10‐Marks] [10‐marks] a statement generally to the right of the slash.
= An equals is used for assigning an entity to a symbolic
A l i d f i i tit t b li
name, e.g., P1 = POINT/25,50,30.
Words IES 1998

IES ‐ Th l t APT t it f
The complete APT part program consists of
Which of the following are the rules of the following four types of statements
y The
Th words
d to
t be
b used
d in
i the
th statements
t t t are built
b ilt up from
f
programming NC machine tools in APT language?
one to six letters or numerals with the first one being
ga y Geometry
1 Only capital letters are used
1.
letter. No special character is allowed in the words. 2. A period is placed at the end of each statement y Motion
3. Insertion of space does not affect the APT word y Post processor
g the codes g
given below:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 y Compilation control
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 alone
Other Part Programming Languages APT Language
y ADAPT
D ((ADaptation
Daptat o APT)) was tthee first
st atte pt to adapt APT
attempt g g
APT Language Other capabilities of APT, the macro facility, with use variable argument as in a
FORTRAN subroutine, for example:
FORTRAN b i f l
programming system for smaller computers P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.3, 0.1
Additional statements:
y AUTOSPOT (AUTOmatic Sytem for POsitioning Tools) was FROM/P0
d l
developed
d by
b IBM and
d first
fi t introduced
i t d d ini 1962
6 ¾ MACHIN/DRILL,
MACHIN/DRILL 2 CALL/DRILL,
/ X=1.0,
1 0 Y=1.0,
1 0 Z=0.1,
0 1 DEPTH=0.7
0
¾ COOLNT/ CALL/DRILL, X=2.0, Y=1.0, Z=0.1, DEPTH=0.7
y EXAPT (EXtended subset of APT) was developed jointly in
German in about 1964 by several universities to adapt APT for For example: COOLNT/MIST COOLNT/FLOOD COOLNT/OFF GOTO/P0
European use. It is compatible with APT and thus can use the ¾ FEDRAT/
when the definition of the macro DRILL is:
same processor as APT ¾ SPINDL/ DRILL = MACRO/X, Y, Z, DEPTH
y COMPACT was developed
d l d by
b Manufacturing
f Data Systems, Inc. For example:
l SPINDL/ON
/ SPINDL/1250,
/ CCLW GOTO/X,Y,Z
(MDSI) ¾ TOOLNO/ GODLTA/0,0, -DEPTH
y SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated) ¾ TURRET/ , , DEPTH
GODLTA/0,0,
was developed by Sundstrand Corporation, intended for its own TARMAC
¾ END
machine tools
y MAPT (Micro‐APT) is a subset of APT, to be run on the
microcomputersFor-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) 61
Page 137 of 240 62
Rev.0 63
Point (POINT)
( ) Point (POINT) Point (POINT)
PTA = POINT/ 33,4,5

45 PTB = POINT/ INTOF
INTOF, LIN1
LIN1, LIN2 PTD = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1 y
PTD = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1
y PTC = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1 PTC
(3, 4, 5)
LIN2
PTA
z LIN3
PTB C1
LIN1
PTD
x
Point (POINT) Point (POINT)

( ) Line (LINE)
( )
PTE = POINT/ YLARGE,

YLARGE INTOF,
INTOF C1,
C1 C2 PT7 = POINT/ CENTER,
CENTER C6
PTE = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2 y LIN1 = LINE/ P1, P2
PTF = POINT/ YSMALL,, INTOF,, C1,, C2
PTF = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2 C1 y
y
C6
PTE
P2
PT7
P1
PTF C2
LIN1
x x
x
Line (LINE)
( ) Line (LINE) Line (LINE)
L12 = LINE/ PT4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS
LIN = LINE/ POINT, ATANGL, ANGLE (in degrees), LINE
LIN4 = LINE/ PT6,
PT6 15,
15 -30,
30 3 L14 = LINE/ PT1,
PT1 ATANGL,
ATANGL 40
L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
L16 = LINE/ PT3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS
y
y LINE2
y
PT6 PT3 L
L14
P1
40°
PT1 L12
L16 30° LINE1
LINE
PT4
L4 (15, ‐30, 3)
LINE LINE/ P ATANGL LINE
LINE2 = LINE/ P1, ATANGL, 30, LINE1
40° 20°
x
x 15° x
L15
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 138 (32, ‐3, 2)
of 240 Rev.0
Line (LINE) Line (LINE) Line (LINE)
LIN = LINE/ SLOPE, SLOPE VALUE, INTERC, MODIFIER, d N = LINE/

N / ATANGL,
NG , DEGREES,
G S, INTERC,
N C, MODIFIER,
O ,d
LIN The LEFT & RIGHT modifier indicates whether the line
where the slope value is y/x. The modifier options are [XAXIS,
The modifier options are [XAXIS, YAXIS], and d is the is at the left or right tangent point, depending on how
YAXIS], and d is the corresponding intercept value on the selected
corresponding
p g intercept
p value on the selected axis ((i.e., modifier).
)
axis
i (i.e.,
(i modifier).
difi ) one looks at the circle from the point.
point
y y
L1 = LINE/ PT51, LEFT, TANTO, C11
LINE1 L1
LINE1
C11
LINE1 = LINE/ SLOPE 1 INTERC XAXIS 6
LINE1 = LINE/ SLOPE, 1, INTERC, XAXIS, 6 LINE1 = LINE/ ATANGL 30 INTERC d
LINE1 = LINE/ ATANGL, 30, INTERC, d
θ = 30° PT51
x x
(6 ) P i t f X I t
(6,0) Point of X‐Intercept
t d
Line (LINE) Line (LINE) Line (LINE)

L6 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C3, LEFT, TANTO, C4
L2 = LINE/ PT51, RIGHT, TANTO, C11
L6
L3 = LINE/ PT40, RIGHT, TANTO, C11 L6 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C4, RIGHT, TANTO, C3
L4 = LINE/ PT40, LEFT, TANTO, C11 C4
Left
L3 Right C3
Right L6
Right
PT40 C4
L1
L8 L9
Left
f C3
L7
Left L4
Left
PT51 The descriptive words LEFT and RIGHT are used by L8 L9
Right
g from the first circle written towards the
looking L77
L
L2
second circle.
Line (LINE) Line Plane (PLANE)
LN3 = LINE/ PNT6, PARLEL, LN15 LN5 = LINE/ INTOF,

INTOF PLAN1,
PLAN1 PLAN2 PLAN10 = PLANE/ PT6
PT6, PT12,
PT12 PT15
LN4 = LINE/ PNT5, PERPTO, LN13
LN5
PLAN10
y PT15
PNT6 PNT5
LN3 PT6 PT12
LN4
4 y 3.0
LN15 PLAN1
LN13 PT4
z
PLAN2
PLAN14
x
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 139 of 240 x
Rev.0
Plane (PLANE) Circle (CIRCLE)
( ) Circle (CIRCLE)
( )
PLAN14 = PLANE/ PT4,

PT4 PARLEL,
PARLEL PLAN10
C1 = CIRCLE/ 3, 6, 5, 4.3 C3 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT6, TANTO, LN4
PLAN14 = PLANE/ PARLEL, PLAN10, YSMALL, 3.0
C1 = CIRCLE/
C C / CENTER,
C PT3,
3 RADIUS,
A S 4.3
43 C7 = CIRCLE/ CENTER
CENTER, PT8,
PT8 PT5
PLAN10
y y y
PT15
C1 LN4
y PT6 PT12 PT5
3.0 43
4.3
PT3 PT6 PT8

PT4 (3,6,5) C7
C3
z
PLAN14
x x x
x
The Machining
g Plan The Machiningg Plan The Machining Plan
Contouring: z
Check surface
y Part surface: the surface on which the end of the Drive surface CS CS CS
y
tool is riding.
Direction of
y Drive surface: the surface against which the edge of cutter cutter motion
the tool rides. x

DS DS DS
y Check surface: a surface at which the current tool

motion
i isi to stop. Part surface
TO ON PAST
GOUP
The Machining
g Plan FROM/PTARG
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL2, TO L3
Motion
i commands: GORGT/L3, PAST, L4
GORGT/L3 PAST L4
GOLFT
GOLFT/ : Move left alongg the drive surface GOFWD
GORGT/ : Move right along the drive surface
Present tool
GOUP/ : Move up along the drive surface GOBACK position
GODOWN/ : Move down along the drive surface GORGT
GOFWD/ : Move forward from a tangent position
GODOWN
GOBACK/ : Move backward from a tangent position
Previous
tool position
M hi i Specifications
Machining S ifi i Machining Specifications Machining Specifications
Postprocessor
P commands
d for
f a particular
i l machine
hi tooll are: FEDRAT/ : specifies the feed rate for moving the tool along the TOLERANCE SETTING:
SETTING Nonlinear
N li motion
i is
i accomplished
li h d in
i
MACHIN/ : used to specify the machine tool and call the part surface in inches per minute: straight-line segments, and INTOL/ and OUTTOL/ statements
postprocessor for that tool: di
dictate the
h number
b off straight-line
i h li segments to be
b generated.
d
FEDRAT/ 4.5
MACHIN/ DRILL,, 3 INTOL/ 0.0015
SPINDL/ : gives the spindle rotation speed in revolutions per
COOLNT/ : allows the coolant fluid to be turned on or off: OUTTOL/ 0.001
minute:
COOLNT/ MIST SPINDL/ 850
COOLNT/ FLOOD TURRET/ : can be used to call a specific tool from an automatic
COOLNT/ OFF tool changer:
TURRET/ 11
Machining Specifications M hi i Specifications

Machining S ifi i
PARTNO:
PARTNO identifies
id ifi the
h part program andd is
i inserted
i d at the
h start off FINI:
FINI specifies
ifi the
h endd off the
h program.
g g
APT Language
Other Motion statements:
the program. ¾ GO/{TO}, Drive surface, {TO} Part surface, {TO},
Ch k surface
Check f
CLPRNT: indicates that a cutter location printout is desired. Or
CUTTER: specifies a cutter diameter for offset (rough versus finish ¾ GO/{TO}, Drive surface, {TO} Part surface, {TANTO},
Check surface
cutting). If a milling cutter is 0.5 in. in diameter and we have …And the same with PAST or ON instead of TO
¾ GOLFT/
CUTTER/ 0.6 ¾ GORGT/
¾ GOUP/
then the tool will be offset from the finish cut by 0.05 in. ¾ GODOWN/
¾ GOFWD/ /
¾ GOBACK/
For example:
GO/TO, L1, TO, PS, TANTO, C1
GO/PAST, L1, TO, PS, TANTO, C1
96
Answer: Contd….
IES 2008
IES‐2008
Name the four types of statements in a complete APT
PARTNO CONTOUR CUTTER/25.0
MACHIN/MILL, 1 TOLER/0.1
part program.
program Prepare part program for geometry CLPRNT INTOL/0.05
INTOL/0 05
UNITS/MM OUTTOL/0.05
description of the contour shown in the figure below:
Y P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0 FEDRAT/200
[15‐Marks]
[15 Marks] P1 = POINT/110.0,
POINT/110 0 20.0,
20 0 0.0
00 SPINDL/500, CLW
30 40
P2 = POINT/20.0, 20.0, 0.0 COOLNT/ON
20 P3 = POINT/90.0, 110.0, 0.0 FROM/P0
L2 C1 P4 = POINT/20.0, 100.0, 0.0
L3 GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, L5
20 P5 = POINT/50.0, 130.0, 0.0
R
135° GOLFT/L1, PAST, L2
L1 = LINE/P2, ATANGL, 90, XAXIS
L2 = LINE/P4, ANTNGL, 45, XAXIS GORGT/L2 PAST,
GORGT/L2, PAST L3
L3 = LINE/P5, ATANGL, 135, L2 GORGT/L3, TANTO, C1
L4
80 L4 = LINE/P1,, PERPTO,, L3 GOFWD/C1, PAST, L4
L1
L5 = LINE/P1, PERPTO, L4 GOFWD/L4, PAST, C2
C2
C1=CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 20.0 GORGT/C2, PAST, L5
L5
20 C2=CIRCLE/CENTER,
C2 CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 20.0 GORGT/L5 PAST,
GORGT/L5, PAST L1
R P1
P2 20 PL1=PLANE/P1, P2, P3
X Page 141 of 240 Rev.0
Contd….
RAPID IES 2007
IES‐2007
Prepare part using APT language for milling the contour
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF shown in Fig.
Fig in a single pass.
pass D [20‐Marks]
[20 Marks]
SPINDL/OFF C 110
END R30
B
FINI Q
110
120
E
+
+
R40
40
A F
100 + 40 P
+
Material : M S.
8 mm
Answer: Contd…. Contd….

PARTNO CONTOUR CUTTER/25.0 RAPID
MACHIN/MILL, 2 TOLER/0.1 GOTO/P0
CLPRNT INTOL/0.05
INTOL/0 05 COOLNT/OFF
UNITS/MM OUTTOL/0.05 SPINDL/OFF
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 10.0
FEDRAT/200 END
PTA = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
PTB = POINT/0.0, 120.0, 0.0 SPINDL/500, CLW FINI
PTC = POINT/30.0, 150.0, 0.0 COOLNT/ON
PTD = POINT/140.0, 150.0, 0.0 FROM/P0
PTE = POINT/140.0, 40.0, 0.0 GO/TO, LAB, TO, PL1, TO, LAF
PTF = POINT/100.0, 0.0, 0.0 GOLFT/LAB, TANTO, CBC
PTQ = POINT/30.0, 120.0, 0.0
GOFWD/CBC PAST
GOFWD/CBC, PAST, LCD
PTP = POINT/140.0, 0.0, 0.0
GORGT/LCD, PAST, LDE
LAB = LINE/PTA, PTB
LCD
C = LINE/PTC,
/ C, PTD GORGT/LDE, PAST, CEF
LDE = LINE/PTD, PTE GORGT/CEF, PAST, LAF
LAF = LINE/PTA, PTF GORGT/LAF, PAST, LAB
CBC = CIRCLE/CENTRE,, PTQ, Q, RADIUS,, 30.0
CEF = CIRCLE/CENTRE, PTP, RADIUS, 40.0
PL1=PLANE/PTA, PTB, PTC
C2 C2
R30 R30
Y L2 • Y L2 •
P3 P3
C1 C1
IES 2006
IES‐2006
Prepare part program to machine the contour shown in
R20
• Answer:
R20
•
P2 P2
the figure using APT on CNC milling machine.
machine L3
PARTNO CONTOUR
L3
R30
[15‐Marks] 100 mm
MACHIN/MILL, 3
100 mm
• L1 CLPRNT
80 80 L1
UNITS/MM
R20
• P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 10.0
P1 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
X P2 = POINT/60.0, 80.0, 0.0 X
100 mm 60 50 P3 = POINT/150.0, 100.0, 0.0 60 50
P1 L4 P4 P1 L4 P4
80 200 mm P4 = POINT/200.0,
POINT/200 0 0.0,
0 0 0.0
00 200 mm
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 20

C2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 30
L1 = LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO, C1
L2 = LINE/LEFT, TANTO, C1, LEFT, TANTO, C2
60 50
L3 = LINE/P4
LINE/P4, RIGHT,
RIGHT TANTO
TANTO, C2
200 mm
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 142 of 240 L4 = LINE/P1, P4

Rev.0
Material: MS Thickness: 8.0 mm PL1=PLANE/P1, P2, P3
Contd…. Contd….
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
RAPID
GOTO/P0
H W k
Home Work
INTOL/0.05
INTOL/0 05 COOLNT/OFF
p
Write a complete p
part p g
program in APT for machining g
OUTTOL/0.05 SPINDL/OFF the product which is given in the diagram. Thickness of
COOLNT/ON END the workpiece is 6 mm. All dimensions are in mm.
SPINDL/500, CLW FINI
FEDRAT/200
[15]
FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, L4
GOLFT/L1, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1 PAST,
GOFWD/C1, PAST L2
GOFWD/L2, TANTO, C2
GOFWD/C2, PAST, L3
GOFWD/L3, PAST, L4
GORGT/L4, PAST, L1
REMARK MOTION STATEMENT FOLLOW
FROM/P0
PARTNO CONTOUR L1 LINE/RIGHT TANTO C1 RIGHT TANTO C3
L1 = LINE/RIGHT, TANTO, C1, RIGHT, TANTO, C3
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TANTO, C1
MACHIN/MILL, 1 L2 = LINE/LEFT, TANTO, C1, LEFT, TANTO, C2
C4=CIRCLE/XLARGE, OUT, C2, OUT, C3, RADIUS, 62
C CIRCLE/XLARGE OUT C OUT C RADIUS 6 GORGT/L1, TANTO, C3
CLPRNT
PL1=PLANE/P1, P2, P3 GOFWD/C3, TANTO, C4
UNITS/MM GOFWD/C4 TANTO C2
GOFWD/C4, TANTO, C2
REMARK POSTPROCESSOR STATEMENT FOLLOW
P0 = POINT/‐25.0,‐25.0, 25.0 GOFWD/C2, PAST, L2
CUTTER/50.0
P1 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 6.0
/ , , GOFWD/L2 TANTO C1
GOFWD/L2, TANTO, C1
TOLER/0.01
TOLER/
P2 = POINT/117.0, 32.0, 6.0 INTOL/0.05 GOFWD/C1, PAST, L1
P3 = POINT/117 0 ‐32 0 6 0
P3 = POINT/117.0, ‐32.0, 6.0 OUTTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/ RAPID
C1=CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 10.0 FEDRAT/200 GOTO/P0
C CIRCLE/CENTER P RADIUS
C2=CIRCLE/CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 12.5 SPINDL/
SPINDL/1000, CLW
CLW COOLNT/OFF
C3=CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 12.5 COOLNT/ON SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
IES 2011 C ti l
IES 2011 Conventional IES 1997
IES ‐ IES 1995
IES ‐
State the method of defining line segment of Which of the following are valid statements for In APT language, the cutter motion in incremental
point to point motion of the tool in APT language? coordinate mode is addressed as
cutter motion using APT program format.
1 GO/TO/............
1. GO/TO/ (a) GO/TO/.....
GO/TO/
[5 Marks] 2. GO DLTA/............ (b) GO/TO.....
3. GO/TO, ………. (c) GO DLTA/....
Select the correct answer using g the codes g
given below: ((d)) GO FWD/...
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 1 2 and 3

GATE 2008 (PI)
GATE ‐2008 (PI) Wh t i
What is an industrial robot?
i d t i l b t?
Suppose point P1 in APT programming is coded by statement Robotics A robot is a reprogrammable,
reprogrammable multifunctional
P1 = POINT/XSMALL, INTOF, LN1, CR1
manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools or
The coded g
geometric situation without causing
g error is specialized devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
What Can Robots Do?
Advantages of Robots
Advantages of Robots Disadvantages of Robots
Disadvantages of Robots
y Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase y Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:
p y, safety,
productivity, y, efficiency,
y, q y, and consistencyy of
quality, pp p
– Inappropriate and wrong g responses
p
products – A lack of decision‐making power Industrial Robots
d l b
y Robots can work in hazardous environments – A loss of power
y R b t need
Robots d no environmental
i t l comfort
f t – Damage to the robot and other devices •Material
Material handling
– Human injuries •Material transfer
y Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and
y Robots may have limited capabilities in •Machine loading and/or unloading
illnesses
– Degrees
D off Freedom
F d •Spot welding
y Robots have repetable precision at all times – Dexterity •Continuous arc welding Material Handling
y Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may have – Sensors Manipulator
•Spray
p y coatingg
mili or micro inch accuracy.
accuracy – Vision systems •Assembly
y Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of – Real‐time Response
•Inspection
humans y Robots are costly, y, due to
y Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously, – Initial cost of equipment
humans can only one. – Installation Costs
y Robots replace human workers who can create economic – Need for peripherals A
Assembly
bl
problems – Need for training Manipulator
– Need for Programming Spot Welding
Manipulator
Asimov's three laws of robotics

Asimov's three laws of robotics All robots have the following basic components:
All robots have the following basic components:
Wrist Configurations
1. Manipulators: the mechanical unit, often called the
First law (Human safety): "arm,"
" " that
th t does
d the
th actual
t l work k off th
the robot.
b t It iis
y A robot may not injure a human being, or, through composed of mechanical linkages and joints with actuators y Wrist assembly is attached to end‐of‐arm
i
inaction,
ti allow
ll a human
h b i to
being t come to
t harm.
h to drive the mechanism directly or indirectly through gears, y End effector
E d ff i
is attached to wrist assembly
h d i bl
chains, or ball screws.
Second law (Robots are slaves): 2. Feedback devices: transducers that sense the p positions of y Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector
y A robot must obey orders given it by human beings, various linkages and joints and transmit this information to y Body‐and‐arm determines global position of end
the controllers in either digital or analog Form. effector
p where such orders would conflict with the First
except
Law. 3. End effectors: the "hand" or "gripper" portion of the y Two or three degrees of freedom:
h d ff d
robot, which attaches the end of the arm and perform the y Roll
Third law (Robot survival): operations of the robot.
robot y Pitch
y A robot must protect its own existence as long as such 4. Controller: the brains of the system that direct the y Yaw
protection does not conflict with the First or Second movements of the manipulator.
manipulator
Law. For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) 5. Power supply Page 144 of 240 Rev.0
End Effectors
End Effectors
Degrees of Freedom
g
y The special tooling for a robot that enables it to pp
Grippers and Tools y The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be
perform a specific task compared to the way in which the human body moves.
y Two types: y For
F each
h degree
d off freedom
f d a joint
j i isi required.
i d
y Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g.,
parts) during work cycle y The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the
y Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray configuration.
painting
y Each of the five basic motion configurations utilizes three
degrees of freedom in the arm.
y Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end
effector all the flexibility.
Degrees of Freedom (contd )

Degrees of Freedom (contd.) Degrees of Freedom (contd )
Degrees of Freedom (contd.)
y A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a ¾ The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction
robot
robot’ss hand at any point in its work space.
space of the arm or the in‐and‐out
in and out motion relative to the
y Although six degrees of freedom are needed for base.
maximum flexibility,
flexibility most robot employee only three to ¾ The
Th verticali l traverse: provides
id theh up‐and‐down
dd
five degrees of freedom.
motion of the arm of the robotic system.
y The more the degrees of freedom,
freedom the greater is the
y The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist,
complexity of motions encountered.
which bear the names of aeronautical terms, are
y The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of
¾Pitch or bend: is the up‐and‐down movement of the
a robotic system are:
wrist.
¾The
Th rotational
t ti l reverse: is
i the
th movementt off the
th arm
¾Yaw: is the right‐and‐left movement of the wrist.
assembly about a rotary axis, such as left‐and‐right
swivel
i l off the
th robot’s
b t’ arm about
b t a base.
b ¾Roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.
hand
T fR b t
Types of Robot T fR b t
Types of Robot
y Cartesian or y
Gantry y Cylindrical robot: y Spherical
p or
robot: Polar robot:
y It's a robot whose axes
y It's a robot whose arm
form a cylindrical y It
It'ss a robot whose axes
has three prismatic
joints, whose axes are coordinate system. form a polar coordinate
coincident with a y
system.
y Used
U d for f assembly
bl
Cartesian coordinator. y Used for handling at
operations, handling at
y Used for pick and place machine tools,, spot p
machine
hi t l
tools, spott welding, diecasting,
work, application of
sealant, assembly welding, and handling fettling machines, gas
operations, handling att di
die casting
ti welding and arc
machine tools and arc machines. welding.
welding.
welding
Types of Robot
Types of Robot
y SCARA robot
y Articulated or y Parallel robot
y The SCARA acronym stands Revolute Robot: One use is a mobile
for Selective Compliant Assembly
y It
It'ss a robot whose arm platform handling
Robot Arm or Selective Compliant
has at least three rotary cockpit flight
Articulated Robot Arm.
joints.
joints simulators It
simulators. It'ss a robot
y It's a robot which has two parallel whose arms have
y Used for assembly
rotaryy jjoints to p
provide compliance
p concurrent prismatic
operations,
ti di casting,
die ti
in a plane or rotary joints.
fettling machines, gas
y Used for pick and place work, work welding,
ldi arc welding
ldi
application of sealant, assembly and spray painting.
operations and handling machine
tools
IES 2012
IES ‐ Robot Control Systems
Robot Control Systems
The configuration of a robot using a telescoping arm that y
Joint Drive Systems y Limited sequence control – pick‐and‐place
operations using mechanical stops to set positions
i i h i l ii
can be raised or lowered on a horizontal pivot mounted y Electric
y Playback with point‐to‐point control – records
on a rotating base is called y Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
work cycle as a sequence of points, then plays back
(a) Polar y Preferred drive system in today's robots
the sequence during program execution
(b) C li d i l
(b) Cylindrical y Hydraulic
y Playback with continuous path control –
y Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
(c) Cartesian coordinate greater memory capacity and/or interpolation
y Noted for their high power and lift capacity
(d) Jointed arm capability to execute paths (in addition to points)
y Pneumatic
y Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes
y Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material
T i ll li it d t ll b t d i l t i l
it seem intelligent, e.g., responds to sensor inputs,
transfer applications
makes decisions, communicates with humans
Working Envelope
Working Envelope Robotic Arc Welding Cell
Robotic Arc‐Welding Cell
y
Robot Control System
y Robot performs
flux‐cored arc
Cell
C ll
Supervisor
Level 2
welding (FCAW)
operation at one
Controller
workstation
k i
Level 1
& Program while fitter
changes parts at
the other
Joint 1 Joint 2 Joint 3 Joint 4 Joint 5 Joint 6 Sensors Level 0
workstation

Robot Programming
Robot Programming Leadthrough Programming L dh h Programming Advantages
Leadthrough P i Ad
y Leadthrough programming
y Advantages:
g
y Work cycle is taught to robot by moving the 1. Powered leadthrough y Easily learned by shop personnel
manipulator through the required motion cycle and y Common for point‐to‐
y Logical way to teach a robot
simultaneously entering the program into controller point robots
y No computer programming
memory for later playback y Uses teach pendant
y Disadvantages:
y Robot programming languages 2. Manual leadthrough
y Downtime during programming
y Textual programming language to enter commands y Convenient for
continuous path y Limited programming logic capability
Li i d i l i bili
into robot controller
control robots y Not compatible with supervisory control
y Simulation and off‐line
off line programming y Human programmer
y Program is prepared at a remote computer terminal physical moves
andd downloaded
d l d d to robotb controller
ll for
f execution
i manipulator
without need for leadthrough methods
IES 2011 IES 2010

IES 2010 IES 2006
IES ‐
Consider the following g statements: Which one of the following is the third basic
Trajectory of a robot mean :
Good dynamic performance is usually difficult to achieve component of robots besides power supply and
(a) Path traced by the end effectors in robots which contain a rotary base because control (memory) console?
(b) Kinematics of Robot 1. Position, speed and acceleration of the other joints cause
(a) Software (b) Coaxial cable
( )
(c) Robot joints
j variations in the reflected torque and moment of inertia.
2. The moment of inertia reflected at the base depends upon the ( ) Mechanical
(c) M h i l unit
it arm (d) Microcomputer
Mi t
(d) Robot programming
weight of the object being carried.
3. The moment of inertia reflected at the base also depends upon
the distance between the base axis and the manipulated object.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only (d) 1 and 3 only
IES 2000
IES ‐ GATE 2013
GATE‐2013
Consider the following characteristics of a robot:
CAD
Computer Aided
d d Design (CAD):
( ) Used
d for
f creating the
h In
I a CAD package,
k mirror
i image
i off a 2D
D point
i t
1. The tip of the robot arm moves from one point to
another with its in
in‐between
between path not being defined. product database P(5,10)
(5, ) is to be obtained about a line which p
passes
2. It can be used for drilling holes at difference points in a through the origin and makes an angle of 45o
workpiece.
workpiece y Geometric Modeling
3. It can be used for V butt joint welding between two counterclockwise with the X‐axis. The coordinates
y Engineering Analysis
points.
points off the
th transformed
t f d point
i t will
ill be
b
4. The memory capacity required for its control unit is low. y Design Review and Evaluation
Which of these are the characteristics associated with
ith a point (a) (7.5,
(7 5 5) (b) (10,
(10 5) (c) (7.5,
(7 5 ‐5)
5) (d) (10,
(10 ‐5)
5)
to point robot?
y Automated Drafting
( ) 1 and
(a) d2 (b) 1, 3 and d4
(c) 1, 2 and 4For-2015
(d) (IES, GATE
2, 3 and 4 & PSUs) Page 147 of 240 Rev.0
GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 IES 2006
IES ‐
CAM
A robot arm PQ with end coordinates P(0, 0) and Q(2, 5)
A b t PQ ith d di t P( ) d Q( ) Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM): Which item best describes a CAM technology?
y Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) (a) Geometric modeling (b) Documentation
p y 9 o.
rotates counter clockwise about P in the XY plane by 90 y Computerized material Resource Planning (MRP) ( ) Drafting
(c) D fti (d) Numerical
N i l control
t l
The new coordinate pair of the end point Q is y NC part programming
y Robot Programming
R b P i
(a) (–2, 5) (b) (–5, 2)
y Computerized Scheduling
(c) (–5, –2) (d) (2, –5) y Computerized process control
y Computerized Manufacturing Control by FMS
y Shop floor control
y Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC)
p Q y ( Q )
y Computer Aided Inspection
Automation Automation
y Automation is the process of following a predetermined Fixed Automation
ISRO‐2011 sequence of operations with little or no human intervention,
using
i specialized
i li d equipment
i and d devices
d i that
h perform
f and
d y It
I is
i also
l known
k as hard
h d automation.
i
control the manufacturing process.
In CAM, " Part programming" refers to Why go for Automation? y Used to produce a standardized product.
product
1. Increased productivity
(a) Generation of cutter location data y Used for very large quantity production of one or few
2. Reduced cost of labour
(b) On‐line Inspection 3. Improved quality marginally different components.
4. Reduced in‐process
p inventoryy
(c) Machine Selection 5. Reduce Manufacturing time y Highly specialized tools, devices, equipment, special
6. Increased safety
(d) Tool
T l Selection
S l i purpose machine tools,
tools are utilized to produce a
There are three types of Automation
1. Fixed Automation product.
2. Programmable
P bl Automation
A t ti
3. Flexible Automation y Very efficient, high production rate , low unit cost.
Automation Automation IES 2012

IES ‐
Programmable Automation Flexible Automation
Programmable automation is suitable for
P bl t ti i it bl f
y Can change the design of the product or even change the y If is also known as FMS, and uses CAD/CAM
(a) Low production volume and large varieties of parts
product by changing the program. y Produce different products on the same equipment in
(b) Low production volume and small varieties of parts
p p
y Used
U d for
f the
th low
l quantity
tit production
d ti off large
l number
b off any order
d or mix.
i
different components.
p (c) High production volume and small varieties of parts
y Equipment are designed to be flexible or programmable.

(d) High production volume and large varieties of parts
y Used for batch production.

Wh t i FMS?
What is an FMS? FMS Components FMS G l
FMS Goals
y A fflexible manufacturing
f g system
y ((FMS)) is a y Reduction in manufacturing cost by lowering direct
y Most FMS systems comprise of three main
manufacturing system in which there is some labor cost and minimizing scrap, re‐work, and material
systems
amount of flexibilityy that allows the system
y to wastage.
y Work
W k machines
hi (t i ll automated
(typically t t d CNC
react in the case of changes. y Less skilled labor required.
machines) that perform a series of operations;
y Two categories of flexibility y Reduction in work
work‐in‐process
in process inventory by eliminating
y An integrated material transport system and a
y Machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be the need for batch processing.
computer that controls the flow of materials,
changed to produce new product types,
types and ability to tools, and information (e.g. machining data y Reduction in production lead time permitting
change the order of operations executed on a part. manufacturers to respond more quickly to the variability
and machine malfunctions) throughout the
y Routing flexibility,
flexibility which consists of the ability to of market demand.
demand
system;
use multiple machines to perform the same operation y Better process control resulting in consistent quality.
on a part, as well as the system
system'ss ability to absorb y Auxiliaryy work stations for loading g and
large‐scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or unloading, cleaning, inspection, etc.
capability.
f
Advantages of FMS Di d t f FMS
Disadvantages of FMS IES 1996
IES ‐
y Faster,, lower‐ cost changes
g from one p
part to another y Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?
which will improve capital utilization mix (e.g., machines are of limited capacity and the 1. CNC machine…… Post processor
y Lower direct labor cost,, due to the reduction in number tooling necessary for products, even of the same family,
of workers 2. Machining centre….Tool magazine
M hi i t T l i
is not always feasible in a given FMS)
y Reduced inventory, y, due to the p planningg and 3. DNC…………. FMS
y Substantial pre‐planning
pre planning activity
programming precision (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
y Expensive, costing millions of dollars
y Consistent and better q quality,
y, due to the automated (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
control y Technological problems of exact component positioning
y Lower cost/unit
/ of output,
p , due to the g greater and precise timing necessary to process a component
productivity using the same number of workers y Sophisticated manufacturing systems
y Savings
g from the indirect labor,, from reduced errors,,
rework, repairs and rejects
IES 2006
IES ‐ 2006 IES 2004
IES ‐ IES 2012
IES ‐
Flexible manufacturing allows for: Consider the following characteristics: Rank order clustering as applied to manufacturing
(a) Tool design and production 1. Single machine tool automation is
(b) Automated
A t t d design
d i 2. Manual
M l materials
t i l handling
h dli system
t (a) A technique of identifying process sequence in
(c) Quick and inexpensive product change 3. Computer control production of a component
(d) Quality control 4. Random sequencing of parts to machines (b) A j t i ti (JIT) th d
(b) A just in time (JIT) method
Which of the above characteristics are associated with (c) An approach of grouping the machines into cells in
flexible manufacturing system? an FMS system
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 ( )
(d) A tool to generate bill of materials
g
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Reference Book N df U ti lP
Need for Unconventional Processes
y CAD/CAM: Computer‐Aided Design and IFS ‐2011 y New materials having high strength and hardness,
hardness such as
Manufacturing By Groover
Prepare a flow diagram for writing the computer nimonic alloys and alloys with alloying elements such as
y CNC Machines By B. S. Pabla, M. Adithan
By B S Pabla M Adithan
programme in FORTRAN for Pulse MIG welding tungsten, molybdenum, and columbium are difficult to
y Machine tool design and numerical control ‐ By
Mehta machine by the traditional methods.
methods
process.
y Computer Control Of Manu. Systems By Koren y By conventional machining the MRR reduces with an
[
[10‐marks]
k ]
increase in the work material hardness.
y Need
N d f
for d l
development
t off non‐traditional
t diti l machining
hi i
processes which utilize other methods such as
electrochemical processes for the material removal.
N df U ti lP
Need for Unconventional Processes I U ti l M hi i
In Unconventional Machining Cl ifi ti f NTMM
Classification of NTMM
y Complex
C l shapes.
h y Different forms of energy directly applied to the The Non traditional Machining Methods are classified
Non‐traditional
workpiece to have shape transformation or material according to the major energy sources employed in
y A very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of removal from work surface. machining.
the surface to be machined. y No chips, No lay pattern on work surface, no direct 1. Thermal Energy Methods
physical contact between the tool and the workpiece .
y The tool material does not have to be harder than the 2. Electro ‐ Chemical Energy Method
work
k material.
t i l
3. Chemical Energy Methods
y Tool forces do not increase as the work material gets
harder. 4. Mechanical Energy Methods
y Economic metal removal rate does not decrease as the
work material gets harder.
1 Th lE M th d
1. Thermal Energy Methods 2 El
2. Electro ‐ Ch i l E M h d
Chemical Energy Method 3 Chemical Energy Methods
3. Ch i l E M th d
y Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
El t i l di h hi i (EDM) These methods involve controlled etching of the
y Electro‐Chemical Machining (ECM)
El Ch i l M hi i (ECM)
workpiece material in contact with a chemical solution.
y Laser beam Machining (LBM)
y Electro‐Chemical grinding (ECG)
El t Ch i l i di (ECG)
y Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
g y Chemical Machining Method (CHM).
y Electro‐Chemical Honing (ECH)
El t Ch i l H i (ECH)
y Electron Beam Machining(EBM)
y Electro‐Chemical Deburring
Electro Chemical Deburring (ECD)
y Ion Beam Machining (IBM)

4 Mechanical Energy Methods
4. M h i lE M th d GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 S Ob ti
Some Observations
The process utilizing mainly thermal energy for y EDM has the lowest specific
p p q
power requirement and can
y Ultra Sonic Machining (USM)
Ult S i M hi i (USM)
achieve sufficient accuracy.
y Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) removing material is y ECM has the highest
g metal removal rate,, MRR.
(a) Ultrasonic Machining y USM and AJM have low MRR and combined with high
y Water Jet Machining (WJM)
g tool wear,, are used for non‐metal cutting.
g
(b) Electrochemical Machining y LBM and EBM have high penetration rates with low
MRR and,, therefore,, are commonlyy used for micro
(c) Abrasive Jet Machining drilling, sheet cutting, and welding.
y CHM is used for manufacturing g PCB and other shallow
(d) Laser
L B
Beam M hi i
Machining components.
y PAM can be used for clean,, rapid p cuts and p profiles in
almost all plates upto 20 cm thick with 5o to 10o taper.
Sh C tti C bilit
Shapes Cutting Capability GATE‐2014 Li it ti f NTMM
Limitations of NTMM
The various NTMM have some special shape cutting The
Th following
f ll i four
f unconventional
ti l machining
hi i processes y Expensive
E i sett up, low
l MRR and
d skilled
kill d labour
l b required.
i d
capability as given below:
are available in a shop
p floor. The most appropriate
pp p one to y The limitation of electrical machining methods is that
1. Micro‐machining and Drilling : LBM and EBM
drill a hole of square cross section of 6 mm × 6 mm and the work material must be an electrical conductor. Also,
2 Cavity sinking and standard Hole Drilling: EDM and
2.
25 mm deep is consumption of electrical energy is very large.
USM
( ) Abrasive
(a) b Jet Machining
h y The NTMM which have not been proved commercially
3. Fine hole drilling and Contour Machining: ECM
(b) Plasma Arc Machining economical are: USM,
USM AJM,
AJM CHM,
CHM EBM and PAM.
PAM
4. Clean, rapid Cuts and Profiles: PAM
((c)) Laser
ase Beam
ea Machining
ac g
5. Shallow Pocketing: AJM
(d) Electro Discharge Machining
IES 2012
IES ‐ GATE 2006
GATE ‐ IES 2007
IES ‐
Which of the following processes has very high material Arrangeg the p g order of
processes in the increasing Consider the following statements in relation to the
removal rate efficiency? their maximum material removal rate. unconventional machining processes:
(a) Electron beam machining Electrochemical Machiningg ((ECM)) 1 Different forms of energy directly applied to the
1.
(b) Electrochemical machining Ultrasonic Machining (USM) piece to have shape transformation or material removal
Electron Beam Machining (EBM) from work surface.
surface
(c) Electro discharge machining
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) and 2. Relative motion between the work and the tool is
( )
(d) Plasma arc machining g
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) essential.
ti l
(a) USM, LBM, EBM, EDM, ECM 3. Cutting tool is not in physical contact with work
(b) EBM,
EBM LBM,
LBM USM,
USM ECM,
ECM EDM piece.
(c) LBM, EBM, USM, ECM, EDM (a) 1 and 2 onlyy (b) 1, 2 and 3 onlyy
(d) LBM, EBM, USM, EDM, ECM (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
IES 2009
IES ‐ 2009 IAS 2002
IAS ‐
Which one of the following statements is correct in (
Match List I (Processes) ) with List II (Tolerances
(
respect of unconventional machining processes? obtained) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the Lists:
(a) The cutting tool is in direct contact with the job List I List II
(b) The tool material needs to be harder than the job
material
t i l
(c) The tool is never in contact with the job
(Processes)
A. Plasma Arc machining 1.
B. Laser Beam machining 2.
(Tolerances obtained)
7∙5 microns
25 microns
ECM
(d) There has to be a relative motion between the tool C. Abrasive Jet machining 3. 50 microns
and the job
j D. Ultrasonic machining 4. 125 microns
Codes:A B C D A B C D B S K M d l
By S K Mondal
(a) 4 1 3 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 3 1 4 2
El t h i l M hi i
Electrochemical Machining El t h i l M hi i
Electrochemical Machining
y Electrochemical machining is the reverse of electro y Variation in the current density will result in work
plating taking the electrodes shape.
y The work‐piece
work piece is made the anode,
anode which is placed in y The electrode is fed with a constant velocity,
velocity and the
close proximity to an electrode (cathode), and a high‐ electrolyte is fed through the tool.
amperage direct current is passed between them through
an electrolyte, such as salt water, flowing in the anode‐
cathode gap.
gap
y Metal is removed by anodic dissolution and is carried
away in
i the
th form
f off a hydroxide
h d id in i the
th electrolyte
l t l t for
f
recycling or recovery.
y MRR in ECM depends on atomic weight of work material
Fig- Electrochemical Machining process
ECM E i t
ECM Equipment ECM E i t
ECM Equipment ECM E i t
ECM Equipment
y Supply Voltage 2 to 35 V DC and Current 500 to 40,000 A y The electrolyte consists of the metal debris removed
y The tool‐to‐work gap needs to be maintained at a very from the anode, which will have to be filtered before it is
small value 0.1
0 1 to 0.25
0 25 mm.
mm A servo drive is provided on re‐pumped
re pumped into the system.
the tool axis for this purpose. y Also a large amount of heat is generated during the
y The
Th electrolyte
l t l t needs d to
t be
b pumped d through
th h this
thi gap att electrolysis which heats up the electrolyte,
electrolysis, electrolyte and hence it
high pressures ranging from 0.70 to 3.00 MPa. This needs to be cooled.
i t d
introduces a large
l amountt off load
l d on theth machine,
hi
because of the large working areas involved. Hence the
machine
hi structure
t t will
ill have
h t be
to b made d rigid
i id to
t a
withstand such forces.

El t l t
Electrolyte Tool
y is so chosen that the anode (workpiece)
The electrolyte ( p ) The p p
properties of tool materials should be:
is dissolved but no deposition takes place on the cathode
1. High electrical and thermal comductivity
(tool).
Properties electrolyte should be 2. Easy machinability
1. High g electrical conductivityy 3. Good shiffness
2. Low viscosity 4. High corrosion resistance
For ECM of steel NaCl is used as the electrolyte.
3 High specific heat
3.
y Tool materials: Copper, brass, bronze, Al, Stainless
4. Chemical stability
5 Resistance to formation of passivating film on
5. Steel Cupro nickel,
Steel, nickel etc.
etc
workpiece surface y Material wear / Tool wear: Infinite
6 Non‐corrosive
6. Non corrosive and non‐toxic
non toxic
7. Inexpensive and readily available
d
Advantages i d
Disadvantages A li ti
Applications
1. Use of corrosive media as electrolytesy makes it difficult to y Any electrically conductive work material irrespective
1 Complex three‐dimensional
1. three dimensional surfaces can be machined of their hardness, strength or even thermal properties.
handle.
accurately. Good for low machinability or complicated y The machining surface can be situated at any
2. Sharp interior edges and corners (< 0.2 mm radius) are
shapes.
shapes difficult to produce. i
inaccessible.
ibl
2. As ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface 3. Very expensive machine. y Shape application – blind complex cavities, curved
fi i h is
finish i excellent
ll t (Ra 0.2 to
t 0.66 μm)) with
ith almost
l t stress
t 4. Forces are large with this method because of fluid pumping surfaces, through cutting,
surfaces cutting large through cavities.
cavities
free machined surface and without any thermal forces. y It is used for the machining of the gas turbine blades.
damage. 5. V
Very hi h specific
high ifi energy consumption i ( b
(about 150 times
i y Die sinking
3. The tool wear is practically nil which results in a large that required for conventional processes), y Profiling and contouring
number of components produced per tool. 6
6. Not applicable with ith electrically
electricall non‐conducting
non conducting materials y T
Trepanningi
and jobs with very small dimensions y Grinding
4. MRR is highest
g (1600 mm3/min) among g NTMM and 7
7. Lower fatigue strength y D illi
Drilling
comparable with conventional machining.
y Micro‐machining
ISRO‐2009 PSU
ECM cannot be undertaken for
ECM t b d t k f
PSU
The machining process in which the work picce is
(a) steel Commercial ECM is carried out at a combination
di l d into
dissolved i t an electrolyte
l t l t solution
l ti is
i called
ll d off
(b) Nickel based superalloy
(a) low voltage high current
(a) Electro
Electro‐chemical
chemical machining (c) Al2O3
(b) low current low voltage
(d) Titanium alloy
(b) Ultrasonic machining
g ((c)) high
g current high
g voltage
g
(c) Electro‐discharge machining (d) low current low voltage
(d) Laser machining

ECM C l l ti
ECM Calculations ECM C l l ti
ECM Calculations
IAS‐2011 Main y laws state that,,
Faraday’s
EI AI
What is the principle of electro‐chemical It E yMRR = g/s = g/s
machining
hi i (ECM)? m = F F V
F.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of F If you put E = equivalent weight in CGS i.e. g/mole
If you put E = equivalent weight in CGS i e g/mole
ECM over conventionall drilling?
d ll Where m = weight (g) of a material
Comment on the surface finish and the accuracy of I = current (A) I in Ampere (A)
the ECM. t = time (sec) F = 96500 columb/mole i. e. As/mole
l b l l
[
[20‐Marks]] E = gram equivalent weight of the
gram equivalent weight of the The MRR will be in g/s
material
F co sta t o p opo t o a ty
= constant of proportionality –
Faraday (96,500 coulombs)
ECM C l l ti
ECM Calculations ECM C l l ti
ECM Calculations GATE 2014
GATE‐2014
y MRR for pure metal The p p
principle of material removal in Electro‐
AI ⎛ cm3 ⎞ EI ⎛ cm3 ⎞ chemical machining is

‐3
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
ρvF ⎝ sec ⎠ ρF ⎝ sec ⎠ (a) Fick’s law
y MRR for Alloy (b) Faraday’s laws

Eeq I ⎛ cm ⎞ 3
( ) Ki hh ff’ l
(c) Kirchhoff’s laws
⎜ ⎟
ρeq F ⎝ sec ⎠ (d) Ohm s law
(d) Ohm’s law
100 ⎛x ⎞ 100 ⎛x v ⎞
= ∑⎜ i ⎟ and = ∑⎜ i i ⎟
ρeq i ⎝ ρi ⎠ Eeq i ⎝ Ai ⎠
E l
Example GATE‐2008 (PI) GATE 2011 (PI)
GATE – 2011 (PI)
U i ECM 3/min from an iron workpiece,
Using ECM remove 5 cm / i f i k i In an electro chemical machining (ECM) operation,
operation a While removing material from iron (atomic weight = 56,
valency = 2 and density = 7.8 g/cc) by electrochemical
what current is required?
q square hole of dimensions 5 mm x 5 mm is drilled in a
machining, a metal removal rate of 2 cc/min is desired.
block of copper. The current used is 5000 A. Atomic The current (in A) required for achieving this material
Atomic weight of iron 56, density 7.8 g/cm3 valency, 2 weight
g of cupper
pp is 633 and valencyy of dissolution is 1. removal rate is
Faraday’s constant is 96500 coulomb. The material (a) 896.07 (b) 14.93
removal rate (in g/s) is ( ) 448.03
(c) 8 (d) 53764.29
6
(a) 0.326 (b) 3.260 (c) 3.15 x 103 (d) 3.15 x 105

E l
Example E l (GATE 2009)
Example (GATE‐2009) GATE 2013
GATE‐2013
Calculate the material removal rate and the Electrochemical machining is performed to remove During the electrochemical machining (ECM) of
electrode feed rate in the electrochemical material from an iron surface of 20 mm x 20 mm under iron (atomic weight = 56, valency = 2) at current of
machining of an iron surface that is 25 mm × 25 mm the following conditions: 1000 A with 90% current efficiency, the material
in cross‐section using NaCl in water as electrolyte. Inter electrode gap = 0.2 mm removal rate was observed to be 0.26 gm/s. If
The gap between the tool and the workpiece is 0.25 S
Supply Voltage (DC)
l V lt (DC) = 12 V
V Titanium (atomic weight = 48, valency = 3) is
mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific machined by the ECM process at the current of 2000
Specific resistance of electrolyte Ω
= 2 cm
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 Ω c m A with 90% current efficiency, the expected material
For iron, Valency, Z = 2 Atomic weight of Iron = 55.85 removal rate in gm/s will be
At
Atomici weight,
i ht A = 55.85
8 Valency of Iron = 2 (a) 0.1
0 1 1 (b) 0.23
0 23 (c) 0.30
0 30 (d) 0.52
0 52
Density, = 7860 kg / m3 Faraday's constant = 96540 Coulombs
Th t i l
The material removal rate (in g/s) is
l t (i / ) i
E l
Example GATE 2008
GATE ‐ Fl l i
Flow analysis
p
Composition p
of a Nickel super‐alloyy is as follows: y To calculate the fluid flow required, match the heat
A researcher
h conducts
d t electrochemical
l t h i l machining
hi i
Ni = 70.0%, Cr = 20.0%, Fe = 5.0% and rest Titanium generated to the heat absorbed by the electrolyte.
Calculate rate of dissolution if the area of the tool is 1500 ((ECM)) on a binary
y alloy
y ((density g/ 3) of iron
y 6000 kg/m
mm2 and a current of 1000 A is being passed through the (atomic weight 56, valency 2) and metal P (atomic
cell Assume dissolution to take place at lowest valancy
cell.
of the elements. weight 24, valency 4). Faraday's constant = 96500
coulomb/mole.
l b/ l Volumetric
V l t i material
t i l removall rate
t off
y is 550 mm3/s at a current of 2000 A. The
the alloy y Neglecting all the heat losses
percentage of the metal P in the alloy is closest to
l2R = q ρe ce (θB − θo )
(a) 40 (b) 25 (c) 15 (d) 79
E l
Example Dynamics of Electrochemical Machining
The electrochemical machining of an iron surface that is g
Overvoltage
25 mm × 25 mm in cross‐section using NaCl in water as y If the total over voltage at the anode and the cathode is
electrolyte. The gap between the tool and the workpiece ΔV and the applied voltage is V,
V the current I is given
is 0.25 mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific by,
V − ΔV
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 Ωcm. I=
R
Estimate the electrolyte flow rate. Specific heat of the
electrolyte is given as 0.997
0 997 cal/g
cal/g˚C
C. The ambient
temperature is 35˚C and the electrolyte boiling
temperature is 95
temperature, 95˚C
C.
Density, = 7860 kg/m3 y Schematic representation of the ECM process with no
feed to the tool
E l
Example GATE 2007 (PI)
GATE – 2007 (PI) GATE – 2012 (PI) Linked S‐1
In
I ECM operation
ti off pure iron
i an equilibrium
ilib i gap off 2 Which one of the following process conditions In an EDM process using RC relaxation circuit,
circuit a 12 mm
leads to higher MRR in ECM process? diameter through hole is made in a steel plate of 50 mm
mm is to be kept.
p Determine supply
pp y voltage,
g , if the total thickness using a graphite tool and kerosene as
( ) higher
(a) hi h current,t larger
l atomic
t i weight
i ht
overvoltage is 2.5 V. The resistivity of the electrolyte is 50 dielectric. Assume discharge time to be negligible.
((b)) higher
g valency,
y, lower current Machining is carried out under the following conditions:
Ω‐mm and the set feed rate is 0.25 mm/min. (c) lower atomic weight, lower valency Resistance 40 Ω
(d) higher
hi h valency,
l l
lower atomic
i weight
i h Capacitance 20 μF
Supply
pp y voltage
g 220 V
Discharge voltage 110 V
The time for one cycle,
cycle in milliseconds,
milliseconds is
(a) 0.55 (b) 0.32 (c) 0.89 (d) 0.24
GATE – 2012 (PI) Linked S‐2 l h i l G i di ( CG)

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
In an EDM process using RC relaxation circuit,
circuit a 12 mm y In ECG,, the tool electrode is a rotating,
g, metal bonded,,
diamond grit grinding wheel.
diameter through hole is made in a steel plate of 50 mm
y As the electric current flows between the workpiece and the
thickness using a graphite tool and kerosene as wheel, through the electrolyte, the surface metal is changed
dielectric. Assume discharge time to be negligible. to a metal oxide, which is ground away by the abrasives. As
Machining is carried out under the following conditions: the oxide film is removed,
removed new surface metal is oxidized and
Resistance 40 Ω removed.
y ECG is a low
low‐voltage
voltage high
high‐current
current electrical process.
process
Capacitance 20 μF
y The purpose of the abrasive is to increase the efficiency of the
Supply
pp y voltage
g 220 V ECG pprocess and ppermit the continuance of the pprocess.
Discharge voltage 110 V y The abrasive particles are always nonconductive material
such as aluminum oxide, diamond, or borazon (CBN). Thus
Average power input (in kW) is
they act as an insulating spacer maintaining a separation of Equipment setup and electrical circuit for electrochemical grinding.
(a) 0.373 (b) 0.137 (c) 0.218 (d) 0.500 from 0.012 to 0.050 mm between the electrodes.
El t h i l G i di (ECG)
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) IES 2000
IES ‐
y The p p g and sharpening
process is used for shaping p g C
Consider the following g statements: p
Other Electrochemical processes
carbide cutting tools, which cause high wear rates on In electrochemical grinding,
expensive diamond wheels in normal grinding. y Electrochemical polishing
p g
1 A rubber bonded alumina grinding wheel acts as the
1.
Electrochemical grinding greatly reduces this wheel
cathode and the workplace as the anode.
wear. y Electrochemical hole‐drilling
g
2 A copper bonded alumina grinding wheel acts as the
2.
y Fragile parts (honeycomb structures), surgical needles,
cathode and the work piece as the anode.
and tips of assembled turbine blades have been ECG‐ y Electrochemical Deburring
g
processed d successfully.
f ll 3 Metal removal takes place due to the pressure
3.
applied by the grinding wheel.
y The lack of heat damage, burrs, and residual stresses is
very beneficial,
b f l particularly
l l when
h coupled
l d withh MRRs
4 Metal removal takes place due to electrolysis.
4. electrolysis
that are competitive with conventional grinding but Which of these statements are correct?
with
ith far
f less
l wheel
h l wear. (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) (c) 2 and 3 (d) Page 156 of 240
1 and3 Rev.0
GATE 2001
GATE ‐ GATE 1997
GATE ‐ GATE 1992
GATE ‐
In ECM, the material removal is due to Selection electrolyte for ECM is as follows: The two main criteria for selecting the electrolyte in
(a) Corrosion (a) Non‐passivating electrolyte for stock removal and Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is that the
(b) Erosion
E i passivating electrolyte for finish control electrolyte should
(c) Fusion (b) Passivating electrolyte for stock removal and non‐ (a) Be chemically stable
(d) Ion displacement passivating
i ti electrolyte
l t l t for
f finish
fi i h control
t l (b) Not
N t allow
ll dissolution
di l ti off cathode
th d material
t i l
(c) Selection of electrolyte is dependent on current (c) Not allow dissolution of anode material
density (d) Have high electrical conductivity
((d)) Electrolyte
y selection is based on tool‐ work
electrodes
GATE 1997
GATE ‐ IES 2002
IES ‐ IES 1997
IES ‐
Inter electrode gap in ECG is controlled by Assertion (A): In ECM, the shape of the cavity is the Which one of the following processes does not
(a) Controlling the pressure of electrolyte flow mirror image of the tool, but unlike EDM, the tool cause tool wear?
(b) Controlling
C t lli the th applied
li d static
t ti load
l d wear in ECM is less. (a) Ultrasonic machining
(c) Controlling the size of diamond particle in the wheel Reason (R): The tool in ECM is a cathode. (b) Electrochemical machining
(d) Controlling the texture of the work piece ( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th (c) Electric discharge machining
correct explanation of A ((d)) Anode mechanical machiningg
Ph i l P i i l
Physical Principle Ph i l P i i l
Physical Principle
y Basic process y An arc jumps between two points along the path of least
resistance.

Ph i l P i i l
Physical Principle
y The energy of the arc is so concentrated that it causes the y The metal and dielectric fluid is partly vaporized, y The blast from the expanding vapors knocks some
electrode, and the work to melt. But the electrode causing sudden expansion. molten particles loose, and the remaining molten metal
material is chosen so that it melts less. hardens.
Ch t i ti f EDM
Characteristics of EDM Ch t i ti f EDM
Characteristics of EDM EDM T l
EDM Tool
y Mechanics of material removal ‐ melting and y Uses Voltage of 60 to 300 V to give a transient arc lasting Prime requirements EDM tool Material
evaporation aided by cavitation. from 0.1 μ s to 8 ms. 1. It should be electrically conductive.
y The process is based on melting temperature,
temperature not y Typical cycle time is 20 ms or less,less up to millions of 2. It should
h ld have
h goodd machinability,
hi bilit thus
th allowing
ll i
hardness, so some very hard materials can be machined cycles may be required for completion of the part. easy manufacture of complex shapes.
this way.
way y Rotating
R t ti theth wire
i in
i an orbital
bit l direction
di ti will,
ill 3. It should have low erosion rate or good work to tool
y The arc that jumps heats the metal, and about 1 to 10% of ‐ Increase accuracy in form and surface finish wear ratio.
th molten
the lt metal
t l goes into
i t the
th fluid.
fl id The
Th melted
lt d metal
t l ‐ Decrease electrode wear 4. It should have low electrical resistance.
then recast layer is about 1 to 30 μm thick, and is
y Surface finish obtained 0.25
0 25 μm 5. It should have high melting point.
generally
ll hard
h d andd rough.
h
6. It should have high electron emission.
y The electrode workpiece gap is in the range of 10 μm to
100 μm.
EDM Tool W R ti
Wear Ratio S M h i
Servo‐Mechanism
The usual choices for tool (electrode) materials are y One major drawback of EDM is the wear that occurs on y The
Th gap between
b t the
th tool
t l and
d work
k has
h a critical
iti l
y Copper, the electrode at each spark. Tool wear is given in terms of
wear ratio which is defined as, importance.
p As the workpiece
p is machined,, this g
gap
p
y brass,
b
y alloys of zinc and tin, tends to increase. For optimum machining efficiency,
Volume of metal removed work
W
Wear ratio
ti =
y hardened plain carbon steel, Volume of metal removed tool this gap should be maintained constant. This is done by
y copper tungsten, servo‐ mechanism
h i which
hi h controls
t l the
th movementt off the
th
y Wear ratio for brass electrode is 1: 1. For most other
y silver tungsten,
metallic electrodes, it is about 33: 1 or 4
4: 1. electrode.
y tungsten carbide,
t t bid
y With graphite (with the highest melting point, 3500°C),
y copper graphite, and graphite.
the wear ratio may range from 5: 1 up to 50: 1.
Di l t i Fl id
Dielectric Fluid S 20 C i l
IES 2011 Conventional R l ti i it
Relaxation circuit
y Fluid is used to act as a dielectric,, and to help
p carryy awayy
Discuss
Di the
th effects
ff t off insufficient
i ffi i t dielectric
di l t i and
d
debris.
y If the fluid is p
pumpedp through g and out the end of the electrolyte
y circulation in the inter‐electrode g
gap
p on the
electrode, particles will push out, and mainly collect at
the edges. They will lower the dielectric resistance, Electric Discharge machining and Electro Chemical
Fig Relaxation circuit used for generating the pulses in EDM process
Fig-Relaxation
resulting in more arcs. As a result the holes will be Machining process respectively. [5 Marks]
conical.
y If fluid is vacuum pumped into the electrode tip, straight
holes will result.
y Quite often kerosene‐based oil.
y The dielectric fluid is circulated through the tool at a
pressure of 0.35 N/m2 or less. To free it from eroded
metal particles, it is circulated through a filter.
Ad t
Advantages Disadvantages A li ti
Applications
1. Hardness,, toughness
g or brittleness of the material p
poses no 1. O
Onlyy electricallyy conductive materials can be machined
problems. Due to this EDM can be used for machining y EDM can be
b used
d for
f machining
hi i any material
t i l that
th t is
i
by EDM. Thus non ‐ metallic, such as plastics, ceramics
materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by or glass, cannot be machined by EDM. electricallyy conductive,, thus including
g metals,, alloys
y and
conventional
ti l methods.
th d
2. Electrode wear and over‐cut are serious problems.
2. The method does not leave any chips or burrs on the work most carbides.
piece.
piece 33. A re‐hardened,, highly
g y stressed zone is p
produced on the
work surface by the heat generated during machining. y EDM is widely used for machining burr free intricate
3. Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine
work can be done.
done This brittle layer can cause serious problems when the
part is put into service. shapes,
h narrow slots
l and
d blind
bl d cavities etc., for
f example,
l
4. The process dimension repeatability and surface finish
obtained in finishing g are extremelyy g
good. 4. Perfectly square corners cannot be made by EDM. sinking of dies for moulding,
moulding die casting,
casting plastic
5. The characteristic surface obtained, which is made up of 5. High specific energy consumption (about 50 times that
p in better oil retention. This improves
craters, helps p die life. in conventional machining) moulding, wire drawing, compacting, cold heading,
6. Because the forces between the tool and the workpiece and 6. MRR is quite low forging, extrusion and press tools.
virtually zero, very delicate work can be done.
A li ti
Applications A li ti
Applications
y EDM is
i particularly
ti l l useful
f l when
h dealing
d li with
ith internal
i t l y The method is also employed for blanking parts from sheets,
sheets IES 2009 Conventional
cutting off rods of materials, flat or form grinding and i. What is the principle of metal removal in EDM
cuts that are hard to g
get tools into. Machining
g tends to
process??
sharpening of tools, cutters and broaches.
work best with external cuts. ii. Describe the process with the help of sketch.
y In EDM method,
method small holes,
holes about 0.13
0 13 mm,
mm in
y Almost any geometry (negative of tool geometry) can be iii. List advantages and limitations of the system.
diameter and as deep as 20mm diameters can be drilled [ 5
[ 15 marks]
]
generated
d on a workpiece
k iff a suitable
bl tooll can be
b with virtually no bending or drifting of hole. Due to this,
fabricated (the use of punch as a tool to machine its own EDM is particularly useful for machining of small holes,
holes
mating die is commonly employed in EDM method). orifices or slots in diesel‐fuel injection nozzles, or in aircraft
engines, air brake valves and so on.
GATE 1994
GATE ‐ Wi EDM
Wire EDM
Electric discharge machining is more efficient y Wire EDM is a special form of EDM wherein the
process than Electrochemical machining for
producing large non
non‐circular
circular holes. electrode is a continuously moving conductive wire.
The above statement is y A thin wire of brass, tungsten, or copper is used as an
( ) True
(a) T
electrode.
(b) False
(c) Cant say y The electrode wire is typically made with a 0.05 to 0.25‐
(d) Insufficient data mm diameter,
diameter which is wire electrode wound between
the two spools.
y Deionized water is used as the dielectric.
Wi EDM
Wire EDM GATE 2014 (PI)
GATE‐2014 (PI)
Find the correct combination of manufacturing processes to
y This
Thi process is
i much
h faster
f t than
th electrode
l t d EDM.
EDM produce
d the
th part,
t shown
h in
i figure,
fi from
f a blank
bl k (holes
(h l shown
h
are with square and circular cross‐sections)
y This process is widely used for the manufacture of
punches, dies, and stripper plates, with modern
machines capable of cutting die relief, intricate
openings, tight
h radius
d contours, and
d corners routinely.
l (a) Drilling and milling on column and knee type universal
y Geometrically accurate but moderately finished straight
milling
g machine
toothed metallic spur gears,
gears both external and internal
(b) Die‐sinking and CNC Wire‐cut EDM process
type, can be produced by wire type Electro discharge
Machining (EDM).
(EDM) (c) Die
Die‐sinking
sinking and CNC drilling
(d) CNC Wire‐cut EDM process only
El t i Di h G i di (EDG)
Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG) El t i Di h G i di (EDG)
Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)
y EDG is similar to EDM except that the electrode is a y The spark gap is normally held at 0.013
0 013 to 0.076
0 076 mm
rotating wheel (usually graphite). y The graphite wheel is rotated at 0.5 to 3 m/s
y Positively charged work pieces are immersed in or The method
Th th d can be
b used d for
f
flooded by a dielectric fluid and fed past the negatively 1. External cylindrical grinding, internal grinding and
charged wheel by servo‐controlled
servo controlled machine table.
table surface grinding.
y Metal is removed by intermittent high frequency
2. Grinding g carbide and steel at the same time without
electrical
l t i l discharges
di h passing
i th
through
h the
th gap between
b t wheel loading.
wheel and workpiece.
3. Grinding thin sections where abrasive wheel pressures
y Each spark discharge melts or vaporizes a small amount
might cause distortion.
of metal from the workpiece surface, producing a small
4 Grinding brittle materials or fragile parts where
4.
crate at the discharge sit, as in EDM.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 160Grinding
Fig- Electric Discharge of 240 (EDG) Rev.0
abrasive materials might cause fracturing.
IES 2012
IES ‐ GATE 2004
GATE ‐ GATE 2003
GATE ‐
Statement (I): In Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) The mechanism of material removal in EDM As tool and work are not in contact in EDM process
process, tool is made cathode and work piece anode process is (a) No relative motion occurs between them
Statement (II): In this process if both electrodes are made of (a) Melting and Evaporation (b) No
N wear off tool
t l occurs
same material, greatest erosion takes place upon anode
(b) Melting and Corrosion (c) No power is consumed during metal cutting
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of (c) Erosion and Cavitation (d) No force between tool and work occurs
Statement (I)
() ((d)) Cavitation and Evaporation
p
true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
p of
Statement (I)
GATE 1999
GATE ‐ G 20 0 ( )
GATE‐2010 (PI) GATE 2007
GATE ‐
In Electro Discharge Machining (EDM), the tool is
Electro‐Discharge Keeping all other parameters unchanged,
unchanged the tool In electro discharge machining (EDM), if the
made of thermal conductivity of tool is high and the specific
wear in electrical discharge machining (EDM) would heat of work piece is low, then the tool wear rate
(a) Copper (b) High Speed Steel
(c) Cast Iron (d) Plain Carbon Steel be less if the tool material has and material removal rate are expected to be
respectively
(a) high thermal conductivity and high specific heat (a) High and high (b) Low and low
( ) high thermal conductivity and low specific heat
(b) ( ) High
(c) Hi h and
d low
l (d) Low
L and d high
hi h
(c) low thermal conductivity and low specific heat
(d) low thermal conductivity and high specific heat
GATE 2005
GATE ‐ IES 2005
IES ‐ GATE 2000
GATE‐
A zigzag cavity in a block of Which of the following is/are used as low wearing Deep hole drilling of small diameter, say 0.2 mm is
high strength alloy is to be tool material(s) in electric discharge machining? done with EDM by selecting the tool material as
finish machined. This can be (a) Copper and brass (a) Copper wire (b) Tungsten wire
carried out by using (b) Aluminium and graphite (c) Brass wire (d) Tungsten carbide
(a) Electric discharge machining (c) Silver tungsten and copper tungsten
(b) Electro‐chemical machining ((d)) Cast iron
(c) Laser beam machining
((d)) Abrasive flow machining
g

Ult i M hi i
Ultrasonic Machining
GATE – 2009 (PI) Ultrasonic Machining
A titanium sheet of 5.0 mm thickness is cut by wire
– cut EDM process using a wire of 1.0
1 0 mm diameter.
diameter
A uniform spark gap of 0.5 mm on both sides of the
wire is maintained during cutting operation. If the
feed rate of the wire into the sheet is 20 mm/min,
the material removal rate (in mm3/min) will be
((a)) 150
5 ((b)) 200 ((c)) 3300 ((d)) 4
400 By S K Mondal
Ult i M hi i
Ultrasonic Machining Ult i M hi i
Ultrasonic Machining Ult i M hi i
Ultrasonic Machining
y In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an y USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials y At full indentation, the indentation depth in the work
ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of {which are poor conductors of electricity and thus material is characterized by δw. Due to the indentation,
around 155 – 550 μ
μm over the workpiece.
p cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro
Electro‐ as the work material is brittle, brittle fracture takes place
y Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F. discharge machining (ECM and EDM)}. leading to hemi‐spherical fracture of diameter ‘2x’ under
Between the tool and workpiece, p , the machining g zone is the contact zone.
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of
y If at any moment of time, there are an average ‘n’ of grits
water based slurry.
and the tool is vibrating at a frequency ‘f’ f then material
y As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles
removal rate can be expressed as
act as the indenters and indent both the work material and
the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work 2
material, would remove the same, particularly if the work y MRRw = π (δ w db )3/2 nf
material is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation and 3
brittle fracture of the material.
P P t
Process Parameters Effect of machining parameters on MRR Ult i M hi
Ultrasonic Machine
Feed force (F)
Amplitude of vibration (ao)
average grit diameter, dg
Frequency of vibration (f)
Volume concentration of abrasive
in water slurry – C
Ult i M hi
Ultrasonic Machine Ult i M hi
Ultrasonic Machine Subsystems of USM
Subsystems of USM
y The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar y Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on
to a drill press. the tool during machining
y It has additional features to carry out USM of brittle y The transducer,
transducer which generates the ultrasonic vibration B
work material. y The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies
y The
Th workpiece
k i i mounted
is t d on a vice,
i which
hi h can be
b the vibration
th ib ti to t the
th required
i d amplitude
lit d off 15 – 50 μm and
d
located at the desired position under the tool using a 2 accommodates the tool at its tip. A C
axis
i table.
t bl
y The table can further be lowered or raised to
accommodate work of different thickness.
y Slurryy deliveryy and return system
y D
E
T d
Transducer GATE ‐2010 (PI) T l h ld H
Tool holder or Horn
y The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the y Its
It function
f ti is
i to
t increase
i the
th tool
t l vibration
ib ti amplitude
lit d
Ultrasonic
l i machines,
hi used
d in
i material
i l removall processes,
transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable signal
generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer q
require ultrasonic transducers. The transducers works on and to match the vibrator to the acoustic load.
for USM works on the following principle different working principles. One of the working principles y It must be constructed of a material with good acoustic
¾ Piezoelectric effect
of such ultrasonic transducers is based on
¾ Magnetostrictive effect
properties and be highly resistant to fatigue cracking.
(a) eddy current effect (b) Seebeck effect
¾ Electrostrictive effect y Monel and titanium have good acoustic properties and
y Magnetostrictive
g transducers are most p
popular
p and (c) p
piezo‐resistive effect (d) p
piezo‐electric effect
are often used together with stainless steel,
steel which is
robust amongst all.
cheaper.
T l
Tool Limitations A li ti
Applications
y Tools
T l should
h ld be
b constructed
t t d from
f relatively
l ti l ductile
d til y Low MRR y Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,
y Rather high tool wear semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
materials. y Used for machining round,
round square,
square irregular shaped
y Low depth of hole
L d th f h l
y The harder the tool material, the faster its wear rate will holes and surface impressions.
y Machining,
M hi i wire
i drawing,
d i punching
hi or small ll blanking
bl ki
be. dies.

Note GATE 1994
GATE ‐ IES 2011
y The following material is generally machined by USM Ultrasonic machining is about the best process for USM has good machining performance for :
(i) Glass making holes in glass which are comparable in size (a) Al
(ii) Sili
Silicon with the thickness of the sheet.
(b) Steel
(iii) Germanium The above statement is
((c)) Super
p alloys
y
y Tool in USM is generally made of Steel
( ) True
(a) T
(d) Refractory material
(b) False
(c) Cant say
(d) Insufficient data
GATE 1993
GATE ‐ GATE 1992
GATE ‐ 1992 IES 2009
IES ‐
In ultrasonic machining process, the material In Ultrasonic Machining (USM) the material By which one of the following processes the
removal rate will be higher for materials with removal rate would metering holes in injector nozzles of diesel engines
(a) Higher toughness (b) Higher ductility (a) Increase can be suitably made?
(c) Lower toughness (d) Higher fracture strain (b) Decrease (a) Ultrasonic machining
(c) Increase and then decrease (b) Abrasive
Ab i jet j t machining
hi i
((d)) decrease and then increase (c) Electron beam machining
with increasing mean grain diameter of the abrasive (d) Chemical machining
material.
IES 2006
IES ‐ IAS 1996
IAS ‐ Chemical Machining
Chemical Machining
During ultrasonic machining, the metal removal is During ultrasonic machining, the metal removal is y Chemicals
Ch i l are used
d to
t dissolve
di l material
t i l
achieved by affected by the
(a) High frequency eddy currents (a) Hammering action of abrasive particles y Masks are used to control attack
(b) high frequency sound waves (b) Rubbing action between tool and workpiece y Most common use is circuit boards and p
plates for
(c) Hammering action of abrasive particles (c) High frequency sound waves
printing.
((d)) Rubbing
g action between tool and workpiece
p ((d)) High
g frequency
q y eddyy currents
y Cutting speed of 0.0025‐0.1 mm/minute – very slow

Chemical Machining
Chemical Machining Photo Chemical Machining
Photo‐Chemical Machining Photo Chemical Machining
Photo‐Chemical Machining
y PCM is a material removal process using chemicals
(etchants) to produce high precision parts.
y This process is also known as Photo Etching,
Etching Chemical
Blanking and Photo Chemical Milling.
y Coat
C t b th sides
both id off the
th plate
l t with
ith photoresist.
h t i t
(photoresist is a polymer that adheres to the metal when
exposedd to
t UV light).
li ht)
y Spray metal with etchant or dip it in hot acidic solution
t etch
to t h allll material
t i l other
th than
th partt coveredd with
ith
photoresist (1‐15 min.).
y Rinse
Ri th plate
the l t tot ensure photoresist
h t i t and
d etchant
t h t
removal.
L B M hi i
Laser Beam Machining L B M hi i
Laser Beam Machining Laser Beam Machining
y Direct laser beam against surface of workpiece, as in
y Produces large remelt zone
laser welding
y Can produce holes as small as 0.0005 mm diameter
C d h l ll di
y Successive pulses from laser gun vaporize tiny bits of
y Can produce deep holes
workpiece
k i
y Used to produce cooling holes in blades/vanes for jet
y Location of laser beam controlled by computer
engines
y Workpiece
p need not be conductive
y Cuts are tapered
y Gotta trap overshoot from laser beam

310 311 312
l h
Electron Beam Machining Electron Beam Machining
y Workpiece placed in vacuum
acuum chamber
IFS‐2011
y High‐voltage
g g electron beam directed toward Write the advantages, limitations and applications of
workpiece electron beam machining. What is the safety problem
connected with EBM?
t d ith EBM?
y Energy of electron beam melts/ vaporizes selected
region of workpiece [5 Marks]
[5‐Marks]
y Electron beam moved by

y deflection coils
y Similar process to EB welding
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) 313

Page 165 of 240 314
Rev.0
l
Plasma Arc Cutting Water Jet Machining h
Water Jet Machining
y Plasma is a stream of ionized gas y Narrow jet of water directed, at high pressure and
j f di d hi h d
y Typical temperatures are very high velocity, against surface of workpiece
y, g p
y Same process as plasma welding, without filler metal y Jet of water erodes surface of workpiece, thereby
y Torch movement controlled by computer cutting workpiece
y Power requirements depend on material being cut,
cut y Computer control to achieve shape
C t t l t hi h
plus depth of cut
y Recast layer is deeper than with other processes
316 317 318
Abrasive Jet Machining (Dry)

Abrasive Jet Machining (Dry) GATE 2013 (PI)
GATE‐2013 (PI)
y It is similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet of Abrasive Jet Machining
g
gas and abrasive p g
particles achieves localized cutting.
y It removes material through the eroding action of a high In
I water
t jet
j t machining,
hi i the
th water
t jet
j t is
i issued
i d
velocity stream of abrasive‐laden gas. through
g a 0.33 mm diameter orifice at a p
pressure of
y The gas is first compressed and mixed with the abrasive
powder in a mixing chamber and passed through outlet 400 MPa. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The
nozzle.
l
coefficient of discharge is 1.0. Neglecting all losses
y Computer is used to position the jet.
y G Pressure
Gas P about
b t 7 atm
t d i
during water
t jet
j t formation
f ti th
through
h the
th orifice,
ifi th
the
y Velocity of jet about 300 m/s
y Jet Diameter 0.12
0 12 mm to 1.25
1 25 mm power of the water jjet in KW is
p
y Abrasive used: Al2O3 , SiC with particle size 10 to 50 µm
(a) 25.3 (b) 50.6 (c) 75.9 (d) 101.2
y Tool (nozzle) material – tungsten carbide or sapphire
y Tool (nozzle) Life – about 30 hours
319 321
Advantages of AJM Disadvantages of AJM Application of AJM

y Can be used in any material, conductive, non‐ y Low MRR y Cutting and drilling on metal foils and thin
conductive ductile or brittle
conductive, y Possibility of stray cutting
P ibilit f t tti sections of ceramics and glass
y Good dimensional accuracy (±0.05 mm) y Intricate holes in electronic components such as
y Embedding of abrasive particles in soft workpiece
y Good Surface finish – 0.25 to 1.25 µm resistor paths in insulation
y Dust control needed
y Due to cooling action of gas stream no thermal damage y Engraving of characters on toughened glass
on the work surface automobile windows
y Due to negligible
g g force delicate workpiece
p can be y Cleaning, polishing and deburring the surface
machined. For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 166 of 240 Rev.0
GATE‐2014 (PI)
GATE ‐2012 Same Q in GATE‐2012 (PI)
Q ( ) A hard
h d ceramic i marble,
bl having
h i density
d it (ρ) ( ) off 3000 kg/m k / 3
IAS‐2011 Main
In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between and diameter (d) of 0.025 m, is dropped accidentally State the mechanism of cutting by abrasive jet.
th nozzle
the l tip
ti andd the
th work k surface
f i
increases, th
the f
from a static
t ti weather
th balloon
b ll att a height
h i ht off 1 km k above b
material removal rate the roof of a greenhouse. The flow stress of roof material What are the advantages and disadvantages of
( ) increases continuously.
(a) l ( ) is
(σ) i 2.5 GPa.GP Th marble
The bl hits
hit and d creates t an
AJM ? Mention two applications.
(b) decreases continuously. indentation on the roof. Assume that the principle of
creation
ti off indentation
i d t ti i the
is th same as that th t in i case off [
[10‐Marks]
]
(c) decreases, becomes stable and then increases.
abrasive jet machining (AJM). The acceleration due to
(d) increases,
increases becomes stable and then decreases.
decreases gravity
it (g)
( ) is / 2. If V is
i 10 m/s i the
th velocity,
l it in i m/s, / off theth
marble at the time it hits the greenhouse, the
indentation
d d h ⎛⎜ δ = 1000 × ρ × d × V ⎞⎟ , in mm, is.........
depth
⎜ 6σ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
b
Abrasive WJ Cutting Abrasive WJ Cutting
IFS‐2011 y Used to cut much harder materials
What are the disadvantages of abrasive jet machining? y Water is not used directly to cut material as in Pure, y Evolution of mixing tube
technology
Write some of its applications. instead water is used to accelerate abrasive particles which
y Standard Tungsten Carbide
g
do the cutting lasts 4‐6
4 6 hours (not used much
[5‐Marks]
y 80‐mesh garnet (sandpaper) is typically used though 50 anymore)
and
d 120‐mesh
h is also
l used
d y Premium Composite Carbide
lasts 100‐150 hours
y Standoff distance between mixing
g tube and workpart
p is
y Consumables
C bl i l d
include water,
t
typically 0.010‐0.200 – important to keep to a minimum to abrasive, orifice and mixing
keep a good surface finish tube
GATE 1992
GATE ‐ GATE 2011
GATE 2011 GATE 2007
GATE ‐
Match the following non – traditional machining
Match the following g components
p pp p
with the appropriate processes with the corresponding material removal gp
Match the most suitable manufacturing processes for
machining processes: mechanism: the following parts.
p
Component Process Machining process
gp Mechanism of material removal
f Parts g
Manufacturing Processes
(A) Square hole in a high strength alloy (1) Milling P. Chemical machining 1. Erosion P. Computer chip 1. Electrochemical Machining
((B)) Square
q hole in a ceramic component
p ((2)) Drilling
g Q. Electro –
Q Electro chemical 2 Corrosive reaction
2. Corrosive reaction Q Metal forming dies and moulds
Q.
(C) Blind holes in a die (3) ECM machining 2. Ultrasonic Machining
((D)) Turbine blade pprofile on high
g strength
g alloy(4)
y(4) JJig
g boringg R Electro – discharge
R. Electro 3 Ion displacement
3. Ion displacement R Turbine blade
R. 3
3. Electro discharge
Electro‐discharge
(5) EDM machining Machining
(6) USM S. Ultrasonic machining 4. Fusion and vaporization S Glass
S. 4
4. Photochemical Machining
(a) P – 2, Q – 33, R – 4, S – 1 (b) P – 2, Q – 4, R – 33, S – 1
Codes:P Q R S P Q R S
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 5 6 1 3
(c) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 4, S – 1 (d) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 4 ( ) 4
(a) 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
2 For-2015 (IES, GATE
(d) &3 PSUs) Page 167 of 240
(d) 1 Rev.0
(c) 4 1 3 1 2 4
(c) 3 1 4 2 2 4 3
GATE 1998
GATE ‐ 1998 IES 2008
IES – 1998 ISRO 2009
List I List II Match List
List‐II with List II and select the correct answer
List‐II Match List
List‐II (Machining process) with List II
List‐II
(A) ECM (1) Plastic shear using the code given below the lists: (Associated medium) and select the correct answer
(B) EDM ( )
(2) E i /B ittl fracture
Erosion/Brittle f t List‐II
List List‐II
List II using the codes given below the lists:
(Unconventional machining process) (Basic process) List‐I List‐II
(C) USM (3) Corrosive reaction
A Electro polishing
A. 1
1. Thermal A Ultrasonic
A. Ult i machining
hi i 1. K
Kerosene
(D) LBM (4) Melting and vaporization
B. Electrochemical machining 2. Mechanical B. EDM 2. Abrasive slurry
(5) Ion displacement
C Abrasive
C. Ab i jet j machining
hi i 3. El
Electrochemical
h i l C. ECM 3. Vacuum
(6) Plastic shear and ion displacement D. Electrical discharge machining 4. Chemical
Codes:A
C d A B C D A B C D D. EBM 4. Salt solution
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 5 4 2 4 Code:A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4 ( ) 2
(a) 3 4 1 (b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 2 3 4 1
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 4 3 2 1
IES 2005
IES ‐ 2005 IES 2003
IES ‐ IES 2003
IES ‐
Match List I ((Machining g Process)) with List II (
Match List I (Materials)) with List II ((Machining) g) and Assertion ((A): ) Water jet j machiningg uses high g
(Application) and select the correct answer using the select the correct answer using the codes given below pressure and high velocity water stream which acts
code given below the Lists: the Lists: like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in the material.
List I List II List I List II
A. EDM 1. Holes & cavities in hard & brittle materials Reason (R): The force required for cutting is
(Materials) (Machining) generated from sudden change in the momentum
B LBM 2.
B. 2 Micro‐drilling
Micro drilling & micro
micro‐welding
welding of
materials A. Machining of conducting materials 1. ECM of the water stream.
C. USM 3. Shaping of hard metals or reshaping of B. Ruby rod 2. EDM (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
cemented d carbide
bid tools
l C. Electrolyte 3. USM correct explanation of A
D. ECM 4. Shaping of cemented carbide dies and D. Abrasive slurry 4. LBM (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
punches
Codes:A B C D A B C D correct explanation of A
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 3 2 1 4 (a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 4 2 3 1 (c) A is true but R is false
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4 (c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3 (d) A is false but R is true
IAS 2002
IAS ‐ IAS 1999
IAS ‐ IES 2004
IES ‐
Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly Match List I (Unconventional machining process) with (
Match List I (Machining g pprocesses)) with List II
matched? List II (Typical application) and select the correct (Operating media) and select the correct answer using
answer using g the codes g
given below the lists: the codes given below the Lists:
(Unconventional (Application) List I List II
List I List II
machining method) A. Abrasive jet machining 1. Dielectric
A Electro discharge machining 1.
A. 1 Drilling micro holes in
(a) Electric discharge : Machining of electrically very hard metals B. Electron beam machining 2. Electrolyte
conductive materials C. Electro‐chemical machining 3. Abrasive slurry
B Electro chemical machining 2.
B. 2 Drilling holes in glass
(b) Laser beam : Micromachining D. Electro‐discharge machining 4. Vacuum
C. Ultrasonic machining 3. Die sinking
(c) Plasma arc : Faster cutting of hard materials 5. Air
D Laser beam machining 4.
D. 4 Machining contours Codes:A B C D A B C D
(d) Electron beam : Faster metal removal rate Codes:A B C D A B C D (a) 5 4 2 1 (b) 4 5 2 1
( ) 4
(a) 2 3 1 ( ) 3
(b) 4 1 2 (c) 4 2 3 5 (d) 2 5 3 4
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 3 4 2 1
IES 1999
IES ‐ GATE 2004
GATE ‐
Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer yp
Typical machining g operations
p are to be pperformed on hard‐
using the codes given below the Lists: to‐machine materials by using the processes listed below.
Choose the best set of Operation‐Process combinations
List‐I List‐II
O
Operation
ti P
Process
A. Die sinking 1. Abrasive jet machining
P. Debarring (internal surface) 1. Plasma Arc Machining
B. Debarring g 2. Laser beam machining g
Q Die sinking
Q. 2
2. Abrasive Flow Machining
C. Fine hole drilling (thin materials) 3. EDM R. Fine hole drilling in thin sheets 3. Electric Discharge
D. Cutting/sharpening
g p g hard materials Machining g
4. Ultrasonic machining S. Tool sharpening 4. Ultrasonic Machining
55. Electrochemical g
grindingg 5. Laser beam Machiningg
Code:A B C D A B C D 6. Electrochemical Grinding
((a)) 3 5 4 1 ((b)) 2 4 1 3 (a) P‐1 Q‐5 R‐3 S‐4 (b) P‐1 Q‐4 R‐1 S‐2
(c) 3 1 2 5 (d) 4 5 1 3 (c) P‐5 Q‐1 R‐2 S‐6 (d) P‐2 Q‐3 R‐5 S‐6

C t l St t f t i l
Crystal Structure of materials GATE 2011
GATE 2011
y FCC: Ni, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au, Pb, Al (soft) The crystal structure of austenite is
y BCC: V, Mo, Ta, W (hard material) (a) body centered cubic
y HCP: Mg, Zn
g (b) face centered cubic
y Cobalt HCP < 4200C, FCC > 4200C (c) hexagonal closed packed
y Chromium HCP < 20oC , BCC >20
, oC ( )
(d) body centered tetragonal
y g
y Glass‐ Amorphous
y BCC Ferrite or ∝ iron
BCC‐Ferrite or ‐ & δ ferrite or δ iron
iron ‐ferrite or δ‐iron
γ
y FCC‐ Austenite or ‐iron
IES 2011
IES 2011
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using IES‐2003 IES 1998
IES‐1998
the code given below the lists : Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer
Match List I (Crystal Structure) with List II (Example) and
Match List‐I (Crystal Structure) with List‐II (Example) and
List –I List –II select the correct answer using the codes given below the using the codes given below the lists:
h d b l h l
Lists: List‐I List‐II
A. Alpha iron
p 1. FCC List‐II
List List‐II
List II (Material) (Structure)
B. Zinc 2. BCC (Crystal Structure) (Example)
A. Charcoal 1. F.C.C
A. Simple Cubic 1. Zinc
C Glass
C. Glass 3 HCP
3. HCP B
B. B d
Body‐centered Cubic
t d C bi 2. Copper
C B. Graphite 2. H.C.P
C. Face‐centered Cubic 3. Alpha iron at room C. Chromium 3. Amorphous
D. Copper 4. Amorphous temperature D. Copper 4. B.C.C
D Hexagonal Close Packed
D. H l Cl P k d 4. Manganese
M
Codes Code:A B C D A B C D
A B C D A B C D ((a)
) 4 3 1 2 ((b)
) 4 3 2 1 (a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 3 2 4 1
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 2 4 3 1 (c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2 ( ) 2
(c) 3 4 1 ( ) 2
(d) 3 1 4
(c) 1 3 4 2 (d) 2 3 4 1
IES‐2001 IES‐2006 Pl ti d f ti
Plastic deformation
Following the elastic deformation, material undergoes
Match List‐I (Name of the Element) with List‐II Match List‐I (Element) with List‐II (Crystal Structure)
(Crystal Structure) and select the correct answer using and select the correct answer using the code given plastic deformation.
the codes given below the lists: below the Lists: y Also characterized by relation between stress and
List I List II List I
List ‐ List II
List ‐ strain at constant strain rate and
d temperature.
A. Fluorspar 1. Body‐centered cubic A. Alpha Iron 1.Hexagonal closed packed
B. Alpha‐Iron
p 2. Hexagonal closed packed
g p pp
B. Copper 2.Body‐centred cubic
y y Microscopically, it involves breaking atomic bonds,
C. Silver 3. Simple cubic C. Zinc 3.Amorphous moving
i atoms, then
h restoration i off bonds.
b d
D. Zinc 4. Face‐centered cubic D. Glass 4.Face‐centred cubic y Stress‐Strain relation here is complex because of
Codes A
Codes:A B C D A B C D Codes A
Codes:A B C D A B C D atomic
t i plane l movement, t dislocation
di l ti movement,
t and d
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 4 1 3 2 (a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 1 4 2 3 the obstacles they encounter.
((c)
) 44 2 33 1 ((d)
) 33 1 4
4 2 ((c)
) 2 4
4 1 33 ((d)
) 1 33 2 4
y Crystalline solids deform by processes – slip and
twinning in particular directions.
y Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow mechanism y A true stress‐strain curve is called flow curve as it gives
Slip
y Slip is the prominent mechanism of plastic deformation in
without any directionality. the stress required to cause the material to flow
metals.
y Because of the complexity involved, theory of plasticity plastically
l i ll to certaini strain.
i
y It involves sliding of blocks of crystal over one other along
neglects the following effects: y Because of the complexity involved, there have been definite crystallographic planes, called slip planes.
many stress‐strain relations proposed.
proposed y In physical words it is analogous to a deck of cards when it
y Anelastic strain, which is time dependent
recoverable strain. is pushed from one end.
σ = fn( ε,
ε ε, T,
T microstructure) y Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical
y Hysteresis behavior resulting from loading and
value.
unloading of material. σ = K εn Strain hardening exponent, n = 0.1 - 0.5
.m
y During slip each atom usually moves same integral
y Bauschinger
B hi effect
ff – dependence
d d off yield
i ld stress on σ = Kε Strain - rate sensitivity,
sensitivity m = 0
0.4
4-0
0.9
9 number
b off atomic distances
d along
l the
h slip
l plane
l producing
d
loading path and direction. σ = K( ε0 + ε)n Strain from previous work - ε0 a step, but the orientation of the crystal remains the same.
y Equations
E ti relating
l ti stress
t and
d strain
t i are called ll d σ = σ0 + K εn Yield strength - σ0 y Steps observable under microscope as straight lines are
called slip lines.
constitutive equations.
Contd…
Twinning y The important role of twinning in plastic deformation is IES 2007

y The second important mechanism of plastic deformation
is twinning. that it causes changes in plane orientation so that further
slip can occur. What is the movement of block of atoms along
Wh t i th t f bl k f t l
y It results when a portion of crystal takes up an orientation certain crystallographic planes and directions,
that is related to the orientation of the rest of the untwined y Twinning generally occurs when slip is restricted, because
l tti in
lattice i a definite,
d fi it symmetrical
t i l way. the stress necessary for twinning is usually higher than that termed as?
y The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the for slip. (a) Glide
parent crystal.
p y The pplane of symmetry
y y is called twinning g y Thus some HCP metals with limited number of slip
Thus, (b) Twinning
plane. systems may preferably twin.
(c) Slip
y Each atom in the twinned region moves by a homogeneous y Also, BCC metals twin at low temperatures
p because slipp is
shear
h a distance
di t proportional
ti l to
t its
it distance
di t f
from th twin
the t i (d) Jog
difficult.
plane.
y The lattice strains involved in twinning g are small,, usuallyy y Of course, twinning and slip may occur sequentially or
in order of fraction of inter‐atomic distance, thus resulting even concurrentlyl in
i some cases.
in very small gross plastic deformation.
Contd…
IES‐2005 IES‐1998 At i St t
Atomic Structure
y Atoms consist of a relatively dense nucleus composed of
The B.C.C. and H.C.P. metals undergo plastic
Th B C C d H C P t l d l ti Assertion (A): Plastic deformation in metals and positively charged protons and neutral particles of nearly
alloys is a permanent deformation under load. This identical mass, known as neutrons.
deformation by: property is useful in obtaining products by cold y Surrounding the nucleus are the negatively charged
(a) Slip rolling.
rolling electrons which have only 1/1839 times the mass of a
electrons,
Reason (R): Plastic or permanent deformation in neutron and appear in numbers equal to the protons, to
(b) Twinning metal or alloy is caused by movement or dislocations. maintain a net charge balance.
( ) Edge dislocation
(c) Ed di l ti ( ) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
(a) B th A d R i di id ll t d R i th t y The
Th light
li h electrons
l that
h surround d the
h nucleus
l play
l a far
f
explanation of A more significant role in determining material properties.
(d) Twinning in combination with slip
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the y Again,
g experiments
p reveal that the electrons are arranged
g
l f in a characteristic structure consisting of shells and
(c) A is true but R is false subshells, each possessing a distinctive energy. Upon
(d) A is false but R is true absorbing a small amount of energy, an electron can jump
to a higher‐energy
hi h shell
h ll farther
f h fromf the
h nucleus.
l
y The reverse jump can also occur with the concurrent At i B d
Atomic Bonds y A third type of primary bond can form when a complete outer
release of a distinct amount, or quantum, of energy. y General characteristics of materials joined by ionic bonds shell cannot be formed by either electron transfer or electron
include moderate to high strength,
strength high hardness,
hardness brittleness,
brittleness sharing.
sharing This bond is known as the metallic bond.
bond
y The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of a high melting point, and low electrical conductivity.
y If there are only a few valence electrons (one, two, or three) in
neutral atom is called the atomic number. y A second type of primary bond is the covalent type.
each of the atoms in an aggregate, these electrons can easily be
y More
M i
important, h
however, are those
h electrons
l i the
in h y Like the ionic bond,
bond the covalent bond tends to produce
materials with high strength and high melting point. removed while the remainder are held firmly to the nucleus.
outermost shell or subshell, known as valence y Atom movement within the framework material (plastic y These highly‐mobile,"free" electrons account for the high
electrons.
electrons deformation) requires the breaking of discrete bonds,
bonds thereby electrical and thermal conductivity values as well as the opaque
making the material characteristically brittle. property (free electrons can absorb the discrete energies of light
y These are influential in determining chemical y Electrical conductivity depends on bond strength, ranging from radiation) observed in metals.
properties electrical conductivity,
properties, conductivity some mechanical conductive tin (weak covalent bonding)
bonding), through
semiconducting silicon and germanium, to insulating diamond y Moreover, they provide the "cement" required for the positive‐
properties, the nature of interatomic bonding, atom (carbon). negative‐positive attractions that result in bonding.
size, and optical
p characteristics. y Engineering materials possessing ionic or covalent bonds tend y Bond strength,
strength and therefore material strength,
strength varies over a
to be ceramic (refractories or abrasives) or polymeric in nature.
wide range.
Contd… Contd…
y More significant, however, is the observation that the IES‐2008 IES‐2003

p
positive ions can move within the structure without Assertion (A): Elements are classified into metals and Assertion (A): Unlike in the case of ionic bonds, the
Assertion (A): Unlike in the case of ionic bonds the
the breaking of discrete bonds. Materials bonded by non‐metals on the basis of their atomic weights. co‐ordination numbers for covalently bonded atoms
metallic bonds can therefore be deformed by atom‐ Reason (R): The valence electron structures are not controlled by the radii ratio.
movement mechanisms and produce a deformed contribute to the primary bonding between the atoms Reason (R): A covalent bond has a specific direction of
material that is every bit as strong as the original. to form aggregates. bonding in space.
y This
h phenomenon
h is the
h basis
b off metall plasticity,
l (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
of A explanation of A
ductility, and many of the shaping processes used in
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
the fabrication of metal products.
products explanation of A correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (c) A is true but R is false
A i f l b t R i t (d) A is false but R is true
A i f l b t R i t
IES 2011
IES 2011 D l f i
Development of a grain structure y The small, continuous volumes of solid are known as
Solid material chemical bonds are : y When a metal solidifies, a small particle of solid forms cristals or grains, and the surfaces that divide them
from
f the
th liquid
li id with
ith a lattice
l tti structure
t t characteristic
h t i ti off the
th (i.e.,
(i the
th surfaces
f off crystalline
t lli discontinuity)
di ti it ) are
(a) Ionic, molecular and fusion given material. known as grain boundaries.
(b) Covalent, fusion and fission y This p particle then acts like a seed or nucleus and g grows as
y The process by which a grain structure is produced
(c) Ionic, covalent and molecular other atoms in the vicinity attach themselves. The basic
crystalline unit is repeated throughout space. Upon solidification is one of nucleation and growth.
((d)) Fission,, molecular and ionic y Grains are the smallest of the structural units in a
y In actual solidification,
solidification many nuclei form independently at
various locations throughout the liquid and have random metal that are observable with ordinary light
orientations with respect to one another. Each then grows microscopy.
py
untill it begins
b to interfere
f with
h its neighbours.
hb
y The atoms in the grain boundaries are more loosely
y Since adjacent lattice structures have different alignments
or orientations,
orientations growth cannot produce a single continuous bonded and tend to react with the chemical more
structure. readily than those that are part of the grain interior.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 172 of 240 Contd… Rev.0 Contd…
y The
Th number
b and
d size
i off the
h grains
i ini a metall vary with
i h the
h Fracture of metals
Fracture of metals
rate of nucleation and the rate of growth. IES‐2002 y If the plastic deformation of a metal is extended too far, the
y The ggreater the nucleation rate,, the smaller the resulting g metal mayy ultimatelyy fracture.
grains. Conversely, the greater the rate of growth, the larger Chemicals attack atoms within grain boundaries
Ch i l tt k t ithi i b d i y These types of fractures are known as ductile fractures,
the grain. preferentially because they have noting that the initial response to the applied load was one
y Because the resulting grain structure will influence certain (a) Lower energy than those in the grains of p
plastic deformation.
mechanical and physical properties, it is an important y Another possibility, however, is where fracture precedes
property for an engineer to both control and specify. One (b) Higher energy than those in the grains plastic deformation, occuring in a sudden, catastrophic
means of specification
p is through
g the ASTM ((American manner and propagating rapidly through the material.
manner, material
Society for Testing and Materials) grain size number, ( ) Higher number of atoms than in the grains
(c) Hi h b f t th i th i
These fractures, known as, brittle fractures, are most
defined as: (d) Lower number of atoms than in the grains common with metals having the bcc or hcp crystal
structures.
where N is the number of grains per square inch y Whether the fracture is ductile or brittle, however, often
visible in a prepared specimen at lOOX and n is the ASTM depends on the specific conditions of material,
grain‐size number.
number Low ASTM numbers mean a few temperature state of stress,
temperature,state stress and rate of loading.
loading
massive grains;high numbers refer to materials with many y Fracture strength depends only on the basic crystal
small grains. structure .
GATE‐2010 IES‐1992 Cold working recrystallization and

Cold working, recrystallization and
hot working
The material property which depends only on the
Th t i l t hi h d d l th Which of the following statement is true about
Whi h f th f ll i t t t i t b t
basic crystal structure is brittle fracture? y During deformation, a portion of the deformation energy
becomes stored within the material in the form of additional
(a) Fatigue strength (b) Work hardening (a) High temperature and low strain rates favour dislocations and increased grain boundary surface area. If a
brittle fracture deformed polycrystalline metal is subsequently heated to a
(c) Fracture strength (d) Elastic constant (b) Many metal with HCP crystal structure commonly high enough temperature, the material will seek to lower its
high‐enough temperature, the material will seek to lower its
show brittle fracture energy. New, equiaxed (spherical‐shaped) crystals will nucleate
and grow out of the original structure . This process of reducing
(c) Brittle fracture is always preceded by noise the internal energy through the formation of new crystals is
(d) Cup and cone formation is characteristic for brittle known as recrysrallization.
materials y The temperature at which recrystallization
p y takes place is
p
different for each metal and also varies with the amount of prior
deformation.
Contd…
y The greater the amount of prior deformation, the more y When metals are plastically deformed below their y If metals are deformed at temperatures sufficiently
g and the lower the recrystallization
stored energy, recrystallization temperature, the process is called above the recrystallization, the process is known as
cold working.
working hot working.
temperature. However, there is a lower limit below
y The metal strain hardens and the structure consists of
which recrystallization will not take place in a y Deformation and recrystallization can take place
distorted grains. If the deformation is continued, the
reasonable
bl amount off time.
i simultaneously,and
i l l d large deformations are possible.
l d f i ibl
metal may fracture. Therefore, we find it common
y This temperature can often be estimated by taking 0.4 practice to recrystallize material after certain amounts y Since a recrystallized grain structure is constantly
ti
times th melting
the lti point
i t off the
th metal
t l when
h the
th melting
lti off cold
ld work.
k f
forming, the final product will not exhibit strain
i th fi l d t ill t hibit t i
point is expressed in an absolute temperature scale. y Ductility is restored, and the material is ready for hardening.
y This is also the temperature at which atomic diffusion further deformation.
deformation
(atom movement within the solid) becomes y The heating process is known as a recrystallization
significant, indicating that diffusion is an important anneal and enables deformation to be carried out to
mechanism in recrystallization. great lengths without the danger of fracture.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 173 of 240 Contd… Rev.0 Contd…
Plastic deformation in
Plastic deformation in
y Slip in polycrystalline material involves generation,
polycrystalline metals g
movement and (re‐)arrangement of dislocations.
y Gross plastic deformation of a polycrystalline specimen y The second important mechanism of plastic
corresponds to the comparable distortion of the individual deformation is twinning. It results when a portion of
grains by means of slip.
slip Although some grains may be oriented
Fig. Recrystallization
favourably for slip, yielding cannot occur unless the
crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the
of 70‐30 brass: orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in a
(a) cold‐worked 33%;
33 unfavourably oriented neighbouring grains can also slip.
(b)heated at 580°C y Thus in a polycrystalline aggregate, individual grains provide a d fi it symmetrical
definite, t i l way.
(1075°F) for 3 seconds, mutual geometrical constraint on one other, and this precludes y The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of
(c) 4 seconds, and
( )
(d) 8 seconds
plastic deformation at low applied stresses.
stresses the parent crystal.
crystal The plane of symmetry is called
y That is to initiate plastic deformation, polycrystalline metals twinning plane.
require higher stresses than for equivalent single crystals, where
stress depends on orientation of the crystal.
y Much of this increase is attributed to geometrical reasons.
Contd…
Crystalline material and Crystal

Crystalline material and Crystal C lS
Crystal Structures
Structures y All solid materials are made of atoms/molecules,
/ ,
which are arranged in specific order in some materials,
Stable crystal structure satisfies called crystalline solids. Otherwise non‐crystalline or
amorphous solids.
solids
y The crystals are electrically neutral.
y Groups of atoms/molecules specifically arranged –
y The
Th ion‐ion
i i repulsion
l i isi minimized.
i i i d crystal.
y Lattice is used to represent a three‐dimensional
y The ions or atoms in crystals
y are p
packed as closelyy as periodic array of points coinciding with atom
positions.
possible under the constrains of specific bonding. y Unit cell is smallest repeatable entity that can be used
y The free energy of the system becomes minimum
to completely represent a crystal structure.
structure It is the
building block of crystal structure
U i ll
Unit cell Most common unit cells – Face‐centered cubic,
Common Crystal Structures
Common Crystal Structures
It is characterized by: g
Body‐centered cubic and Hexagonal. Unit Cell N CN a/R APF
y Type of atom and their radii, R Simple 1 6 2 0.52
y Cell dimensions (Lattice spacing a, b and c) in terms of
Cell dimensions (Lattice spacing a b and c) in terms of Cubic
R and angle between the axis Body- 2 8 4/√3 0.68
Centered
yaa*, b*, c* ‐
, b , c lattice distances in reciprocal lattice , α
lattice distances in reciprocal lattice , α*, β*,
, β , C bi
Cubic
γ * ‐ angles in reciprocal lattice Face- 4 12 4/√2 0.74
y Number of atoms per unit cell, n
p , Centered
y Coordination number (CN)– closest neighbors to an Cubic
atom Hexagonal
g 6 12 0.74
y Atomic packing factor, APF Close
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd…
Page 174 of 240 Packed Rev.0
C t l St t f t i l
Crystal Structure of materials
y FCC: Ni, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au, Pb, Al (soft) IAS 2009 main
y BCC: V, Mo, Ta, W (hard material)
y HCP: Mg, Zn
g
y Cobalt HCP < 4200C, FCC > 4200C
y Chromium HCP < 20oC , BCC >20
, oC
y Glass‐ Amorphous
y BCC Ferrite or ∝ iron
BCC‐Ferrite or ‐ & δ ferrite or δ iron
iron ‐ferrite or δ‐iron
γ
y FCC‐ Austenite or ‐iron
Fig. Different Unit Cell
IES 2010
IES 2010
Assertion (A): Most of the materials exist in single
IES‐2008 IES‐2003
crystal.
crystal In
I the
th atomic
t i hard‐sphere
h d h model
d l off the
th crystal
t l The
Th coordination
di ti number
b for
f FCC crystal
t l
Reason (R): Sugar is a single crystal material. structure of Copper, what is the edge length of unit structure is
( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th cell? (a) 4
correct explanation of A (b) 8
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the ( ) 12
(c)
correct explanation of A (d) 16
GATE‐2009 IES‐2004 IES‐2000

The
Th effective
ff ti numberb off lattice
l tti points
i t in
i the
th unit
it Assuming
A i atoms
t to
t be
b perfect
f t spheres,
h what
h t is
i the
th Atomic packing factor (APF) in the case of copper
At i ki f t (APF) i th f
cell of simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face value of the highest possible atomic packing crystal is
cantered cubic space lattices, respectively, are factor (APF) in metals? (a) 0.52
0 52
(a) 1, 2, 2 (a) 0.95 (b) 0.68
(b) 1,
1 2,
2 4 (b) 0.74
0 74 ( ) 0.74
(c)
(c) 2, 3, 4 (c) 0.66 (d) 1.633
(d) 2,
2 4,
4 4 (d) 0.5
05

IES‐1999 IES 2007 IES‐2005
Match List I (Crystal structure) with List II (Atomic
Match List‐I (Crystal structure) with List‐II (Atomic Which one of the following is the correct ascending Consider the following statements about FCC and
packing factor) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists: order of packing density for the given crystal HCP crystal structure:
List‐II
List List‐II
List II structures of metals? 1. Both have same coordination number and atomic
A. Simple cubic 1. 74% (a) Simple cubic – Face centred cubic – Body centred packing fraction.
B. Body‐centered cubic 2. 74% cubic 2. Both represent closely packed crystal structures.
C Face‐centered cubic
C. F t d bi 3. 52%
%
D. Hexagonal close packed 4. 68%
(b) Body centred cubic ‐ Simple cubic ‐ Face centred cubic 3. Both structures are generated by stacking of close
Codes: (c) Simple cubic ‐ Body centred cubic ‐ Face centred cubic packed plants on top of one another, but only the
A B C D A B C D (d) Body centred cubic ‐ Face centred cubic ‐ Simple cubic
stacking sequence is different.
different
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 4 3 2 1 Which of the statements given above are correct?
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 4 3 1 2 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
F l f l i
Formula for a lattice constant IES‐2004 B i L i d i ll
Bravis Lattice and unit cell
→ →→
A metal has FCC structure. Suppose its atomic
A t l h FCC t t S it t i y Total six lattice parameters a,b, c along the three
1 crystal axes, and α , β ,γ three, crystal angles.
⎛ nM ⎞ 3 weight and atomic radius is A and r respectively.
a=⎜ ⎟
Let N denotes Avogadro s number. What is the
Let N denotes Avogadro's number. What is the c>
⎝ ρN ⎠
density of the material? α
>
A A
β b
(a) (b) γ
2 2r3 N 4 2r3 N
[Where n = no of atoms per cell, M = Atomic weight,
[Where n no of atoms per cell M Atomic weight a>
A A
N = Avogadro’s number, ρ = Density of Metal] (c)
8 2r3 N
(d)
16 2r 3 N
y There are seven lattice systems
Note: Total 7 lattice system but total 14 Bravice lattice
1 C bi
1. Cubic 2 T l
2. Tetragonal IES‐2001
y a b c
a = b = c y a b ≠ c
a = b Which one of the following pairs of axis lengths (a, b,
Whi h f th f ll i i f i l th ( b
y .α = β = γ = 90º y α = β = γ c) and inter‐axial angles (α, β, γ) represents the
1 Simple Cubic (SC) = 1 atom
1. tetragonal crystal system?
c
1. Simple tetragonal (ST)
a (a) a = b = c; α = β = γ = 900
a
2. Body centered cubic (BCC) = 2 atom (b) a = b ≠ c; α = β = γ = 900
a ≠ b ≠ c; α = β = γ = 900
(c)
2. Body centered tetragonal (BCT) c (d) a = b = c; α = β = γ ≠ 900
3. Face centered cubic (FCC)= 4 atom
F t d bi (FCC) t a
a
IES‐2006 3 O h h bi
3. Orthorhombic 4 Rh b h d l
4. Rhombohedral
In
I Zinc
Zi Blende
Bl d structure,
t t each
h atom
t is
i surrounded
d d y a ≠ b ≠ c y a b c
a = b = c
by four atoms of the opposite kind which are y α = β = γ = 900 y α = β = γ ≠ 90o
located at the corners of which one of the
following? 1. Simple orthorhombic (SO) c (i) Simple Rhombohedral (Sr)
a
(a) Tetrahedron b
(b) Hexahedron 2. Body centered orthorhombic (BCO)

(c) Cube 3
3. Face centered orthorhombic (FCO)
( )
(d) Orthorhombic
4. End centered orthorhombic (ECO)
IES 2007 5 H l
5. Hexagonal 6 M li i
6. Monoclinic
For a Rhombohedral
F Rh b h d l space lattice, which one of the
l tti hi h f th y a b ≠ c
a = b ≠ c y a ≠b ≠ c
following is correct? y α = β = 900 y α = β = 900 ≠ γ
y γ = 1200
1. Simple Monoclinic (Sm)
()
(i) Simple Hexagonal (Sh)
p g ( ) a
c
2. End centered monoclinic (ECM)
b a
7 T i li i
7. Triclinic IES 2011
IES 2011 IES‐2006
y a ≠b ≠ c In a triclinic unit cell :
Which one of the following pairs is not correctly
Whi h f th f ll i i i t tl
y α ≠ β ≠ γ (a ) α = β = γ = 90o (b) α = β = 90o , γ = 120o matched?
(c) α = β = 90o ≠ γ (d ) α ≠ β ≠ 90o ≠ γ Space Lattice Relation between Atomic radius r and
1. Simple Triclinic (Stri) Edge element a
(a) Simple cubic structure : a2 = 4 r2
(b) Body‐centred cubic structure: 3a2 = 16r2
(c) Triclinic: 2a2 = 3r
3r2
c
(d) Face‐centred cubic structure: a = 8r2
2
b
a

Mill i di
Miller indices Mill i di
Miller indices – Di i
Direction Mill i di
Miller indices – Pl
Plane
y A syste
system o otat o iss required
of notation equ ed to identify
de t y pa t cu a
particular y A vector of convenient length is placed parallel to the y Determine the intercepts of the plane along the
direction(s) or plane(s) to characterize the arrangement of required direction crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions.
atoms in a unit cell If plane is passing through origin, there is a need to
y The length
g of the vector p projection
j on each of three
y Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to related axes are measured in terms of unit cell dimensions construct a plane parallel to original plane
formulas from analytical geometry – simple to use y Take the reciprocals of these intercept numbers
y These three numbers are made to smallest integer g
y Use
U off reciprocals
i l avoids
id the
th complication
li ti off infinite
i fi it
values, known as indices, by multiplying or dividing by y Clear fractions
intercepts
a common factor y Reduce to set of smallest integers
y Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the
same label can be applied to any plane with a similar y The three indices are enclosed in square brackets, y The three indices are enclosed in parenthesis, (hkl).
stacking pattern, regardless of the crystal class of the [uvw] y A familyy of p
planes is represented
p byy {{hkl}}
crystal. Plane (111) always steps the same way regardless of y A family of directions is represented by <uvw>
crystal system. Contd…
Miller indices – Useful Conventions y Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by constant has

y If a plane is parallel to an axis, its intercept is at infinity no effect on the orientation of the plane
and its Miller index will be zero y When the integers used in the Miller indices contain
y Never alter negative
g numbers. This implies
p symmetry
y y more than one digit, the indices must be separated by
that the crystal may not have! Use bar over the number commas. E.g.: (3,10,13)
to represent negative numbers. y What is p planer density: y The number of lattice p
point
y A plane or direction of family is not necessarily parallel per unit area is defied as planer density.
to other planes or directions in the same family
y The smaller the Miller index, more nearly parallel the
plane to that axis, and vice versa
Contd… Contd…
( )
Miller Indices (hkl) Example: Find the miller indices of a plane that
makes intercepts in the units of lattice parameters IAS 2009 Main
Step‐I:Find the intercepts of a plane along the crystal axes a,
Step I:Find the intercepts of a plane along the crystal axes a of 1 and 2 on a and b respectively.
respectively The plane is
b, c and express the intercepts in units of crystal parameter parallel to c axis.
a, b, c respectively. Solution:
Step‐II: Find the reciprocal of the intercepts.
Step‐III:Reduce the reciprocals to the three smallest integer a b c
(h k l) keeping the ratios same
(h, k, l) keeping the ratios same.
Intercepts 1 2 ∞
Step‐IV: Enclose these integer into same parameters (h, k, l)
Take reciprocals 1 ½ 0
b Reduce to reciprocals 2 1 0
b Hence millers Indices are (210)

a
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES‐2006 IES‐1999
What is the planar density of (100) plane in FCC (face‐
What is the planar density of (100) plane in FCC (face The set of Miller indices of the plane shown in the
Th t f Mill i di f th l h i th
Miller indices (x, y,
centred cubic) crystal with unit cell side a equal to? given figure is
z) for the hatched
plane in the above
abo e (a) 1.484 (a) ( 0 0)
1 (b) (1 0 0)
a2
unit cell are 2 (c) (1 0 1) (d) (1 1 0)
represented as (b)
a2
(a) (100)
1
(b) (110) ((c)
)
a2
(c) (111) 2
(d) (101) ((d)
)
a2
Useful Conventions for a cubic

Useful Conventions for a cubic I Pl di b f il f l {hkl}
Inter Planar distance between family of planes {hkl}
IES‐1998
crystal a
A unit cell of a crystal is shown in the given figure.
A it ll f t l i h i th i fi
The Miller indices of the direction (arrow) shown

y [uvw] is normal to (hkl) if u = h, v = k, w = l. d( hkl ) =
in the figure is E.g.:(111)⊥ [111] h2 + k 2 + l 2
(a) [0 1 2] (b) [0 2 1] y [uvw] is parallel to (hkl) if hu + kv + lw = 0
(c) [2 1 0] (d) [2 0 1] y Two planes (h1k1l1) and (h2k2l2) are normal if Angles between two planes is given by
h1h2+k1k2+l1l2 = 0
y Two directions (u1v1w1) and (u2v2w2) are normal h1h2 + k1 k2 + l1l2
u1u2+v1v2+w1w2 = 0 cos θ =
h12 + k12 + l12 × h22 + k22 + l22
Contd…
P i d f
Point defects y It is clear from the equation that there is an
Crystal Defects y Point defects are of zero‐dimensional i.e. atomic disorder is exponential increase in number of vacancies with
y The assumption of perfectly arranged atoms in a restricted to point‐like regions. temperature. When the density of vacancies becomes
solid may not valid i.e. atomic order must have y Thermodynamically stable compared with other kind of relatively large, there is a possibility for them to cluster
defects. together and form voids.
voids
b
been di
disturbed.
b d
y Disordered atomic region is called defect or y In ionic crystals, defects can form on the condition
i
imperfection.
f ti of charge neutrality.
neutrality Two possibilities are:
y Based on geometry, defects are: Point defects n −Q
y Fraction of vacancy sites can be given as follows:
act o o vaca cy s tes ca be g ve as o ows: = e kT
(zero D) Line defects (1‐D)
(zero‐D), (1 D) or Dislocations,
Dislocations N
Interfacial defects (2‐D) and Bulk or Volume [Where n is the number of vacant sites in N lattice positions, k
defects (3
(3‐D).
D). is gas or Boltzmann’s constant
is gas or Boltzmann s constant, T is absolute temperature in
T is absolute temperature in
kelvin, and Q is the energy required to move an atom from the
interior of a crystal to its surface.]
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 179 of 240 Contd…
Rev.0
IES‐1998; 1999 IES‐1992 IES‐2009
Assertion (A): Carbon forms interstitial solid Which of the following is a point imperfection?
Whi h f th f ll i i i t i f ti ? Which one of the following defects is
Whi h Schottky
f th f ll i d f t i 'S h ttk
solution when added to iron. 1.Vacancy 2.Interstitialcy defect’?
Reason (R): The atomic radius of carbon atom is (a) Vacancy defect
much smaller than that of iron. 3.Frenkel imperfection
F k l i f i 4.Schottky imperfection
S h k i f i
(b) Compositional defect
correct explanation of A ( ) 1 and 2 only
(a) ( )
(b) 2 and 3 only ( ) Interstitial defects
(c) I t titi l d f t
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (d) Surface defect
correct explanation of A ( ) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) d l (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
d
Li d f
Line defects B ’
Burger’s vector Li d f
Line defects ‐ Ed di l i
Edge dislocation
y Line defects or Dislocations are abrupt
p change
g in atomic y A dislocation is characterized by Burger
Burger’ss vector, b. y It is also called as Taylor Orowan dislocation.
It is also called as Taylor‐Orowan
order along a line.
y It is unique to a dislocation, and usually have the y It will have regions of compressive and tensile stresses
y They occur if an incomplete plane inserted between
perfect planes of atoms or when vacancies are aligned in a direction of close p pack lattice direction. It is also the on either side of the plane containing dislocation.
p g
line. slip direction of a dislocation.
y A dislocation is the defect responsible p for the y It represents
p the magnitude
g and direction of distortion
phenomenon of slip, by which most metals deform associated with that particular dislocation.
plastically.
y Two limiting cases of dislocations, edge and screw,
y Dislocations occur in high densities (108‐10
1010 m‐22),
) and are
intimately connected to almost all mechanical properties are characterized by Burger’s vector perpendicular to
which are in fact structure‐sensitive. the dislocation line (t) and Burger’s vector parallel to
y Dislocation form during plastic deformation, solidification th dislocation
the di l ti line li respectively.
ti l Ordinary
O di di l ti
dislocation
or due to thermal stresses arising from rapid cooling. is of mixed character of edge and screw type. Contd…
y A pure edge dislocation can glide or slip in a direction

perpendicular to its length i.e. along its Burger’s vector in
the slip plane (made of b and t vectors),
vectors) on which
dislocation moves by slip while conserving number of
atoms in the incomplete plane.
y It may move vertically by a process known as climb, if
diffusion of atoms or vacancies can take place at
appropriate
i rate.
y Atoms are added to the incomplete plane for negative
climb i.e.
i e the incomplete plane increases in extent
downwards, and vice versa.
y Thus climb motion is considered as non‐conservative,, the
movement by climb is controlled by diffusion process.
Page 180 of 240 Rev.0 Contd…
IES‐2009 Li d f
Line defects‐ S di l i
Screw dislocation
Which one of the following is correct for
Whi h f th f ll i i Climb
t f 'Cli b'?? y It is also called as Burger
Burger’ss dislocation.
(a) Dislocation moves parallel to the slip plane y It will have regions of shear stress around the
dislocation line
(b) Dislocation moves perpendicular to the slip plane
Di l i di l h li l
y For positive screw dislocation, dislocation line
(c) Sliding of one plane of atoms over the other plane
direction is p
parallel to Burger’s
g vector, and vice versa.
( ) Dislocation moves from a slip plane to another slip
(d)
plane
Contd…
Li d f
Line defects‐ Di l i i
Dislocation motion
y Dislocations move under applied
pp stresses,, and thus
causes plastic deformation in solids.
y Dislocations can move in three ways – glide/slip, cross‐
slip
li andd climb
li b – depending
d di on theirh i character.
h Sli is
Slip i
conservative in nature, while the climb is non‐
conservative, and is diffusion
diffusion‐controlled.
controlled.
y Any dislocation can slip, but in the direction of its
burger’s vector.
y Edge dislocation moves by slip or climb.
y Screw dislocation moves by slip / cross‐slip. Possibility
f cross‐slip
for li arises
i as screw dislocation
di l i does
d not have
h
Contd…
a preferred slip plane as edge dislocation have.
Line defects – Dislocation characteristics
y Dislocations have distortional energy associated with IES‐2003 IES‐2009
them.
A screw dislocation
y Stored elastic energy per unit length of the dislocation
1. Lies parallel to its Burger's vector Which one of the following is correct for "Burger's
Gb 2 2. Lies perpendicular to its Burger
Lies perpendicular to its Burger's vector
s vector
E= vector in screw dislocation?
vector" in screw dislocation?
2 3. Moves in a perpendicular direction to the Burger's
vector (a) Perpendicular to the dislocation line
[Where G – shear modulus and b – Burger’s vector]
g
4. Moves in an inclined direction to the Burger's vector (b) Inclined to the dislocation line
I li d t th di l ti li
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (c) Parallel to the dislocation line
Codes: (d) Opposite to the dislocation line
O i h di l i li
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

IES‐2008 IES 2007 I f i ld f
Interfacial defect
What is the approximate strain energy expression
Wh t i th i t t i i y An interfacial defect is a 2 D imperfection in
2‐D
for a dislocation of unit length, irrespective of its crystalline solids and have different crystallographic
edge or screw character? orientations on either side of it.
y They usually arise from clustering of line defects into a
G 2b Gb2 plane..
(a) (b)
2 2 y E.g.: External surface, Grain boundaries, Stacking
G 2b Gb2 faults, Twin boundaries, Dislocations and Phase
(c) (d) b
boundaries.
d i
4 4
Contd…
IES 2010
IES 2010
Surface imperfections which separate two
IES‐2008
orientations
i i that
h are mirror
i image
i off one What is a surface imperfection, which separates
Wh t i f i f ti hi h t
another is called crystals of different orientations in a poly‐
crystalline aggregate, called?
(a) Stacking fault
(a) Edge dislocation (b) Stacking fault
((b)) Grain boundaryy (c) Grain boundary (d) Screw dislocation
(c) Tilt boundary
(d) Twinned boundary
Stacking faults
y The
Th planner
l i f i produced
imperfection d d by
b the
h passage off a
partial dislocation is called stacking fault. y This is why no microscopic twins appear in FCC
B lk a Volume defects
Bulk or V l d f
y
crystals as formation of stackingg faults is energetically
g y y Volume defects are three‐dimensional in nature.
y They
Th are faults
f lt in
i stacking
t ki sequence off atom t planes.
l
favorable. y These defects are introduced, usually, during
y Stacking sequence in an FCC crystal is ABC ABC ABC processing and fabrication operations like casting,
y The total energygy of a p
perfect lattice is lower than one
…, and the sequence for HCP crystals is AB AB AB…. AB f
forming
i etc.
with a stacking fault. This difference is stacking fault
y Two kinds of stacking faults in FCC crystals are: energy, and varies in range 0.01‐0.1 J/m2. E.g.: Pores, Cracks, Foreign particles
y (a)
( ) ABC AC ABC…where
ABC h CA CA representt thin
thi HCP y Lower the stacking fault energy, wider the stacking y These
Th d f t actt like
defects lik stress
t raisers,
i th deleterious
thus d l t i t
to
region which is nothing but stacking fault in FCC, mechanical properties of parent solids.
fault, metal strain hardens rapidly and twin easily.
y (b) ABC ACB CABC is called extrinsic
e trinsic or twin
t in stacking Oh
Otherwise,
i metals
l off high
hi h stacking
ki f l energy i.e.
fault i y In some instances,
instances foreign particles are added to
fault. Three layers ACB constitute the twin. Thus strengthen the solid – dispersion hardening. Particles
narrower stacking faults show a deformation structure
stacking faults in FCC crystal can also be considered as added are hindrances to movement of dislocations
of banded,
banded linear arrays of dislocations.
dislocations which
hi h have
h to cut through
h h or bypass
b the
h particles
i l thus
h
submicroscopic twins. increasing the strength.
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2010
IES 2010
Assertion (A): Natural crystals always contain
IES‐2003
Assertion (A): Excess defects are created by
hammering the crystalline materials. defects.
defects Which one of the following pairs is not
Whi h f th f ll i i i t correctly tl
Reason (R): The defects may affect colour and can matched?
Reason (R) : The thermal fluctuations create
the
h point defects
d f in crystalline
ll materials.
l make a crystal a valuable gem.
gem (a) Point defect in crystal lattice : Self interstitials
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (b) Linear defect in crystal lattice : Grain boundary
correct explanation
l i off A correct explanation of A ( ) Planar defect in crystal lattice : External surface
(c) Pl d f t i t l l tti E t l f
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the (d) Volume defect in crystal lattice: other phases
th correctt explanation
the l ti off A correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b R isi true (d) A is false but R is true
IES‐1997
Which of the following properties of a solid are
dependent on crystal imperfections?
1. Yield stress 2. Melting point
3. Semi‐conductivity 4. Ductility
g g
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 1, 3 and 4
3
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 2 and 4

y Purpose of heat treatment:
H tT t t
Heat Treatment
1.To remove or relieve strains or stresses induced by cold
y Heating a metal or alloy to various definite working
ki or non‐ uniform
if cooling
li (for
(f example
l welding):
ldi )
temperatures, holding these for various time durations Annealing
and cooling at various rates. 2. To increase strength or hardness of the material for
y Combination of controlled heating and cooling improved wear resistance: Hardening
determine not only the nature and distribution of 3.To improve machinability: Annealing
micro‐constituents (which determine the properties of 4.To soften the material: Annealing
a metal or alloy),
alloy) but also the grain size.
size 55. To decrease hardness and increase ductilityy and toughness.
g
(Tempering)
Contd... Contd...
Main Processes Include

Main Processes Include
y Annealing
IES 1992
IES‐1992
6. To improve the cutting properties of tools.
gg y
Which of the following generally decreases in the
y Stress
S Relieving
R li i steel after quench‐hardening?
7. To change or modify the physical properties of the
y Quench Hardening
g 1. Brittleness
material such as electrical properties,
properties magnetic
2. Percentage elongation
properties, corrosion resistance and heat resistance y Tempering
33. Impact strength
p g
etc. y Carburizing (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
8 Elimination of H2 gas dissolved during pickling or
8. y Carbon Nitriding ((c)) 1 and 3 only
3 y ((d)) 1, 2 and 3
, 3
electro‐plating which causes brittleness. y Age Hardening
y Ion Nitriding
Contd...
Fig. TTT diagram for eutectoid transformation in Fe‐C Fig. Transformations involving austenite for Fe‐C system

CCT di f F C t
CCT diagram for Fe‐C system y Critical Rate of Cooling: The minimum rate of cooling at
y TTT diagram
g is less practical since an alloy has to be cooled which the austenite is transformed into martensite alone.
rapidly and then kept at a temperature to allow for y Spheroidite: If pearlite is heated just below the eutectoid
respective transformation to take place. temperature (say 700°C) and held at this temperature for a
y Usually
U ll materials
i l are cooled
l d continuously,
i l thus
h day or so, so the cementite lamelle in pearlite get
Continuous Cooling Transformation diagrams are transformed to spherical shape. The structure is called
appropriate. "spheroidite".
y For continuous cooling, the time required for a reaction to y This structure is less conducive to stress concentration
begin and end is delayed, thus the isothermal curves are because of spherical grains, as compared to cementite
shifted to longer times and lower temperatures. (l
(lamelle
ll structure).
t t )
y Main difference between TTT and CCT diagrams: no space y This, spheroidite is more tough but less hard as compared
f bainite
for b i i in i CCT diagram
di as continuous
i cooling
li always
l to pearlite.
pearlite
results in formation of pearlite.
GATE 2003
GATE‐2003 GATE 1996
GATE‐1996 IES 2002
IES‐2002
During heat treatment of steel, the hardness of g
The iron‐carbon diagram and the TTT curves are g p
TTT diagram indicates time and temperature
various structures in increasing order is determined under transformation of
(a) Martensite, fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, (a) Equilibrium and non‐equilibrium conditions (a) Cementite (b) Pearlite
spherodite respectively (c) Ferrite (d) Austenite
(b) Fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spherodite,
martensite (b) Non‐equilibrium and equilibrium conditions
respectively
(c) Martensite, coarse pearlite, fine pearlite,
spherodite (c) Equilibrium conditions for both
(d) Spherodite, coarse pearlite, fine pearlite, (d) Non‐equilibrium conditions for both
martensite
IAS‐2002
IES 1998
IES‐1998 Two plain carbon steel specimens having 0∙8% GATE 1997
GATE‐1997
carbon content are welded. If we observe the
Two cooling g curves A and B for a eutectoid iron‐ p ,
On completion of heat treatment, the resulting g
weldment under Metallurgical Microscope from
carbon alloy are superimposed on a continuous centre towards either side, the following structure will have retained Austenite if
cooling transformation diagram as shown in the structures are observed at different zones: (a) Rate of cooling is greater than the critical cooling
given
i fi
figure. Fine
i pearlite
li microstruc‐ture
i i
is 1. Fine Pearlite rate
represented by the points labelled (b) Rate of cooling is less than the critical cooling rate
2. Coarse Pearlite
( ) I and
(a) d III 3. Martensite (c) Martensite formation starting temperature is
(b) II Select the correct sequence using the codes given above the room temperature
( ) IV
(c) b l
below: (d) Martensite formation finish temperature is below
(d) I Codes: the room temperature
( ) 1, 2, 3
(a) (b) 1, 3, 2
(c) 2, 1, 3 (d) 3, 1, 2
A li
Annealing processes F ll li
Full annealing
y Benefits of annealing are:
y Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the y Metal is heated above the upper critical temperature &
material is taken to a high temp. kept there for some • relieve stresses held there until the temperature of the work piece is
time and then cooled in furnace. • increase softness, ductility and toughness uniform throughout, and finally cooling the work
y Cooling is done slowly to avoid the distortion.

distortion • produce a specific microstructure piece at a slowly controlled rate in furnace so that the
y Depending on the specific purpose, annealing is temperature of the surface and that of the centre of the
classified into various types: process annealing, stress workpiece is approximately the same.
relief full annealing and normalizing.

relief, normalizing
Contd...
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 1999
IES‐1999 IES 1993
IES‐1993
Consider the following statements regarding annealing
Heatingg the hypoeutectoid
yp steels to 330oC above Which of the following statements are true of
process:
the upper critical temperature line, soaking at annealing of steels?
1. All structural imperfections are removed
that temperature and then cooling slowly to room 1. Steels are heated to 500 to 700°C.
2 The hypoeutectoid steel is heated to about 50 – 70
2. 70° C below
temperature to formf a pearlite
li and d ferrite
f i 2. Cooling is done slowly and steadily.
C li i d l l d dil
upper critical temperature.
structure, is known as 3. Internal stresses are relieved.
33. Cooling g can be done in heat treating g furnace,, byy heating
g it,,
keeping the metal in it and turning off furnace till it cools to ( ) Hardening
(a) H d i (b) Normalizing
N li i 4. Ductility of steel is increased.
D tilit f t l i i d
room temperature. (c) Tempering (d) Annealing Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
4. Uniform
f grain structure is resulted.
l d Codes:
Codes
Which of these statements are correct? (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d 3 only
l (b) 2, 3 andd 4 only
l (c) 1, 2 and 4
1 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES 2003
IES – P li
Process annealing
p q g
Temperature required for full annealing in hyper‐yp Primary object of full annealing is to
y After cold working the metal can be softened by
eutectoid steel is (a) Increase toughness and yield point
(a) 50°C above upper critical temperature (AC3) (b) Reduce ductility and resilience process annealing or "recrystallization“ to reduce the
(b) 50°C below upper critical temperate (AC3) (c) Remove foreign impurities and improve surface distortions of the crystal lattice produced by cold
((c)) 550°C above lower critical temperature (AC
p ( 1) finish
working.
working
(d) 50°C below lower critical temperature (AC1) (d) Increase ductility and machinability
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 186 of 240 Rev.0 Contd...
Isothermal annealingg IES 2010
IES 2010
IES 2005
IES‐2005
y Increases the machinability. Isothermal annealing is mainly used in alloy
The complete phase recrystallization and fine steels to improve
l i
y Heat above the upper critical point and held for some
grain structure is obtained in casting, forging and (a) Machinability
time, then rapidly cool to a temp. 600 ‐ 700
700°C,
C, and is
rolled parts by: (b) Toughness
held at this new temperature until the austenite is
(a) Recrystallization annealing (b) Normalizing (c) Ductility
completely decomposed to form pearlite.
(d) Weld ability
(c) Spheroidizing (d) Austenising
y Finally cooled in still air.
air
Contd...
Stress relief annealingg GATE 2014 (PI)
( ) Normalizing
For a metal alloy, which one of the following descriptions M i objective
Main bj ti
y Stress relief annealing process consists of three steps.
relates to the stress‐relief annealing process? 1. Refine grain, improve machinability, tensile strength and
y The ffirst step
p is heating
g the cold worked steel to a
(a) Heating the workpiece material above its structure of weld.
weld
temperature between 5000 C and 550oC C i.e. below its
recrystallization temperature. recrystallization temperature, soaking and then cooling 2. Remove cold worked stess.
y The
h second d step involves
l h ld
holding the
h steell component at this
h in still air 3. Remove
R di l ti
dislocations d to
due t hot
h t working.
ki
temperature for 1‐2 hours. (b) Heating the workpiece material below its Process
y The final step is to cool the steel component to room recrystallization temperature,
temperature holding for some time and y Heat the
h steell from
f 30°C to 50°C above
b its upper criticall
temperature in air. then furnace cooling temp, held about fifteen minutes and then allowed to cool
y It partly relieves the internal stress in cold worked steels (c) Heating the workpiece material up to its down in still air.
air
without loss of strength and hardness i.e. without change in recrystallization temperature and then rapid cooling y Homogeneous structure provides a higher yield point,
the microstructure. Since only low carbon steels can be cold
(d) Heating the workpiece up to its recrystallization ultimate tensile strength and impact strength with lower
worked,
k d theh process is i applicable
li bl to hypoeutectoid
h id steels
l
containing less than 0.4% carbon.
temperature and cooling to room temperature ductility to steels.
alternately for a few cycles Contd...
GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2000
IES‐2000
The process of reheating the reduce its brittleness Which one of the following statements is NOT Assertion (A): Normalized steel will have lower
correct for normalizing? hardness than annealed steel.
without any significant loss in its hardness is (a) It is often applied to casting to relieve stresses Reason (R): The pearlite of normalized steel is
finer and has lower intermolecular space.
space
(a) normalizing (b) annealing (b) It increases strength of medium carbon steel to
some extent (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(c) quenching (d) tempering correct explanation of A
(c) Better surface finish can be obtained in
machining correct explanation of A
(d) It increases grain size (c) A is true but R is false

S h idi i
Spheroidizing GATE 2006
GATE‐2006 IES 2003
IES‐2003
The main purpose of spheroidising treatment is to Globular form of cementite in the structure of
y Heat them to slightly above the critical temperature,
temperature improve steel is obtained through
hold them at this temp for a period of time, and then (a) Harden ability of low carbon steel (a) Normalizing
letting them cool in the furnace. ( )
(b) Mach inability of low carbon steels (b) Malleabilising
(c) Harden ability of high carbon steels ((c)) Spheroidizing
p g
y Spheroidizing produces a rounded or globular form of
(d) Mach inability of high carbon steels (d) Carbonizing
carbide.
y It improve abrasion resistance.
Quenching
The difference between the different annealing processes is Tempering
made clear in Fig., a diagram between temperature and time. y Quenching is heat treatment process where material is
y Tempering
p g is the p g martensitic steel at
process of heating
cooled at a rapid rate from elevated temperature to
l d t id t f l t d t t t
a temperature below the eutectoid transformation
produce Martensite phase.
temperature to make
k it
i softer
f andd more ductile.
d il
Comparative cooling rates of Quench Media
Brine 1.20 to 1.30 y During
g the tempering
p gpprocess,, Martensite transforms to
Water
1
Water + NaOH a structure containing iron carbide particles in a matrix
<1
or KOH
Oil 0.40 to 0.50 of ferrite.
Forced air 0.03
Still air 0.02
y Brine has fastest cooling rate of steel quenching and is
B i h f li f l hi d i
also used as secondary refrigerant.
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 2001
IES‐2001 IES 2009
IES‐2009
Match List I with List II and select the correct
gq g
Consider the following quenching media: g
Which one of the following mediums is used for
answer using the code given below the lists:
1. Oil 2.Water the fastest cooling rate of steel quenching?
List I List II
33. Water + NaOH 4 4. Brine (a) Air (b) Oil
(Q
(Quenching
hi media) di ) (St
(Structure
t produced)
d d)
The correct sequence of these media in order of (c) Water (d) Brine
A. Water 1. Coarse pearlite
increasing hardness of steel undergoing heat
g g g
B Oil
B. 2. Martensite
M i treatment is
C. Air 3. Very fine pearlite (a) 1, 3, 2, 4 (b) 2, 1, 3, 4
D. Furnace cools 4. Fine pearlite (c) 1, 2, 3, 4 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 1 4For-2015
3 2
(IES, (d) 2& PSUs)
GATE 4 3 1 Page 188 of 240 Rev.0
IES 2006
IES‐2006 M t i
Martempering
Match List‐I (Effect of Cooling) with List‐II (Cooling
Medium) and select the correct answer using the code
d ) d l h h d y Quench steel from the austenizing temperature to a
given below: bath just above Ms.
List ‐I
List I List ‐ II
List
A. Martensite 1. Water quenched y Since, austenite transforms to martensite
B. Very fine pearlite
y p 2. Air cooled
simultaneously throughout the steel,
steel the distortion in
C. Fine pearlite 3. Furnace cooled
D. Coarse pearlite 4. Oil quenched quenching is minimized.
A B C D A B C D
y This induces greater toughness in the steel.
(a) 1 4 2 3 (b) 2 3 1 4
( ) 2
(c) 3 4 1 (d) 1 2 3 4
A t i
Austempering GATE 2004
GATE‐2004
From the lists given below, choose the most appropriate set of
y This hardening process is basically the same as the heat treatment process and the corresponding process
characteristics
martempering, but has a longer holding time above Process Characteristics
P
P. Tempering 1
1. Austenite is converted into
the martensitic transformation temperature. bainite
Q. Austempering 2. Austenite is converted into
martensite
R. Martempering 3. Cementite is converted into
globular structure
4. Both hardness and brittleness are
reduced
d d
5. Carbon is absorbed into the metal
(a) P‐3 Q‐1 R‐5 (b) P‐4 Q‐3 R‐2
( ) P‐4 Q‐1 R‐2
(c) P Q R (d) P Q R
P‐1 Q‐5 R‐4
IES 1994
IES‐1994 IES 2006
IES‐2006 IES 2005
IES‐2005
g
Consider the following treatments: p g p
Tempering is a process of annealing g p
Austempering g is employed to obtain:
p y
1. Normalizing 2. Hardening (a) Martensite at low temperatures (a) 100% martensitic structure
33. Martemperingp g 4.
4 Cold working g ((b)) Martensite at higher temperatures
g p ((b)) 100% bainitic structure
Hardness and tensile strength in austenitic stainless (c) Bainite at low temperatures (c) 50% martensitic and 50% bainitic structure
steel can be increased byy (d) Bainite at higher temperatures (d) 100% pearlitic structure
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
((c)) 2 and 4
4 ((d)) 4
4 alone

IES 2004
IES‐2004 IES 2001
IES‐2001 IES 2006
IES‐2006
gp
Consider the following pairs: p g q
'Tempering' of quenched martensitic steel is p
The pattern known as Widmanstatten structure is
Heat treatment Effect on medium carbon steel necessary to improve the encountered in:
1. Normalizing g : Grain refinement (a) Hardness of the metal (a) Tempering (b) Normalizing
2. Full annealing : Uniform grain structure (b) Surface texture or the metal (c) Spheroidizing (d) Annealing
3. Martempering : Decreased ductility ((c)) Corrosion resistance of the metal
4. Spheroidizing : Maximum softness (d) Ductility or the metal
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1 2 3 and 4
GATE‐2014
G 0 Solutionizing A i
Aging
Match the heat treatment processes (Group A) and their
associated effects on properties (Group B) of medium y Solutionizing
g ((solution heat treatment),
) where the y Aging
g g finelyy dispersed
p p p
precipitate p
particle will form.
carbon
b steel
t l
Group A Group B alloy is heated to a temperature between solvus and Aging the alloy at room temperature is called natural
P T
P: Tempering
i I St
I. Strengthening and grain refinement
th i d i fi t solidus
lid temperatures and
d kept
k there
h till
ill a uniform
if solid‐
lid aging,
i whereas
h at elevated
l d temperatures is
i called
ll d
Q: Quenching II. Inducing toughness
solution structure is produced. artificial aging. Most alloys require artificial aging, and
R A
R: Annealing
li III H d i
III. Hardening
aging temperature is usually between 15‐25% of
S: Normalizing IV. Softening
P Q R S P Q R S t
temperature
t diff
difference b t
between room temperature
t t and
d
(a) III IV II I (b) II III IV I solution heat treatment temperature.
(c) III II IV I (d) II III I IV
C H d i
Case Hardening Induction hardening
Induction hardening GATE 2000
GATE‐2000
y Alternating current of high frequency passes for few Cast steel crankshaft surface is hardened byy
y In case hardening, the surface of the steel is made hard second through an induction coil enclosing the steel (a) Nitriding (b) Normalising
and wear resistant,
resistant but the core remains soft and part to be heat treated.
treated ((c)) Carburising
g ((d)) Induction heating
g
tough.
y Immediately after heating, water jets are activated to
quench the surface.
y Martensite is produced at the surface, making it hard

and wear resistant.

IES 1992
IES‐1992 Fl h d i
Flame hardening IES 1996 1997
IES‐1996; 1997
g y
Induction hardening is basically a y For large work pieces flame hardening is done by Guideways y of lathe beds are hardened by
y
(a) Carburising process (a) Carburising
means of an oxyacetylene torch.
((b)) Surface hardening process
gp ((b)) Cyaniding
y g
(c) Core‐hardening process y Heating should be done rapidly by the torch and the (c) Nitriding
(d) None of the above surface quenched.
quenched (d) Flame hardening
Laser hardening
Laser hardening C b ii
Carburizing
y Laser beams are of high intensity, a lens is used to y There is fully
y austenitic state is essential. If carburizing
g
y Carburizing is the most widely used method of surface
reduce the intensity by producing a defocused spot of hardening. is done in the ferritic region, the carbon, with very
limited solubility in ferrite, tends to form massive
si e ranging from 0.5
size 0 to 25
2 mm.
mm y Here,
Here the surface layers of low carbon steel are
cementitei particles
i l near the
h surface,
f making
ki the
h
enriched with carbon up to 0.8‐1.0%. The source of
subsequent heat treatment difficult.
carbon mayy be a solid medium, a liquid
q or a g
gas.
y For
F thisthi reason, carburizing
b i i i always
is l d
done i the
in th
y In all cases, the carbon enters the steel at the surface
austenitic state, even though longer times are required
and diffuses into the steel as a function of time at an
due to the diffusion rate of carbon in austenite being
elevated temperature.
less that in ferrite at such temperatures.
y Carburizing is done at 920‐950oC.
Contd...
IES 2011
IES 2011 GATE 1992
GATE‐1992 IES 1992
IES‐1992
Assertion (A): Carburizing is used for machine Carburized machine components p g
have high In case carburising g Carbon is introduced to form a
elements
l which
hi h have
h to have
h a wear resistant
i endurance limit because carburization high carbon layer at the surface. The carbon is
working surface.
(a) Raises the yield point of the material introduce in the form of
Reason (R) : The composition of surface layers
are changed in carburizing. (b) Produces a better surface finish (a) Graphite flakes (b) Pearlite
( )
y ((c)) Introduces a compressive
p layer
y on the surface (c) Cementite (d) Free carbon
correct explanation of A (d) Suppresses any stress’s, concentration produced in
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the component.
the correct explanation of A
h l i f A
(d) A i f l b t R i t

IES 2005
IES‐2005 C aniding
Cyaniding GATE 2003
GATE‐2003
p
If the surface of a component y stressed
is heavily y Cyaniding is done in a liquid bath of NaCN, with the g y p
Hardness of steel greatly improves with
while the stresses in the core are of comparative (a) Annealing (b) Cyaniding
small magnitude, which one of the following heat concentration varying between 30 and 97%.
((c)) Normalising
g ((d)) Tempering
p g
treatment methods
h d isi employed?
l d y The temperature used for cyaniding is lower than that
(a) Annealing (b) Tempering
for carburizing and is in the range of 800 870oC.
800‐870 C
(c) Quenching (d) Case hardening
y The time of cyaniding is 1‐3 hr to produce a case depth
of 0.25 mm or less.
Nitriding IES 1992

IES‐1992 IES 1995
IES‐1995
Q g y g
Quenching in not necessary when hardening is Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
y During nitriding, pure ammonia decomposes to yield using the codes given below the lists:
i th d i b l th li t
done by
nitrogen which enters the steel. List I (Heat treatment) List II (Effect on the
(a) Case carburizing properties)
y The temperature of nitriding is 500‐590oC. The time (b) Flame hardening A. Annealing 1. Refined grain structure
B. Nitriding 2. Improves the hardness of
for a case depth of 0.02
0 02 mm is about 2 hr.
hr ((c)) Nitridingg the whole mass
(d) Any of the above processes C. Martempering 3. Increases surface hardness
y Most of the nitrogen, that enters the steel, forms hard D. Normalising 4. Improves ductility
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D
nitrides (e.g., Fe3N).
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 1 3 4 2
y No
N phase
h change
h occurs after
ft nitriding.
it idi c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 2 1 3 4
IES 2004
IES‐2004 Precipitation & Dispersion hardening
Precipitation & Dispersion hardening
Match List I (Name of treatment) with List II (Media IAS 2009 Main y Foreign particles can also obstructs movement of
used)
d) and d select
l t the
th correctt answer usingi the
th codes
d dislocations
di l ti i.e.
i increases
i the
th strength
t th off the
th material.
t i l
given below the Lists y Foreign particles can be introduced in two ways –
List I List II precipitation
p p and mixing‐and‐consolidation
g technique.
q
A. Pack carburizing 1. Ammonia gas y Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening
B. Gas carburizing 2. Sodium cyanide because strength increases with time.
C Cyaniding
C. 3
3. Carburizing y R
Requisite
i i for
f precipitation
i i i hardening
h d i is i that
h second d phase
h
compound must be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates
D. Nitriding 4. Ethane p q
upon quenching g and aging
g g at a lower temperature.
p
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D y E.g.: Al‐alloys, Cu‐Be alloys, Mg‐Al alloys, Cu‐Sn alloys
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 2 1 3 4
y If aging occurs at room temperature – Natural aging
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 2 4 3 1
y If material need to be heated during aging – Artificial
aging.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 192 of 240 Rev.0 Contd...
y In dispersion hardening, fine second particles are IES 2009
IES‐2009
mixed with matrix powder, consolidated, and pressed
in powder metallurgy techniques.
techniques Which one of the following g materials can be
y For dispersion hardening, second phase need to have subjected to an age hardening process?
veryy low solubilityy at all temperatures.
p (a) HSS
y E.g.: oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides, etc. (b) Aluminium
y Dislocation moving through matrix embedded with ((c)) Pure iron
foreign particles can either cut through the particles or
(d) Stellite
bend around and bypass them. y Optimum strengthening occurs during aging once the right
y Cutting of particles is easier for small particles which iinterspacing of particles is achieved.
t i f ti l i hi d
can be considered as segregated solute atoms. Effective y Smaller the particles, dislocations can cut through them at
strengthening
g g is achieved in the bending g p
process, y lower stresses
when the particles are submicroscopic in size. y larger the particles they will be distributed at wider
Contd... distances.
IES 1994 2005

IES‐1994; 2005 IES 2007
IES 2007 IES 2001
IES‐2001
Assertion (A): Carburizing is done on non‐ferrous Which one among g the following
g is the most Which one of the following pairs is correctly
alloys to increase the surface hardness. effective strengthening mechanism of non‐ matched?
h d
Reason (R): Precipitation hardening of non‐ ferrous metal? (a) Solid solution strengthening… Increasing density
ferrous alloys involves solution heat treatment of dislocations
(a) Solid solution hardening (b) Dispersion hardening ………..Creating strained
followed by precipitation heat treatment.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (b) Strain hardening region in the crystal
correct explanation of A (c) Grain size refinement (c) Strain‐hardening …………....Creating particles to
resist the movement
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (d) Precipitation hardening of dislocations
correct explanation of A (d) Precipitation‐hardening….. Creating particles by
(c) A is true but R is false decreasing solubility of one
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true phase in another
h i h
Grain gro th
Grain growth S ki t i
Season cracking or stress‐corrosion IES 2007
IES 2007
y Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the g
cracking. Which one of the following g elements/ alloy
y
material
t i l is
i left
l ft att elevated
l t d temperatures.
t t
exhibits season cracking?
y Grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery
y
and recrystallization; ; it mayy occur in all p
polycrystalline
y y y Brasses with more than 15% zinc often experience (a) Iron (b) Brass
materials. season cracking or stress‐corrosion cracking. (c) Aluminium (d) Steel
y In contrary to recovery and recrystallization, driving force y Both stress and exposure to corrosive media are
for this process is reduction in grain boundary energy.
energy required for this failure to occur (but
( residual stresses
y Tendency for larger grains to grow at the expense of smaller and atmospheric moisture may be sufficient!).
grains is based on p
g physics.
y
y In practical applications, grain growth is not desirable.
y As
A a result,
l cold‐worked
ld k d brass
b i usually
is ll stress relieved
li d
y Incorporation of impurity atoms and insoluble second
(to remove the residual stresses) before being placed in
phase
h particles
i l are effective
ff i in i retarding
di graini growth.
h service.
service
y Grain growth is very strongly dependent on temperature.
IAS 1994
IAS 1994 IES 2011
IES 2011 Strengthening mechanisms in
Strengthening mechanisms in
j p
Major operations in the manufacture of steel balls Assertion (A) : The steel when heated above a Metals
used for Ball bearings are given below certaini temperature and d cooledl d to room y Ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on ease of
temperature, structure adjustment stabilizes. dislocation motion under applied external stresses.
1. Oil lapping 2. Cold heading
Reason (R) : The modification is mainly based y As
A strengthening
h i off a metall consist
i hindering
hi d i dislocation
di l i
3. Annealing 4. Hardening on cooling rate. motion. Dislocation motion can be hindered in many
55. Rough grinding
g g g ((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the ways, thus are strengthening mechanisms in metals.
The correct sequence of these operations is correct explanation of A y Strengthening by methods of grain‐size reduction, solid‐
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT solution alloying and strain hardening applies for single‐
the
l i off A phase metals.
(a) 3,2,4,1,5 (b) 3,2,1,4,5
(c) A is true but R is false y Precipitation hardening, dispersion hardening, fiber
((c)) 2,3,4,5,1
,3,4,5, ( )
(d) 2,3,5,4,1
,3,5,4,
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t strengthening
t th i and d Martensite
M t it strengthening
t th i are applicable
li bl
to multi‐phase metallic materials.
Strengthening by Grain Size

Strengthening by Grain Size
Reduction
IES‐1998
y With decrease in grain size, the mean distance of a Assertion (A): Refining the grain size of a
y This strengthening mechanism is based on the fact dislocation can travel decreases, and soon starts pile polycrystalline material renders it harder and
that crystallographic orientation changes abruptly in up of dislocations at grain boundaries. This leads to stronger.
passing from one grain to the next across the grain increase in yield strength of the material. Reason (R): Grain boundaries provide easy paths to
boundary. dislocation motion.
y Thus it is difficult for a dislocation moving on a y Grain size reduction improves not only strength, but
common slip plane in one crystal to pass over to a also the toughness of many alloys. explanation of A
similar slip plane in another grain, especially if the y Grain size can be controlled by rate of cooling, and also (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
orientation is very misaligned.
i t ti i i li d b l i d f
by plastic deformation followed by appropriate heat
i f ll d b i h correct explanation of A
y In addition, the crystals are separated by a thin non‐ treatment. (c) A is true but R is false
crystalline region which is the characteristic structure
crystalline region, which is the characteristic structure (d) A is false but R is true
A i f l b t R i t
of a large angle grain boundary.
Contd…
IES 2010
IES 2010 Solid Solution
Solid Solution
GATE‐1998 Assertion (A): Polycrystalline material is stronger y A solid solution is formed when two metals are
Decreasing
D i grain i size
i ini a polycrystalline
l t lli material
t i l than ordinary one.
than ordinary one completely soluble in liquid state and also completely
(a) Increases yield strength and corrosion resistance. Reason (R): Crystals in polycrystalline material soluble in solid state. In other words, when
homogeneous
g mixtures of two or more kinds of atoms
(b) Decreases
D yield
i ld strength
h andd corrosion
i resistance
i have different orientations with respect to each
(of metals) occur in the solid state, they are known as
other. solid solutions.
(c) Decreases yield strength but increases corrosion
resistance
i t (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the y The
Th more abundant
b d t atomic
t i formf i referred
is f d as solvent
l t
correct explanation of A and the less abundant atomic form is referred as
(d) Increases yield strength but decreases corrosion
resistance.
resistance (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the solute.
correct explanation of A y Example is brass. Brass is a solid solution of copper (64
((c)) A is true but R is false percent) and zinc (36 percent). In this case copper
atoms are solvent
l atoms whereas
h zinc
i atoms are solute
l
(d) A is false but R is true atoms.
TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS 1 Substitutional Solid Solutions
1. Substitutional Solid Solutions S lid l bili
Solid solubility
y Solid solutions are of two types. y If the atoms of the solvent or parent metal are replaced y Extent of solid solubility
y in a two element system
y can be
in
i the
h crystall lattice
l i by b atoms off the
h solute
l metall then
h predicted based on Hume‐Ruthery conditions.
y They are:
the solid solution is known as substitutional solid y If the system obeys these conditions, then complete solid
(a) Substitutional solid solutions. solution.
solution solubilityy can be expected.
p
Hume‐Ruthery conditions:
(b) Interstitial solid solutions. y For example, copper atoms may substitute for nickel y Crystal structure of each element of solid solution must be
atoms without disturbing the F.C.C. F C C structure of the same.
same
nickel. y Size of atoms of each two elements must not differ by more
than 15%.
y In the substitutional solid solutions, the substitution
y Elements
l should
h ld not form
f compounds
d with h each
h other
h i.e.
can be either disordered or ordered. there should be no appreciable difference in the electro
y Hume Rothery y formulated certain rules which govern
g negativities of the two elements.
the formation of substitutional solid solutions. y Elements should have the same valence.
2 Interstitial Solid Solutions

2. Interstitial Solid Solutions IES 2011
IES 2011
y In interstitial solid solutions, the solute atom does not y In this system the carbon (solute atom) atom occupies Assertion (A) : Solid solutions of metal are
displace
di l a solvent
l atom, but
b rather
h it i enters one off the
h an interstitial position between iron (solvent atom) crystall whose
h propertiesi are close
l to those
h off
holes or interstices between the solvent atoms. atoms. the solvent.
y An
A excellent
ll t example l is
i iron‐carbon
i b system
t which
hi h isi y Normally,
Normally atoms which have atomic radii less than one Reason (R) : They retain the same crystal lattice
shown in Fig. angstrom are likely to form interstitial solid solutions. and type of bond.
y Examples are atoms of carbon (0.77
(0 77 A
A°)), nitrogen (0.71
(0 71 ((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the
A°), hydrogen (0.46 A°), Oxygen (0.60 A°) etc. correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT
the
l i off A
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
Contd…
INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS
INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS IES 2010
IES 2010
IES‐2001 Consider the following:
y Intermetallic compounds are generally formed when
one metall (for
(f example l magnesium)
i ) hash chemical
h i l Which of the following factors govern solubility of
two non‐ferrous metals both in liquid state, as 1. Crystal structure 2. Relative size
properties which are strongly metallic and the other
metal (for example antimony,
antimony tin or bismuth) has well as in solid state? 33. Chemical affinityy 4
4. Valencyy
chemical properties which are only weakly metallic. 1.Crystal structure 2.Relative size factor Which of these factors govern relative
y Examples of intermetallic compounds are Mg2Sn, Mg2Sn 3.Chemical‐affinity factor 4.Relative valence solubility of two metals in each other in the
factor
Mg2Pb, Mg3Sb2 and Mg3 Bi2. solid state?
y These intermetallic compounds have higher melting (a) 1,
1 2 and 3 only
C d
Codes:
point than either of the parent metal.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
y This higher
g melting gppoint indicates the high
g strength
g
( ) 1 and 4
(c) d (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
d (c) 1, 2 and 4 only
of the chemical bond in intermetallic compounds.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 195 of 240 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Rev.0
IES 2010
IES 2010
IES‐2006 Allotropic transformation An allotropic material has
Which
Whi h one off the th following
f ll i factors
f t is
i more y When metals solidify,
solidify they assume a crystalline structure; that
is, the atoms arrange themselves in a geometric lattice. (a) Fixed structure at all temperatures
relevant to represent complete solubility of two
y Many metals exist in only one lattice form. Some, however, can ((b)) Atoms distributed in random ppattern
metals in each other? exist
i t in
i the
th solid
lid state
t t in
i two
t or more lattice
l tti forms,
f th particular
the ti l
(a) Chemical affinity (b) Valency factor form depending on the conditions of temperature and pressure. (c)Different crystal structures at different
Such metals are said to be allotropic or polymorphic, and the
(c) Crystal structure factor (d) Relative size factor change
h f
from one lattice
l i form
f to another
h is i called
ll d an allotropic
ll i temperatures
transformation. (d) Fixed structure but random atom distribution
y The most notable example p of such a metal is iron, where the
allotropic change makes it possible for heat‐treating procedures
to produce a wide range of final properties.
y It is largely because of its allotropy that iron has become the
basis of our most important alloys.
Plain Carbon steel

Plain‐Carbon steel IES 2005
IES‐2005
y Due to lack of tensile strength and hardness pure iron
is not used.
i d
1. Strength of steel increases with carbon content.
y Most important alloy’s element is carbon.
2 Young
2. Young's Modulus of steel increases with carbon
s Modulus of steel increases with carbon
y Maximum amount of carbon that can be alloyed with
content.
iron is 6.67%.
3. Young
Young's Modulus of steel remains unchanged with
s Modulus of steel remains unchanged with
y Alloy containing upto
All i i 2% carbon is steel and above 2%
% b i l d b %
variation of carbon content.
are caused cost Iron.
g /
Hardness
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
N
Strength Reduction area
BH
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3
0.02 1.4
%Carbon 0.02 %Carbon
Low carbon steel: (less than 0 3%C)

Low‐carbon steel: (less than 0.3%C)
y Good formability and weld ability but lack hardenability IES 2005
IES‐2005 IES 1995
IES‐1995
y Used in hot‐forming, cold‐forming etc. g
Consider the following statements about medium Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
Medium carbon steel or Mild steel (0.3% to 0.8 % carbon) carbon steel: using the codes given below the lists:
y high toughness & ductility List I (Alloy) List II (Use)
y Most widely used steel
y 1. It can be quench‐hardened but not case‐hardened.
y Heat treatable (austenitizing, quenching and tempering). 2. It cannot be quench‐hardened but case‐hardening A Low carbon steel
A. L b l 1. B i
Bearing
y Hardenability is increased by adding Ni, Cr, Mo. can be done. B. Hadfield manganese steel 2. Thermocouple
y Used in various tempered conditions
Used in various tempered conditions. 3. It exhibits distinct yield point under tension test.
It hibit di ti t i ld i t d t i t t C Constantan
C. 3
3. Wire nails
Wire nails.
y Typical applications: gears, railway tracks, machine parts. D. Babbitt alloy 4. Bulldozer
Which of the following statements given above are
High carbon steel (more the 0.8 %C) blades.
y Hardness & wear resistance are high but Toughness &
correct?
formability is very low (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Note⇒ purest form of Iron i.e. wrought iron has least carbon (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 4 1 2
content.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
( ) 3
(c) 2 1 4 (d) 3 4 2 1

IES 2005
IES‐2005 IES 2007
IES 2007 IAS 2002
IAS‐2002
( ) ( pp )
Match List I (Steel) with List II (Application) and Match List I (Percentage of carbon content in plain carbon steel) with
Which of the following factors influence in a plain List II (Application) and select the correct answer using the codes
select the correct answer using the code given below carbon steel? given below the lists:
the Lists: List I List II
List I List II g
1. Percentage carbon ((Percentage of carbon content
g ((Application)
pp )
in plain carbon steel)
A. Mild Steel 1. Ball bearing 2. Quenching media A. 0∙10 ‐ 0∙20 1.Drop hammers
B. Tool Steel 2. Cold chisels 3. Work size B. 0∙30 ‐ 0∙40 2.Razors
C. 0∙60 ‐ 0∙70 3.Structures
C. High Carbon Steel 3. Shaft and axles Select the correct answer using the code given below D. 1∙10 ‐ 1∙40 4.Crane hooks
D. Medium Carbon Steel 4. Rolled steel sections (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
( ) 3
(a) 4 2 1 (b) 4 3 1 2
Codes:A B C D A B C D (c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
( ) 2
(c) 3 4 1 (d) 4
(d) 1 2 3
GATE 1992
GATE‐1992
The true strain for a low carbon steel bar which is
doubled in length by forging is
((a)) 0.307
3 7
(b) 0.5
(c) 0.693
(d) 1.0
Fig Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
Fe C equilibrium diagram
Fe‐C equilibrium diagram
y The structural form of pure iron at room temperature
is
i called f i or α ‐iron.
ll d ferrite i
y Ferrite is soft and ductile.
y Since ferrite has a body‐centred cubic structure, the
inter‐atomic spaces are small and pronouncedly
oblate, and cannot readily accommodate even a small
oblate
carbon atom. Therefore, solubility of carbon in ferrite
is very low, of the order of 0.006% at room
temperature.
y The maximum carbon content in ferrite is 0.05%
5 at 77233
°C.
Fig Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram Orthorhombic Fe
Page3C. Iron atoms are blue.
197 of 240 Rev.0 Contd…
y In
I addition
dditi t carbon,
to b t i amountt off silicon,
a certain ili y In
I iron‐carbon
i b ll
alloys, b
carbon i excess off the
in th solubility
l bilit
y The maximum solubility is only 2% of carbon at 11 limit must form a second phase, which is called iron
manganese and phosphorous may be found in ferrite.
30°C. carbide or cementite.
y The face centred modification of iron is called
face‐centred
austenite or γ ‐iron. It is the stable form of pure iron at y Above 1400°C, austenite is no longer the most stable y Iron carbide has the chemical composition of Fe3C . This
temperatures between 910°C and 1400°C. At its stable form of iron, and the crystal structure changes back to does not mean that iron carbide forms molecules of
temperature austenite i i soft
is f and d ductile
d il and d a body‐centred
b d d cubic
bi phase
h called
ll d delta
d l iron.
i Thi is
This i Fe3C but simply that the crystal lattice contains iron and
α ‐iron except for its carbon atoms in a three ‐to‐ one ratio.
consequently, is well suited for manufacturing the same phase as the
processes. y The compound Fe3C has an orthorhombic unit cell with
temperature range.
range twelve iron atoms and four carbon atoms per cell, and thus
y The face‐centred cubic structure of iron has larger y The solubility of carbon in δ ‐ferrite is small, but it is has a carbon content of 6.67%.
inter‐atomic spacing than in ferrite. Even so, in FCC appreciably larger than In α ‐ferrite
ferrite, because of higher y As compared to austenite and ferrite,
ferrite cementite being an
structure the interstices are barely large enough to inter‐metallic compound, is very hard and brittle.
temperature. The maximum solubility of carbon in
accommodate carbon atoms, and lattice strains are
&iron is 0.1% at 1490°C.
49 y The presence of iron carbide with ferrite in steel greatly
produced As a result,
produced. result not all the interstitial sites can increases the
h strength
h off steel.
l
be filled at any one time.
y In the reaction, the simultaneous formation of ferrite y The alloy containing 0.80% of carbon is called the y Fe‐Fe3C phase diagram is characterized by five individual

and cementite from austenite results at the eutectoid steel. phases,: α–ferrite (BCC) Fe‐C solid solution, γ‐austenite (FCC)
temperature of 723 C and composition of 0.80%
723°C 0 80% Fe‐C solid solution, δ‐ferrite (BCC) Fe‐C solid solution, Fe
F C lid l ti δ f it (BCC) F C lid l ti F 3C
y Upon cooling the eutectoid steel below 723°C, all of
carbon. (iron carbide) or cementite ‐ an inter‐metallic compound and
the austenite is transformed into pearlite.
y There are nearlyy 12% of iron carbide and slightly
g y more liquid Fe‐C solution and four invariant reactions:
than 88% of ferrite in the resulting mixture. y Alloys with less than 0.80% C are called hypo‐
All i h l h 8 % C ll d h
y Since the ferrite and cementite are formed eutectoid steels and those with higher composition are y peritectic reaction at 1495 oC and 0.16%C, δ‐ferrite + L↔ γ‐
simultaneously,
i lt l th
they are i ti t l
intimately mixed.
i d called hyper eutectoid steels
called hyper‐eutectoid steels. i (
iron (austenite)
i )
Characteristically, the mixture is lamellar, i.e., it is y monotectic reaction 1495 oC and 0.51%C, L ↔ L + γ‐iron
composed
p of alternate layers
y of ferrite and cementite. (austenite)
y This micro‐structure is called pearlite which is very y eutectic reaction at 1147 oC and 4.3 %C, L ↔ γ‐iron + Fe3C
important in iron and steel technology, because it can (cementite) [ledeburite]
b formed
be f d in
i almost
l all
ll steels
l by
b means off suitable
i bl y eutectoid reaction at 723 oC and 0.8%C, γ‐iron ↔ α– ferrite +
heat treatments. Fe3C (cementite) [pearlite]
IES‐2004 IES‐1992
Three
Three‐ phase reactions Consider the following temperature ranges:
C id th f ll i t t The microstructure composition of pearlite for a
y Suffix – ic denotes at least one liquid phase is there 1. Room temperature 2. 0 to 910°C Fe3C diagram consists of
y Suffix
Suffix – oid all phases involve are solid oC oC to below melting (a) Carbon dissolved in alpha iron having a body
3. 910°C to 1400
°C 4. 1400
C b l l i cantered cubic structure.
point
(b) Carbon dissolved in gama iron having a face
I hi h f th b t
In which of the above temperature ranges ferrite with
t f it ith cantered cubic structure.
body centered cubic structure is indicated in, the Fe‐ (c) A mixture of body‐cantered alpha iron and face‐
Fe3C phase diagram? entered gamma iron
(a)1, 2 and 4 (b)2, 3 and 4 (c)1 and 3 (d)2 and 3 (d) Carbon dissolved in body‐cantered alpha iron and
an Fe, Fe3C.

IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 2010
IES 2010
Liquid + solid (1) on cooling converting solid (2) Iron‐carbon equilibrium diagram Pearlite phase in an iron‐carbide phase
reaction is known as: (a) Correlates the microstructure and properties of diagram
di is
i
(a) Eutectoid reaction steel and cast iron (a) Eutectic phase
(b) Eutectic reaction (b) Indicates the phase changes occurring during (b) Hypoeutectic mixture
(c) Peritectic reaction heatingg and coolingg (c) Eutectoidal mixture
(d) Peritectioid reaction (c) Is made by plotting carbon percentage along X‐ (d) Hypereutectic phase
axis and temperature along Yaxis.
Yaxis
(d) All of the above
IES 1995
IES‐1995 IES 2004
IES‐2004 IES 1995
IES‐1995
Match List I with List II and select the correct y y 5 y g
An iron‐carbon binary alloy has 0.5% C by weight. Eutectoid reaction occurs at
answer using the codes given below the lists: What is this alloy called? (a) 600°C
List I (Name of Material) List II (% Carbon Range) (a) Eutectoid alloy ((b)) 7723°C
3
A Hypo‐eutectoid
A. id steell 1. 4.3 ‐ 6.67 (b) Eutectic alloy (c) 1147°C
B. Hyper‐eutectoid steel 2. 2.0 ‐ 4.3
((c)) Hypo‐eutectoid alloy
yp y (d) 1493
1493°C
C
C Hypo‐eutectic
C. H t ti castt iron
i 3. 0.8
8 ‐ 2.0
(d) Hypereutectoid alloy
D. Hyper‐eutectic cast iron 4. 0.008 ‐ 0.8
Codes A B
Codes:A C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 1 2 3 4
IES 2005
IES‐2005 GATE 1992
GATE‐1992 IES 2006
IES‐2006
The eutectoid of carbon in iron,, above lower Match the terms used in connection with heat‐treatment of steel with
the micro structural/physical characteristics:
Match List‐I (Fe‐Fe3C Phase Diagram Characteristic) with
List‐II
Li II (Phase)
(Ph ) and
d select
l the
h correct answer using
i the h code
d
critical temperature, when cooled, results in: Terms Characteristics given below the Lists:
(A) Pearlite (P)Extremely hard and brittle phase
(a) Ferrite and austenite List‐I List‐II
1. δ iron
(B) Martensite (Q)Cementite is finely dispersed in ferrite
A. Alpha (α) iron
(b) Ferrite and cementite (C) Austenite (R)Alternate layers of cementite and ferrite
(D) Eutectoid (S)Can exist only above 723°C B. Iron carbide having crystal lattice 2.Eutectic
((c)) Cementite and austenite ( )
(T)Pertaining to state of equilibrium between three
g q with
t 3 iron
o aandd 1 ca
carbon
bo ato
atom
solid phases C. BCC pure allotrope of iron is stable 3.Ferrite
(d) Ferrite, cementite and austenite (U)Pertaining to state of equilibrium between one
between 1388 °C and is melting
liquid and two solid phase
Codes: A B C D A B C D point at 1535
1535°C
C 4 Cementite
4.Cementite
(a) R P S T (b) R S P T Codes:A B C A B C
(c) T R P S (d) T R S P (a) 4 2 3 (b) 3 4 1
( ) 4
(c) 2 1 ( )
(d) 3 1 2

IES 2002
IES‐2002 IES 1999
IES‐1999 IES 1993
IES‐1993
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer: In a eutectic system, two elements are completely Eutectic reaction for iron carbon system occurs at
Eutectic reaction for iron‐carbon system occurs at
List I (Phase diagram) List II (Characteristic)
A. Isomorphous system 1.One liquid decomposes into another (a) Insoluble in solid and liquid states (a) 600°C
liquid and solid
BE
B.Eutectic
i system 2.One
O liquid
li id and
d another
h solid
lid combine
bi to (b) Soluble in liquid state (b) 723
723°C
C
form a new solid (c) Soluble in solid state (c) 1147°C
C.Peritectic system 3.Two metals are completely soluble in
liquid state And completely insoluble in (d) Insoluble in liquid state (d) 1493
1493°C
C
solid state
D.Monotectic system 4.Two metals, soluble in solid and liquid
state
(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1
IES 2000
IES‐2000 IES 2007
IES 2007 IES 2005
IES‐2005
During peritectic solidification, one liquid Which one of the following g is the correct Increase of ferrite phase in steel increases:
(a) Combines with one solid to form a second new statement? (a) Strength
solid Pearlite in iron‐carbon system is a
(b) Hardness
(b) Solidifies into two different solids (a) Phase consisting of ferrite and cementite at room
temperature (c) Ductility
(c) Forms one solid (b) Mechanical
M h i l mixturei t off ferrite
f it and d cementite
tit att (d) Brittleness
(d) Forms one solid and another liquid room temperature
(c) Eutectic mixture ferrite and cementite at room
temperature
((d)) All the above three are correct
IES 2005
IES‐2005 IES 2000
IES‐2000 IES 1997
IES‐1997
A 60 C plain carbon steel has, approximately:
A 60 C‐plain carbon steel has, approximately: Pearlite consists of A given steel test specimen is studied under
(a) 75% of pearlite and 25% of ferrite (a) 6.67% C and 93.33% ferrite metallurgical microscope. Magnification used is
(b) 25% of pearlite and 75% of ferrite (b) 13% Fe and 87% cementite 100 X. In that different phases are observed. One
of them is Fe3C. The observed phase Fe3C is also
(c) 75% of cementite and 25% of ferrite (c) 13% C and 87% ferrite known as
(d) 75% of pearlite and 25% of cementite (d) 13% cementite and 87% ferrite (a) Ferrite
(b) Cementite
(c) Austenite
(d) Martensite

IES 1995
IES‐1995 IES 2001
IES‐2001 1 E i ( F C)
1. Eutectic ( Fe‐C)
Which one of the following sets of constituents is Martensite is a super saturated solution of carbon
super‐saturated y (L1→S1+S2)
expected in equilibrium cooling of a in y Two materials are completely soluble in liquid state
hypereutectoid steel from austenitic state? ((a)) Alpha
p iron and completely
p y insoluble in solid state.
(a) Ferrite and pearlite (b) Beta iron
((b)) Cementite and ppearlite (c) Gamma iron
L
(c) Ferrite and bainite (d) Delta iron ∝+ L
β +L
((d)) Cementite and martensite ∝
∝+ β β
2 P i i ( Fe‐C)
2. Peritectic ( F C) 3 M i FeO
3. Monotectic F O2‐SiO
SiO2 4 S i Na‐Zn
4. Syntectic N Z
y (L+S1→S2) y (L1→S1+L2) y (L1+L2→S1)
y One Liquid and another solid combine to form a new y One Liquid decomposes into another liquid and solid.
solid. L L
∝
L L1
L 1+L 2
L ∝
L
L+∝ L1 L2
∝ ∝
B
∝+ β β β
β+L
L ∝ L2 ∝ + L2
L1 L1 L 2
L+ L2
∝
L1+ ∝ L2+∝
5 E id F C
5. Eutectoid Fe‐C 6 P i id Cu‐Al
6. Peritectoid C Al y Isomorphus
I h system: In
I a binary
bi h there
system when h i
is
complete inter‐solubility between components in all
y (S1→S2+S3) y S1 + S2→S3 phases,
phases the system is isomorphus.
isomorphus
Ex: Cu‐Ni, Al2O3‐Cr2O3, NiO‐MgO
∝
β
∝ y Azeotropic system: Some of isomorphus binary
β system, the liquidus touches, the solid tangentially at a
minimum temperature which is lower then milting
∝+
ϒ
ϒ ϒ+ β
temperature of either of the two components.
∝ β ∝+r
+
Au‐Cu, Au‐Ni
L
∝+L
∝+ β ∝ ⏐ ∝+L
∝
∝+ β β T
β+
⏐ ∝+p
r
A B
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 201 of 240 Composition B →w/o Rev.0
IES 2007
IES 2007 IES 2004
IES‐2004 L R l
Lever Rule
y At a point in a phase diagram, phases present and their composition (tie‐line
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the Consider the following lead tin phase diagram
lead‐tin ) g p ( ) p
method) along with relative fraction of phases (lever rule) can be computed.
code given below the Lists:
d i b l th Li t y Relative amount of liquid and solid phases is given respectively by:
List I List II given below: cV Uc
CL = CS = CL + CS = 1
(Name of the Invariant (Invariant Reaction during For which one of the following g alloy
y compositions,
p , UV UV
Reaction) cooling) y Therefore it is not restricted to solid phases only.
A. Monotectic 1.LIQUID….SOLID1 + SOLID2 the alloy will have the lowest melting point at 185oC
B. Eutectic 2.LIQUID1…..LIQUID2 + SOLID ((a)) 20% Sn and 80% Pb byy weightg
C
C. E t t id
Eutectoid 3.SOLID1…..SOLID1 + SOLID2
SOLID SOLID SOLID
D. Peritectic 4.LIQUID + SOLID1…..SOLID2 (b) 60% Sn and 40% Pb by weight
Code: A B C D A B C D ((c)) 97
97% Sn and 33% Pb byy weight
g
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 2 4 3 1 (d) 40% Sn and 60% Pb byweight
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 4
IES 2008
IES‐2008
Example
a pe
y In a binary system of A and B, if a liquid of 35% A (65%
Assertion (A): Lever Rule can be applied to determine B) is co‐exists with a solid of 75% A (25% B), for an
relative
l amounts off phasesh present at any overall composition of 40% A, the fraction of the liquid
temperature.
is given by
Reason (R): Lever Rule is restricted to estimate
relative phases, only if they are solid phases.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
off A 75 − 40
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct CL = = 0.875
explanation of A 75 − 35
F C ll l ifi i
Fe‐C alloy classification IES 2003
IES‐2003
y Fe C alloys are classified according to wt.% C present
Fe‐C alloys are classified according to wt.% C present According to Gibbs
Gibbs' phase rule, the number of
in the alloy for technological convenience as follows: degrees of freedom of an eutectic point in a binary
y Commercial pure irons
p % C < 0.008 system is
y Low‐carbon/mild steels 0.008 ‐ %C ‐ 0.3 (a) 1
y Medium carbon steels 0.3 ‐ %C
0.3 %C ‐ 0.8 ((b)) 2
y High‐carbon steels 0.8‐ %C ‐ 2.11 (c) 0
y Cast irons 2 11 < %C
2.11 < %C ((d)) 3

Cast Iron
Cast Iron
y The properties of cast iron which make it a valuable
y The cast iron is obtained by
y re‐melting
gp g iron with
pig
coke and limestone in a furnace known as cupola. material for engineering purposes are its low cost,
y It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. good
g casting
g characteristics, high
g compressive
p
y The carbon content in cast iron varies from more than strength, wear resistance and excellent machinability.
2 per cent to 4.5 per cent.
y The
Th compressive
i strength
t th off castt iron
i i much
is h greater
t
y The carbon in a cast iron is present in either of the
than the tensile strength.
following two forms:
1. Free carbon or graphite, and
2. Combined carbon or cementite.
Contd…
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 2005
IES‐2005 IES 1999
IES‐1999
Assertion (A): A cast iron specimen shall fail due to
g
Consider the following statements: Cast iron is used for machine beds because of its
shear when subjected to a compressive load.
load
1. Cast Iron has poor ability to damp vibrations. high
Reason (R): Shear strength of cast iron in
g p
2. Cast Iron has higher compressive strength g (a) Tensile strength
compression is more than half its compressive
strength. compared to that of steel. (b) Endurance strength
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 33. Cast Iron parts are suitable where permanent
p p ((c)) Damping capacity
p g p y
correct explanation of A deformation is preferred over fracture. (d) Compressive strength
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
correct explanation of A (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
((c)) A is true but R is false ((c)) 33 only
y ((d)) 2 onlyy
IES 1998
IES‐1998 IES 1997
IES‐1997 IAS 2003
IAS‐2003
g y
Assertion (A): Cast iron is generally hard, brittle and ( ) y
Assertion (A): The notch sensitivity of cast iron Consider the following statements:
wear resistant. component is zero. 1. From design considerations, it is always
Reason (R): Cast iron contains more than 2% carbon Reason (R): Cast iron does not have a yield point. advantageous to place cast iron ribs on the tension
and as such the percentage cementite
d h h i in it is higher.
i i i hi h side rather than on the compression side.
side rather than on the compression side
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct 2. Cast iron is an excellent choice for machine tool
correct explanation of A guides and frames.
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the 3. Cast iron parts have low notch sensitivity.
p
correct explanation of A Which of these statements are correct?
(c) A is true but R is false (c) A is true but R is false (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
((d)) A is false but R is true (d) A is false but R is true ((c)) 1 and 3
3 ((d)) 1 and 2

IES 1992
IES‐1992 T pes of Cast Iron
Types of Cast Iron 1 Gre cast iron
1. Grey cast iron
g
Which of the following metal shrinks most from y Cast irons that were slowlyy cooled to room y Carbon = 3 to 33.5%;
5 ;
molten state to solid state? temperature consist of cementite, look whitish – white y The grey colour is due to the fact that the carbon is
(a) Cast iron (b) Cast steel cast iron. present in the form of free graphite.
(c) Brass (d) Admiralty metal y If it contains graphite, look grayish – gray cast iron. y It has a low tensile strength, high compressive strength
y It is heat treated to have graphite in form of nodules – and no ductility.
malleable cast iron. y It can be easily machined.
y If inoculants are used in liquid state to have graphite y A very good property of grey cast iron is that the free
nodules
d l – spheroidal
h d l graphite
h (SG)
( ) cast iron. graphite in its structure acts as a lubricant. Due to this
reason, it is very suitable for those parts where sliding
action
i isi desired.
d i d
Contd… Contd…
IES 1994
IES‐1994 IES 2005
IES‐2005
y The grey iron castings are widely used for machine tool Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?
Assertion (A): Machine tool beds are generally
bodies,
bodies automotive cylinder blocks,
blocks heads,
heads housings,
housings made of grey cast iron. (Designation of Steel/Cast Iron)
(D i ti f St l/C t I ) (Description)
(D i ti )
fly‐wheels, pipes and pipe fittings and agricultural 1. Fe E 250 :Minimum tensile
Reason (R): Cast iron possesses good self‐ strength of 250
implements. lubricating properties.
lubricating properties N/mm2
2. 40 C 8 :Percentage of
y The grey cast iron is designated by the alphabets ‘FG’ (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the Manganese is 0.7% ‐
followed byy a figure
g indicating
g the minimum tensile correct explanation of A 0.9%
strength in MPa or N/mm2. For example, ‘FG 150’ 3. FG 200 :Grey cast iron with
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the ultimate tensile strength
means grey cast iron with 150 MPa or N/mm2 as correct explanation of A of 200 N/mm2
minimum tensile strength. S l t th
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
t i th d i b l
(c) A is true but R is false (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(d) A is false but R is true (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
GATE 2004
GATE‐2004 IES 2007
IES 2007 IES 2003
IES‐2003
p g g y
The percentage of carbon in gray cast iron is in the p g y
Vibration damping in machinery is best achieved Machine tool manufacturers prefer grey cast‐iron
range of by means of base structures made of which one of grade 40 for producing machine columns and
the following materials? tables because grey cast‐iron is
(a) 0.25 to 0.75 percent
(a) Low carbon steel 1 Heavy
1. 2
2. Easily castable
(b) 1.25 to 1.75 percent
3. Easily weldable 4. Having good
((c)) 33 to 4 percent
4p (b) Nodular iron damping capacity
(d) 8 to 10 percent (c) Grey cast iron Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(d) White cast iron C
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4
((c)) 1 and 33 ((d)) 33 and 4
4

IES 1993
IES‐1993 2 White cast iron
2. White cast iron IES 2005
IES‐2005
Assertion (A): Fracture surface of grey cast iron is y Carbon = 1.75
75 to 2.3%.
3 g
Which of the following materials is used in the
dark. y The white colour is due to fact that it has no graphite manufacture of extrusion nozzles?
Reason (R): Failure takes place along the weak and whole of the carbon is in the form of carbide (a) Grey cast iron
cementite plates.
plates (known as cementite) which is the hardest constituent (b) Malleable cast iron
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the of iron.
correct explanation of A ((c)) White cast iron
y The white cast iron has a high tensile strength and a
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (d) Nodular cast iron
correct explanation of A low compressive strength.
3 Chilled cast iron

3. Chilled cast iron 4 Mottled cast iron
4. Mottled cast iron 5 Malleable cast iron
5. Malleable cast iron
y It is a white cast iron p
produced byy q g of
quick cooling y It is a p
product in between g
greyy and white cast iron in y The malleable iron is a cast iron‐carbon alloy
y which
molten iron. composition, colour and general properties. solidifies in the as‐cast condition in a graphite free
y The quick cooling is generally called chilling and the y It is obtained in castings where certain wearing structure, i.e. total carbon content is present in its
cast iron so produced is called chilled cast iron. surfaces have been chilled. combined
bi d form
f as cementite
i (Fe
( 3C).
C)
y Chills are used on any faces of a casting which are y It is ductile and may be bent without breaking or
required to be hard to withstand wear and friction. f t i the
fracturing th section.
ti
y The tensile strength of the malleable cast iron is
usuall higher than that of grey
usually gre cast iron and has
excellent machining qualities.
Contd…
y It is used for machine parts for which the steel forgings

1 Black‐heart process
1. Black‐heart process 2 White‐heart process
2. White‐heart process
y In this process the white iron castings are heated in y In this process the castings are packed into airtight boxes
would be too expensive and in which the metal should g g
with iron oxide in the form of high‐grade ore.
airtight boxes out of contact with air at 850 950 deg C for
850‐950
have
h a fair
f i degree
d off accuracy, e.g. hubs
h b off wagon y They are then heated to about 1000 deg C for between 70
50‐170 hours, depending upon the mass and thickness of
wheels, small fittings for railway rolling stock, brake and 100 hours, depending upon the mass and thickness of
the castings.
supports, parts of agricultural machinery, pipe fittings, the castings.
castings
door hinges, locks etc. y The effect of this prolonged heating is to break down the
y The ore oxidises the carbon in the castings and draws it
y In order to obtain malleable iron castings, it is first cast iron carbide (cementite) of the white cast iron into small
out, leaving a ferritic structure near the surface and a
into moulds
ld off white
h cast iron. Then
h byb a suitablebl heat
h rosettes of graphite.
graphite pearlitic structure near the centre of the casting.
treatment (i.e. annealing), the combined carbon of the y The name 'black‐heart' comes from the darkened y There will also be some fine rosettes of graphite.
white cast iron is separated into nodules of graphite.
graphite appearance of the iron, when fractured, resulting from the y Whit h t castings
White‐heart ti b h
behave muchh as expected
t d off a mild
ild
y There are two process: formation of free graphite. steel casting, but with the advantage of a very much lower
1. Black
Black‐heart
heart process, y It is used in the wheel hubs, break drums, conduit fitting melting point and higher fluidity at the time of casting.
control levers and pedals. y It is used in the wheel hubs, bicycle and motor cycle frame
2. White‐heart process
fittings, gas, water and steam pipe fittings.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 205 of 240 Rev.0
IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES 1992
IES‐1992 6 Nodular or spheroidal graphite
6. Nodular or spheroidal graphite
g p yp p
Which of the following display properties similar For the pipe fitting like elbow, tee, union etc. cast iron
to that of steel which of the following is preferred? y The nodular or spheroidal graphite cast iron is also
1. Black‐heart cast iron ((a)) Pig iron
g called ductile cast iron or high
g strength
g cast iron.
2. White‐heart cast iron (b) Malleable iron y This type of cast iron is obtained by adding small
33. Gray cast iron
y (c) Spheroidal graphite cast iron amounts of magnesium (0.1 to 0.8%) to the molten
4. Pig iron grey iron.
(d) High carbon steel
((a)) 1 and 2 onlyy ((b)
) 33 and 4 only
4 y y The addition of magnesium causes the graphite to take
form of small nodules or spheroids instead of the
normal angular flakes.
Contd…
y It has high fluidity, castability, tensile strength,

IES 2001
IES‐2001 IES 2009
IES‐2009
g
toughness, , wear resistance,, p g
pressure tightness, , g y g y
Nodular grey cast iron is obtained from the grey g
Which one of the following cast irons consists of
weldability and machinability. cast iron by adding a small amount of carbon in rosette form?
y It is ggenerallyy used for castings
g requiring
q g shock and (a) Manganese (a) White cast iron
impact resistance along with good machinability, such (b) Phosphorus (b) Gray cast iron
as hydraulic cylinders, cylinder heads, rolls for rolling ((c)) Magnesium
g ((c)) Malleable cast iron
mill
ll andd centrifugally
f ll cast products.
d
(d) Chromium (d) Nodular cast iron
y SG 400/15 means spheroidal graphite cast iron with
400 MPa
MP as minimum
i i tensile
il strength
h andd 15 percent
elongation.
IES 1995
IES‐1995 Wro ght Iron
Wrought Iron Effect of Imp rities on Cast Iron
Effect of Impurities on Cast Iron
g
Addition of magnesium to cast iron increases its y It is the p
purest iron which contains at least 99 5 iron
99.5% 1. Silicon. It mayy be p p 4
present in cast iron upto 4%. It
(a) Hardness but may contain upto 99.9% iron. provides the formation of free graphite which makes
((b)) Ductility and strength in tension
y g y The wrought iron is produced from pig iron by the iron soft and easily machinable. It also produces
remelting it in the puddling furnace of reverberatory sound d castings
i f
free f
from bl
blow‐holes,
h l b
because off its
i
(c) Corrosion resistance high affinity for oxygen.
type.
(d) Creep strength.
y The wrought iron is a tough, malleable and ductile
material. 2. Sulphur. It makes the cast iron hard and brittle. Since
y It can be
b easily
l forged
f d or welded.
ld d It is used
d for
f chains,
h too much sulphur gives
gi es unsound casting,
casting therefore,
therefore it
crane hooks, railway couplings, water and steam pipes. should be kept well below 0.1% for most foundry
purposes.
purposes
3. Manganese. It makes the cast iron white and hard. It
IES 1995
IES‐1995 IES 2007
IES 2007
p below 0.75%.
is often kept 75 p to exert a
It helps g
Consider the following statements: p g
Piston compression rings are made of which one
controlling influence over the harmful effect of Addition of silicon to cast iron of the following
sulphur. g p
1. Promotes graphite module formation. (a) Cast iron (b) Bronze
2. Promotes graphite flake formation. (c) Aluminium (d) White metal
4. Phosphorus. It aids fusibility and fluidity in cast 3. Increases the fluidity of the molten metal.
iron, but induces brittleness. It is rarely allowed to
4. Improves the ductility of cast iron.
exceed 1%. Phosphoric irons are useful for casting of
i i
intricate d i
design and
d for
f many light
li h engineering
i i Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
castings when cheapness is essential. (a) 1and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1and 3 (d) 3 and 4
IES 1995
IES‐1995 IES 1994
IES‐1994
g
Consider the following work materials: Which of the following pairs are correctly
1. Titanium 2. Mild steel matched?
1. Lead screw nut………… Phosphor bronze
33. Stainless steel 4 4. Grey cast iron.
y
2. Piston………….. Cast iron.
i C i
The correct sequence of these materials in terms of
3. Cam ……………………..EN‐31 steel
increasing order of difficulty in machining is
g y g
4. Lead screw ……..Wrought iron.
L d W ht i
(a) 4,2,3,1 (b) 4,2, 1,3
((c)) 2,4,3,1
,4,3, ((d)) 2, 4, 1, 3.
, 4, , 3 Codes:
Codes
(a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4
1 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1 2 and 3
IAS 2002
IAS‐2002
p g
A cast iron specimen in a torsion test gives a
(a) Cup‐and‐cone fracture
((b)) Fracture along a plane normal to the axis of the
g p
specimen
((c)) Fracture along a helix of approximately 45°
g pp y 45
(d) Fracture along a plane inclined at 60° to the axis

All St l
Alloy Steel 1 Ni k l
1. Nickel y It has proved to be of advantage in the manufacture of
y It increases the strength
g and toughness
g of the steel. boiler tubes,, valves for use with superheated
p steam,,
y Definition:
f A steell to which
h h one or more alloying
ll valves for I.C. engines and spark plugs for petrol
y These steels contain 2 to 5% nickel and from 0.1 to
elements other than carbon have been deliberately engines.
0.5% carbon.
added (e.g.
(e g chromium,
chromium nickel,
nickel molybdenum) to
y In this range, nickel contributes great strength and y A nickel steel alloy containing 36% of nickel is known
achieve a particular physical property.
hardness with high elastic limit, good ductility and as invar. It has nearly zero coefficient of expansion. So
good resistance to corrosion. it is in great demand
d d for
f measuring instruments and d
y An alloy containing 25% nickel possesses maximum standards of lengths for everyday use.
toughness
h and
d offers
ff the
h greatest resistance to rusting,
corrosion and burning at high temperature.
Contd…
IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES 2008
IES‐2008 IES 2011
IES 2011
g p p y
Invar is used or measuring tapes primarily the to p p y
Coefficient of Expansion is practically nil in a Which one of the following is the major alloying element
its particular alloy. What is this alloy? in Invar?
(a) Non‐magnetic properties (a) Hadfield Manganese Steel (a) Aluminium
(b) High nickel content (b) Invar (b) Nickel
((c)) Low coefficient of thermal expansion
p ((c)) Vitallium (c) Vanadium
(d) Hardenability (d) Stellite (d) Copper
2 Ch i
2. Chromium 3 T t
3. Tungsten IES 2004
IES‐2004
y It is used in steels as an alloying element to combine y It p
prohibits g
grain g
growth,, increases the depth
p of p g g
For improving the strength of steel at elevated
hardness with high strength and high elastic limit. hardening of quenched steel and confers the property temperatures, which one of the following alloying
y It also imparts corrosion‐resisting properties to steel. of remaining hard even when heated to red colour. element is used?
y The
h most common chromeh steels
l contains
i from
f 0.5 to y It is usually used in conjunction with other elements. (a) Copper
2% chromium and 0.1 to 1.5% carbon.
y Steel containing 3 to 18% tungsten and 0.2 to 1.5% (b) Tungsten
y The chrome steel is used for balls,
balls rollers and races for carbon is used for cutting tools. (c) Aluminium
bearings.
y The principal uses of tungsten steels are for cutting (d) Zinc
y A nickel chrome steel containing
g 33.25%
5% nickel,, 1.5%
5%
chromium and 0.25% carbon is much used for armour tools,
l dies,
d valves,
l taps and
d permanent magnets.
plates. Chrome nickel steel is extensively used for
motor
t car crankshafts,
k h ft axles
l and
d gears requiring
i i greatt
strength and hardness.
4 V di
4. Vanadium GATE 1997
GATE‐1997 IES 2000
IES‐2000
y It aids in obtaining
g a fine g
grain structure in tool steel. y g y p
The alloying element mainly used to improve the Addition of vanadium to steel results in
y The addition of a very small amount of vanadium (less endurance strength of steel materials is improvement of
than 0.2%) produces a marked increase in tensile (a) Nickel (a) Heat‐treatability by quenching
strength and elastic limit in low and medium carbon (b) Vanadium (b) Hardenability
steels without a loss of ductility. ((c)) Molybdenum
y ((c)) Fatigue strength
g g
y The chrome‐vanadium steel containing about 0.5 to
(d) Tungsten (d) Resistance to oxidation at elevated temperature
1.5% chromium, 0.15 to 0.3% vanadium and 0.13 to 1.1%
carbon have
ha e extremely
e tremel good tensile strength,
strength elastic
limit, endurance limit and ductility.
y These steels are frequently used for parts such as
springs, shafts, gears, pins and many drop forged parts.
5 M
5. Manganese IES 6 Sili
6. Silicon
y It improves
p g of the steel in both the hot
the strength y
Alloy steel which is work hardenable and which is y The silicon steels behave like nickel steels.
rolled and heat treated condition. used to make the blades of bulldozers, bucket y These steels have a high elastic limit as compared to
y The manganese alloy steels containing over 1.5% wheel excavators and other earth moving ordinary carbon steel.
manganese with a carbon range of 0.40 to 0.55% are equipment contain iron, carbon and
i i i b d y Silicon steels containing from 1 to 2% silicon and 0.1 to
used extensively in gears, axles, shafts and other parts (a) Chromium 0.4% carbon and other alloying elements are used for
where
h hi h strength
high t th combined
bi d withith fair
f i ductility
d tilit isi (b) Silicon electrical machinery, valves in I.C. engines, springs and
required. (c) Manganese corrosion resisting materials.
y The principal uses of manganese steel is in machinery
machiner (d) Magnesium.
parts subjected to severe wear. These steels are all cast
and ground to finish.
finish
7 C b lt
7. Cobalt IES 2010
IES 2010 8 M l bd
8. Molybdenum
y It g
gives red hardness byy retention of hard carbides at
Some high speed steels have cobalt (Co) y A very
y small q
quantityy ((0.155 to 0.30%)
3 ) of molybdenum
y
high temperatures. added
dd d to them
h in
i amounts ranging i from
f 2%
% is generally used with chromium and manganese (0.5
y It tends to decarburise steel during heat‐treatment. to 15%, since this element improves the to 0.8%) to make molybdenum steel.
y It increases hardness and strength and also residual (a)Cutting efficiency, especially at high y These steels possess extra tensile strength and are used
magnetism and coercive magnetic force in steel for temperature for air‐plane fuselage and automobile parts. It can
magnets. replace
l t
tungsten
t in
i high
hi h speedd steels.
t l
(b) Depth hardening ability of the HSS tool
(c) Red hardness of the HSS tool
(d) Grain structure of the HSS tool

9 B
9. Boron IES 1992
IES‐1992 10 l h
10. sulphur
y Boron (not exceeding 0.003%) is a very powerful p g
Small percentage of boron is added to steel to y It is an undesirable impurity in steel because its forms
p y
hardenability
h d bl agent, being
b from
f 250 to 750 times as iron sulphide, which can result in cracking.
effective as nickel, 75 to 125 times as effective as (a) Increases hardenability
y
molybdenum, , and about 100 times as p powerful as ((b)) Reduce machinabilityy y However, in the presence of proper amount of Mn, it
chromium.
(c) Increases wear resistance forms Mn S which improves the machinability of
y Only a few thousandths of a percent are sufficient to steels.
produce the desired effect in low‐carbon
low carbon steels,
steels but the (d) Increase endurance strength
y Its content may very from 0.06 ‐ 0.30%.
results diminish rapidly with increasing carbon content.
y Since no carbide formation or ferrite strengthening
g g is
produced, improved machinability and cold‐forming
capability often result from the use of boron in place of
other hardenability additions.
additions
y It has no effect on tensile strength of steel.
11. Copper All St l t l
Alloy Steel at a glance (4) Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium: → ↑ hot hardness
, ,
Do‐not form carbide: nickel, Silicon, Aluminium Tungsten → ↑wear resistance,
y Copper has been known
kno n to resist atmospheric corrosion Vanadium: →
V di ↑endurance limit
↑ d li i
for centuries, but only recently has it been used as an Carbide forming ↑order: Manganese, chromium,
Molybdenum→ ↑creep property
addition to steel ((in amounts from 0.10 to 0.50%)5 ) to Tungsten, Molybdenum, vanadium, titanium,
(5) Si & Al → deoxidizer, restrict grain growth
deoxidizer restrict grain growth
provide this property. niobium.
Si →↑ Magnetic permissibility
y Low‐carbon steel sheet and structural steels often contain (1) Manganese: ↑ Toughness & ductility (6) Cobalt: ↓ hardenability
a copper addition to enhance corrosion resistance, but ↑ Machinability with sulphur ↑ Impact strength
surface quality and hot‐working behavior tend to
deteriorate somewhat.
somewhat (2) Chromium: ↑ Corrosion resistance (7) Phosphorus: reduce strength to impact ↓
conductivity of copper
↑ Wear resistance
(8) Copper: Raises yield point
(3) Nickel: ↑ toughness
g
(9) Magnesium: because light weight it is used
where weight is important.
Contd…
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 1996
IES –
Super alloy: Is for high temperature use [jet engine, Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
gas turbine blade etc] the code given below the lists : Which of the following pairs regarding the effect of
Ex: Hastelloy X alloying elements in steel are correctly matched?
ll i l t i t l tl t h d?
C – 0.1% 1. Molybdenum: Forms abrasion resisting particles.
A. Copper
pp 1. Corrosion
Mn – 1 % 2 Phosphorus: Improves machinability in free cutting
2.
B. Nickel 2. Demagnetization steels.
Cr – 21.8%
C M
C. Manganese 3. Non Sparking
N S ki 3. Cobalt: Contributes to red hardness by hardening
Si
Si – 1%
%
ferrite.
Ni – balance D. Vanadium 4. Deformation restriction 4. Silicon Reduces oxidation resistance
C 2.5%
Co – %
Codes Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Mo – 9%
A B C D A B C D (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
W 0.6 %
W – 0 6 % (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 3 2 1 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Fe – 18.5% (c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 2 3 1
IES 1992
IES‐1992 IAS 1995
IAS‐1995 IAS 2002
IAS‐2002
Match the following:g Assertion(A): In high speed steels, alloying elements Watch List I (Alloying elements for tool steel) with List II
tungsten, chromium and vanadium are added to
t t h i d di dd d t (Improved mechanical property) and select the correct
List I (Alloying element in steel) List II (Effect) make them suitable to work at higher speeds than answer using the codes given below the Lists
A. Lead 1. Restricts grain growth tool steel or low alloy steels. List I List II
R
Reason(R): Vanadium adds to the property of red
(R) V di dd h f d (All i l
(Alloying elements for tool steel)
t f t l t l) (I
(Improved d
B. Aluminium 2. Raises yield point mechanical property)
hardness and tungsten and chromium add to high
C. Copper 3. Reduces strength to wear resistance. A. Carbon 1. Hardness
impact (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct B. Manganese 2. Hot Hardness
d
D. Phosphorus 4. Free machining explanation of A C. Chromium 3. Lower Critical
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the Temp
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D correct explanation of A D. Vanadium 4. Toughness
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 3 4 1 (c) A is true but R is false Codes:A B C D A B C D
(d) A is false but R is true (a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 2 4 3 1
( ) 3
(c) 4 1 2 (d) 4 1 2 3
(c) 1 4 3 2 (d) 2 3 4 1
St i l St l
Stainless Steel y Austenitic steels contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni plus minor y Austenitic stainless steels are non‐magnetic and are
alloying elements. Ni stabilizes the austenitic phase highly resistant to corrosion 304 alloy is 18‐8 when 18%
y They
y typical
yp g with other
consists min.12% Cr along
assisted by C and N. chromium & 8% nickel used costly material.
material
alloying elements, thus highly corrosion resistant
y Austenitic stainless steels usually contain 18% Cr and
owing to presence of chromium oxide. y For, martensitic steels Ms is made to be above the
8% Ni in addition to other minor alloying elements. Ni
y Three kinds ‐ ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic room temperature. These
Th alloys
ll are heat
h treatable.
bl stabilizes the austenitic phase assisted by C and N.
and precipitation hardenable (martensitic, semi‐ Major alloying elements are: Cr, Mn and Mo. Other alloying additions include Ti, Nb, Mo (prevent
austenitic)
t iti ) – based
b d on presence off prominenti t micro‐
i y Ferritic
F iti and d austenitic
t iti steels
t l are hardened
h d d and d weld
ld decay),
d ) MnM and d CuC (helps
(h l i stabilizing
in t bili i
structural constituent. strengthened by cold work because they are not heat austenite).
y Typical
T pical applications – cutlery,
cutler surgical knives,
kni es storage treatable.
treatable y These steels are very tough and can be forged and
tanks, domestic items. y Austenitic steels are non‐magnetic as against ferritic rolled but offer great difficulty in machining.
and martensitic steels, which are magnetic. y These steels cannot be hardened by yq quenching,
g in fact
y Ferritic steels are principally Fe‐Cr‐C
Fe Cr C alloys with 12‐14%
12 14%
they are softened by rapid cooling from about 1000°C.
Cr. And small additions of Mo, V, Nb, Ni.
Contd… Contd…
IES 2002
IES‐2002 IES 2008
IES‐2008 IES 1997
IES‐1997
p
The correct composition of austenitic stainless g p
Consider the following statements in respect of Assertion (A): Austenitic stainless steel contains 18%
chromium and 8% nickel. Since it retains its austenitic
h i d 8% i k l Si it t i it t iti
steel used for domestic utensils is austenitic stainless steels: structure at room temperature, it is called austenitic
(a) 0.08% C, 18% Cr, .8% Ni, 2% Mn, 1% Si 1. Austenitic stainless steels are hardened and stainless steel.
strengthened by cold working. R
Reason (R): Chromium present in the steel improves its
(R) Ch i i h l i i
(b) 0.08% C, 24% Cr, 12% Ni, 2% Mn, 1% Si corrosion resistance by forming a thin film of chromium
((c)) 0.15% C, 12% Cr, 0.5% Ni, 1% Mn, 1% Si
5 , , 5 , , 2. Austenitic stainless steels cannot be quenched and oxide on the surface.
tempered. (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
(d) 0.30% C, 12% Cr, 0.4% Ni, 1% Mn, 1% Si explanation of A
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only correct explanation of A
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) A is true but R is false

IES 2009
IES‐2009 IES 2009
IES‐2009 IES 2004
IES‐2004
g
Which one of the following elements is an g
Which one of the following elements is a ferritic Match List I (Name of alloy) with List II (Major
alloying elements) and select the correct answer using
ll i l t ) d l t th t i
austenitic stabilizer? stabilizer? the codes given below the Lists:
(a) Chromium (a) Nickel List I List II
(b) Tungsten (b) Manganese A. Invar 1. Manganese
B. Hadfield steel 2. Chromium
((c)) Nickel ((c)) Copper
pp C Stellite
C. 3
3. Nickel
(d) Molybdenum (d) Chromium D. Stainless steel 4. Tungsten
5. y
Molybdenum
(a) 5 1 4 2 (b) 3 2 5 1
(c) 5 2 4 1 (d) 3 1 5 2
IES 2005
IES‐2005 IES IES 2008
IES‐2008
Match List I (Alloying Element) with List II (Effect on Match List‐I (Alloying element in steel) with List‐II g g
Which of the following elements given below
Steel) and select the correct answer using the code given
S l) d l h i h d i (Property conferred on steel by the element) and
(P t f d t l b th l t) d
below the Lists: select the correct answer using the codes given below determine(s) the maximum attainable hardness
List I List II the lists: in steel?
A. Vanadium 1. Increases endurance strength Li I
List‐I Li II
List‐II 1. Chromium 2. Manganese
B. Molybdenum 2. Improves creep properties A. Nickel 1. Corrosion resistance
B. Chromium 2. Magnetic permeability
3. Carbon 4. Molybdenum
C Silicon
C. Sili 3. I
Increases hardness
h d
C. Tungsten 3. Heat resistance elect the correct answer using the code given below:
D. Chromium 4. Increases resistance to high
temperature oxidation D. Silicon 4. Hardenability a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
Codes:A B C D A B C D Codes:A
d B C D A B C D
(c) 3 only (d) 2 and 4
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 1 3 2 4 (a) 4 1 3 2 (b) 4 1 2 3
( ) 2
(c) 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 3 4 (c) 1 4 3 2 (d) 1 4 2 3
IES 2010
IES 2010 DESIGNATION OF STEEL (INDIAN
DESIGNATION OF STEEL, (INDIAN (b) Based on Chemical Composition: This type of
Consider the following statements: STANDARD) designation is preferred if subsequent heat treatment
Alloying elements are added to y Two systems of notation are recommended by IS : is carried out.
1. Improve hardness and toughness. (a) Based on ultimate tensile strength. 1. Plain Carbon Steels: These are designated by letter
(b) Based on chemical composition. C followed
f ll d by
b a number b representing i the
h average
2. Corrosion and oxidation resistance improvement.
(a) Based on Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is percentage carbon content, for example, C 14 ‐ carbon
33. Improve
p machinabilityy and hardenability.
y steel with 0.14%,
0 14% C.
C
applicable
li bl to
t carbon
b and d low
l alloy
ll steels.
t l
4. Increase weight and volume. y The symbol consists of the letter St followed by the y Its new designation is 14 C4. Here, the first figure
Which of the above statements are correct? number representing the ultimate tensile strength in indicates 100 times the average of Carbon content,
content
kgf/mm2 , for example, St 32. The new coding consists then letter C, and the last figure indicates 10 times the
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
of the letter Fe followed by the number representing average
g ppercentage
g of Mn content rounded off to the
( ) 1, 2 and
(c) d 4 only
l (d) 1, 2, 3 and
d4 the
h ultimate
li tensile
il strength
h in
i N/mm2
N/ , for
f example,
l next integer.
Fe 410.
2. Alloy Steels: Here the letter C is omitted and the
numbers representing the carbon content are followed by
IES 2001
IES‐2001 IES 1996
IES‐1996
y
chemical symbols for one or more of the p predominant y g 4 y
The alloy steel designated as 40 Cr18 Ni 2 by 18/8 stainless steel contains
alloying elements followed by numbers indicating their Bureau of Indian Standards contains (a) 18% stainless, 8% chromium.
average contents, for example, 15 Cr 65 ‐ chromium steel
with 0.15
0 15°%
%,C
C and 0.65%
0 65% Cr.
Cr
(a) 0.4% C, 18% Cr and 2% Ni ((b)) 18% chromium, 8% nickel.
,
y 20 Cr 18 Ni 2 ‐ Nickel ‐ chromium steel with 0.2% C, 18% (b) 4.0% C, 1.8% Cr and 0.2% Ni (c) 18% tungsten, 8% nickel.
Cr and 2% Ni. ((c)) 0.4% C, 1.8% Cr and 2% Ni
4 , (d) 18% tungsten, 8% chromium.
y The coding of the alloy steels is given below :‐ The average (d) 0.4% C, 1.8% Cr and 0.2% Ni
alloy content upto 1 per cent, Alloy index number will be : ‐
Average alloy content upto two decimal places,
places underlined
by a bar. For average alloy content one per cent and above,
alloy index number will be : rounded to the nearest whole
number upto 0.50 5 rounded down and above
abo e rounded up.
up
Plastics or pol mer

Plastics or polymer Properties of plastics
Properties of plastics
y Definition: A group of engineered materials g g
y Light weight
y Good resistance to corrosion
characterized by large molecules that are built up by
y Easy of fabrication into complex shapes
the joining of smaller molecules.
y Low electrical and thermal conductivity
y They are natural or synthetics resins.
resins y Good surface finish
d f f h
y Good optical properties
p p p
y Good resistance to shock and vibration.
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 2010
IES 2010 IAS 2007
IAS‐2007
Consider the following properties for Plastic material is used for the component Consider the following: g
plastics:
l i which requires characteristics of
hi h i h i i f
Which of the following properties are possessed by
1. Become hard on heating. (a) Low density, machinability and high strength plastics?
2. Increasing plasticity. (b) Machinability, high strength and large plastic 1. Good resistance to corrosive atmosphere
3 Ability to deform with rise in temperature.

3. temperature deformation 2. Ease of fabrication into complex shapes.
p p
(c) High strength, large plastic deformation and 3. Good resistance to shocks and vibrations.
4. Long chain structure.
low density g g
Whi h off these
Which h propertiesi f
for plastics
l i are
(d) Low density, machinability and large plastic (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
correct?
deformation (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4For-2015
only (IES,
(d) 2,GATE
3 and&4PSUs)
only Page 213 of 240 Rev.0
IES 2008
IES‐2008 Classification Polymers
Classification – Pol mers
p y
Structure of a polymer is: y Classification based on their industrial usage:
(a) Long chain (b) Rhombic (a) plastics and
((c)) Cubic ((d)) Closed pack hexagonal
p g (b) elastomers.
elastomers
y Classification based on their temperature dependence:
((a)) thermoplasts
th l t and
d
(b) thermosets
Thermoplasts Thermoplastics y Fluorocarbons (PTFE

( or TFE,Teflon))
y Plastics which softens up on heating and hardens up y Acrylonitrile‐butadiene‐styrene (ABS): Characteristics: Chemically inert in almost all
environments,
environments excellent electrical properties; low
on cooling where the softening and hardening are Characteristics: Outstanding strength and toughness, coefficient of friction; may be used to 260ooC; relatively
totally reversible processes. resistance to heat distortion; good electrical properties; weak and poor cold‐flow properties.
y Hence thermoplasts
h l can be
b recycled.
l d flammable and soluble in some organic solvents.
solvents Application:
l Anticorrosive seals,
l chemical
h l pipes and d
Application: Refrigerator lining, lawn and garden valves, bearings, anti adhesive coatings, high temperature
y They consist of linear molecular chains bonded
equipment, toys, highway safety devices. electronic parts.
p
together
h byb weak k secondary
d b d or by
bonds b inter‐winding.
i i di
y Acrylics (poly‐methyl‐methacrylate) PMMA y Polyamides (nylons)
y Cross‐linking between molecular chains is absent in Characteristics: Good mechanical strength, abrasion
Characteristics:
C a acte st cs: Outsta
Outstanding
d g lightg t ttransmission
a s ss o aand d
th
theromplasts.
l t resistance,
i and
d toughness;
h l
low coefficient
ffi i off friction;
fi i
resistance to weathering; only fair mechanical properties.
y E.g.: Acrylics, PVC, Nylons, Perspex glass, etc. absorbs water and some other liquids.
Application: Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures, Application: Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles,
drafting equipment, outdoor signs. and jacketing for wires and cables.
Contd… Contd…
y Polycarbonates y Polypropylene
Characteristics: Dimensionally stable: low water Characteristics: Resistant to heat distortion; excellent
absorption; transparent; very good impact resistance electrical properties and fatigue strength; chemically
and ductility. inert; relatively inexpensive; poor resistance to UV
Application: Safety helmets, lenses light globes, base light.
g
for photographic film Application: Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV
y Polyethylene cabinets, luggage
Characteristics: Chemically resistant and electrically y Polystyrene
insulating; tough and relatively low coefficient of Characteristics: Excellent electrical properties and
friction; low strength and poor resistance to optical clarity; good thermal and dimensional stability;
weathering. relatively inexpensive
Application: Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery Application: Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor
parts, ice trays, film wrapping materials. lighting panels, appliance housings.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 214 of 240 Contd… Rev.0
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2003
IES‐2003
Windows of aeroplane are made of : Teflon is a
(a) PVC (a) Thermosetting fluorocarbon polymer
(b) PTFE ((b)) Thermo‐plastic fluorocarbon polymer
p p y
(c) PMMA (c) Inorganic compound of fluorine and carbon
((d)) PEEK (d) Laminated phenolic material
IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES 2002
IES‐2002 IAS 2000
IAS‐2000
y y
Polyamides are characterized by Consider the following statements: yp p ( ) ( )
Weldable type plastic(s) include (s)
Polytetrafluoroethene is
(a) Flexible chain (a) Thermosets alone
1. A thermoplastic material
((b)) Rigid chain
g 2 Having high friction coefficient
2. ((b)) Thermoplastics alone
p
(c) Amorphous structure 3. A thermosetting material (c) Both thermosets and thermoplastics
(d) Crystalline structure 4. Having low friction coefficient (d) Neither thermosets and thermoplast
5. An electric insulator
6. Non sticking to surfaces
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 6
(c) 3, 4 and 5 (d) 3, 2 and 5
IES 1995
IES‐1995 Thermosets y Thermosets are strengthened by reinforcements .
p y g
The structure of a polymer is shown in the given y Plastics which are ‘set’ under the application of heat y Different reinforcements are in use according to the
and/or pressure. necessity.
it Glass
Gl fibers
fib are mostt commonly l usedd to
t form
f
⎛ F F ⎞
⎜ ⎟ structural and molding plastic compounds.
figure. This polymer
g p y ⎜ −C− C− ⎟ y This process is not reversible, hence thermosets can y Two most important types of glass fibers are E (electrical)‐
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ F F ⎟⎟
not be
b recycled.
l d andd S (high
(h h strength)‐
h) glasses.
l
⎝ ⎠ y E‐glass (lime‐aluminium‐borosilicate glass with zero or
y They consist of 3‐D network structures based on
Finds special application in low sodium and p potassium levels)) is often used for
strong covalent
l b d to form
bonds f rigid
i id solids.
lid linear
li continuous fibers.
(a) Packaging (b) Adhesives molecular chains bonded together by weak secondary y S‐glass (65%SiO2, 25%Al2O3 and 10% MgO) has higher
(c) Bearings (d) Fertilizer bonds or by interwinding.
interwinding strength‐to‐weight
strength to weight ratio and is more expansive thus
primary applications include military and aerospace
y Characterized by high modulus / rigidity /dimensional applications.
stability when compared with thermoplasts.
thermoplasts y Carbon fiber reinforced plastics are also often used in
aerospace applications. However they are very expansive.
y E.g.: Epoxies, Amino resins, some polyester resins, etc.
IES 2011
IES 2011 Examples – Thermo setting polymers
Examples – Thermo setting polymers
y The other classes of reinforcements include aramid (aromatic
y Epoxies
polyamide) fibers.
fibers
Kevlar Epoxy composite is widely used in :
Characteristics: Excellent combination of mechanical
(a) Automobiles properties and corrosion resistance; dimensionally stable;
y They are popularly known as Kevlar. good adhesion; relatively inexpensive; good electrical
(b) Aerospace
properties.
ti
(c) Navy
Application: Electrical moldings, sinks, adhesives,
( )
(d) Interior Decoration protective coatings,
p g , used with fiberglass
g laminates.
y Phenolics
Characteristics: Excellent thermal stability to over 150o C;
may beb compounded d d with h a large
l number
b off resins, fillers,
f ll
etc.; inexpensive.
Application: Motor housing
housing, telephones
telephones, auto
distributors, electrical fixtures.
Contd…
Chemical Trade name characteristics Typical Phenol‐ Bakelite Good dimensional Industrial electrical

classification application formaldehy Marblette Durez stability Excellent parts.
y Polyester (PET or PETE) Epoxy Araldite oxiron Good toughness. Adhesive and de Cataljn insulating qualities. automotive electrical
Characteristics: One of the toughest of plastic films;
Ch i i O f h h f l i fil Resistant to;acids.
R i id coatings, tools
i l Inert
I t components, t
alkalies and and to most solvents and paper impregnated
excellent fatigue and tear strength, and resistance to solvents. dies, filament weak acids. battery
excellent wound vessels,, g
Good strength around p
separators.
humidity acids greases oils and solvents
humidity acids, greases, oils and solvents adhesion to metal, laminates for inserts. Electrical insulation.
Application: Magnetic recording tapes, clothing, glass and wood. aircraft, patching
compound for
automotive tire cords beverage containers
automotive tire cords, beverage containers. metal and
t l d Phenol‐
Phenol Durite Similar to Electrical insulation.
Electrical insulation
plastics. furfural Phenolfonnaldehyde. Mechanical
parts. Housings and
Melamine‐formal‐ Good for Tablc‐ware, electric
containers.
dehyde application insulation
insulation,
requiring cycling automotIve Ignition Alkyd Glyptal Duraplex Can be made flexible, Boats, Tanks, Trailer and
between wet and parts, cutlery (Modified Beckosol Teglac resilient or rigid. Can Tractor
dry conditions. handles,jars and polyester) Rezly resist acids but not components. Ducts,
Hard and abrasion
d d b b l
bowls. alkalies, with glass fibre shrouds.
resistant. Good reinforcement resists salt Vaulting poles.
dielectric. water and fungus growth.
IES 1997
IES‐1997 IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES
Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer Assertion (A): Linear polymers are rigid at low g
using the codes given below the Lists: temperatures but soft and mouldable at elevated Fibre Reinforced Plastics are
List‐I List‐II temperatures.
Reason (R): Linear polymers are thermo‐setting.
thermo setting g g
1. Made of thermosetting resins and glass fibre
A. Neoprene 1. Electric switches
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 2. Made of thermoplastic resins and glass fibre
B. Bakelite 2. Adhesive
correct explanation of A 3. Anisotropic
C. Foamed polyurethane 3. Thermal insulator
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the 4. isotropic
D. Araldite 4. Oil seal correct explanation of A
Code:A
d B C D A B C D Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 1 4 2 3 (a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
c)) 4 1 3 2 (d) 1 4 3 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

IES 1994
IES‐1994 IES 2007
IES 2007 IES 2006
IES‐2006
Match List I (materials) with List II (applications) and Match List I with List II and select the correct answer y
Phenol formaldehyde is a/an
select the correct answer using the codes given below
l t th t i th d i b l using the code given below the Lists:
h d b l h
the Lists: (a) Thermoplastic polymer (b) Thermoset polymer
List I List II
List I List II ((c)) Elastomer ((d)) Rubber
(Material) (Application)
A. Engineering ceramics 1. Bearings
B. Fibre reinforced plastics 2. Control rods in A. Fibre reinforced plastics 1. Automobile tyres
nuclear reactors B. Acrylics 2. Aircraft
C. Synthetic carbon 3. Aerospace industry C. Phenolics 3. Lenses
D. Boron 4. Electrical insulator D. Butadiene rubber 4. Electric switch cover
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D Code:A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 4 3 2 (a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 3 1 4 (d) 4 3 1 2
( ) 1
(c) 3 4 2 ( ) 2
(d) 4 3 1
IES IES 1999

IES‐1999 IES
Consider the following statements: gp p
Consider the following pairs of plastics and their Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
Thermosetting plastics are distinct characteristics: List I (Material) List II (Nature of product)
1. Formed by addition polymerisation. 1. Acrylics .............. Very good transparency to light A. Polyethylene 1. Adhesive
2. Formed by condensation polymerisation. 2. Polycarbonate….. Poor impact resistance B. Polyurethane 2. Film
3. Softened on heating and hardened on cooling for 33. PTFE ... ………….Low coefficient of friction. C. Cyano‐acrylate 3. Wire
any number of times
b f ti D. Nylon 4. Foam
4. Polypropylene…. .Excellent fatigue strength
4. Moulded by heating and cooling. Codes:A B C D A B C D
Select the correct ans er using the codes gi en belo
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Which of these pairs are correctly matched?
p y
(a) 2 4 3 1 (b) 4 2 3 1
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 4 2 1 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
Polymer synthesis
IAS 2003
IAS‐2003 Elastomers y Processing of polymers primarily limits to synthesis
g
Consider the following statements: y These polymers are known for their high elongations, followed by forming.
1. Thermoplastics possess a strong intermolecular which are reversible upon release of applied loads.
y Polymers are synthesized by process known as
bonding compared to that of thermosetting plastics. y They consist of coil‐like molecular chains, which
straightens
h up on application
l off load.
l d polymerization.
l i ti
2. Plastics have a high creep under continuous loading.
33. Embrittlement occurs in plastics at low temperature.
p p y Characterized by low modulus / rigidity / strength, but y Polymerization
y is p
process in which multi‐functional
hi h toughness.
high h
Which of these statements are correct? monomers are attached to form linear/3‐D macro
y E.g.: natural and synthetic rubber.
((a)) 1 and 2 ((b)) 2 and 33
molecular
l l chains.
h
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Addition Polymerization Addition Polymerization
y This polymerization process involves single kind of
monomers. Resultant macro‐molecule’s composition is an E.g., d i l i i
Condensation Polymerization
p
exact multiplication p
of composition of individual polyethylene
y It involves more then one monomer species.
species This process
monomer. is also known as step growth polymerization.
y Process involves three stages g namelyy initiation, y In condensation polymerization,
polymerization smaller macromolecule
propagation and termination. by‐product such as water is eliminated.
y Initiation process will be started by an initiator (e.g.
Combination: y No resultant product has the chemical formula of mere
benzoyl peroxide)) which forms an reactive site where
one monomer.
carbon atom of another monomer is attracted, upon which
reaction site transfers to different place leading to y Repeat
p unit in condensation p
process itself is p
product of
molecular chain growth. polymerization involving basic constituents.
y As molecular chain grows longer, reaction rate decreases. y Reaction times for condensation p
polymerization
y is
However the growth process is terminated either by the usually longer than those for additional polymerization.
Disproportionation:
combination or disproportionation process.
C d i P l i i
Condensation Polymerization y Average molecular weight is however defined in
y Polyesters, phenol‐formaldehyde, nylons,
y Formation of a polyester from Ethylene glycol and Adipic y Weight
two ways. g g molecular weight
average g is
polycarbonates etc are produced by condensation
acid obtained by dividing the chains into size ranges
polymerization.
y Condensation polymerization reactions also occur in and determining the fraction of chains having
sol‐gel processing of ceramic materials. molecular weights within that range.
y Polymers,
y , unlike organic/inorganic
g / g compounds,
p , do y Number average molecular weight is based on
not have a fixed molecular weight. It is specified in the
h number b f
fraction, rather
h than
h the
h weight h
terms of degree of polymerization – number of fraction, of the chains within each size range. It is
repeat units in the chain or ratio of average molecular always smaller than the weight average molecular
weight of polymer to molecular weight of repeat unit. weight.
Contd…
IES 2001
IES‐2001 y Cross
C li ki
linking: Th cross‐linking
The li ki can occur due
d tot the
th presence
of some elements called vulcanizing agents, e.g. S, Se, Te, and
IES 2003
IES‐2003
The molecular weightg y chloride is 62.5.
of vinyl 5 O2. ,
In the case of rubber, vulcanization refers to the
Thus the molecular weight of a polyvinyl chloride y In case of poly isoprene (natural rubber), the sulphur bridges process of producing a
are formed between two macromolecules during vulcanization.
with a degree of polymerization of 20000 is y In this vulcanization pprocess sulphur
p bridge
g are formed at the (a) Linear polymer
point of opening of double bonds. If the number of cross‐links (b) Branched polymer
20000 62.5 is small; the find product is soft and flexible. The stiffness of the
(a) (b) 20000 polymeric
p y material increases with the densityy of cross‐lines. ((c)) Cross‐linked polymer
p y
62 5
62.5
When the sulphur content in rubber is as high as 32 weight (d) Net‐work polymer
percent, the hard product is called ebonite.
(c) 62.5 × 20000 (d) 20000

IES 2006
IES‐2006 IES 2000
IES‐2000 IES 1994
IES‐1994
Assertion (A) In Addition Polymerization method, y
Assertion (A): Addition polymerization is a primary y g
Which of the following pairs of plastics and their
polymer
l is
i produced
d d by
b adding
ddi a second d monomer to t summation of individual molecules into long chains, modes of formation are correctly matched?
the first, then a third monomer to this dimmer and so
on. Reason (R): In addition polymerization, the reaction 1. Polythene…………….. Condensation polymerization.
R
Reason (R) There
(R): Th must exist
i at least
l one double
d bl bond
b d produces a small molecule as by‐product.
d ll l l b d 2. Polycarbonate .............Addition polymerisation.
in the monomer for Addition Polymerization (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
reaction. 3. Polystyrene………….. .Addition polymerisation.
explanation of A 4. Polyamide …………….Either by addition or by
explanation of A (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the condensation polymerisation.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the p
correct explanation of A S l t th
t i th d i b l
correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false
(c) A is true but R is false (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4
((d)) A is false but R is true (c) 1 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
IES 2008
IES‐2008 IES 2003
IES‐2003 Additi es to Pol mers
Additives to Polymers
What is the p process by y which two or more y
Polyesters can be defined as the condensation y The properties of polymers can be further modified by
chemically different monomers are polymerised products of
to form a cross link polymer together with a by‐ the addition of agents which are basically of two types.
(a) Dicarboxylic acids with dihydroxy alcohols
product
d such
h as water or ammonia,
i known
k as? (b) Bisphenol‐A and epichloro‐hydrin y Those that enter the molecular structure are usually
(a) Addition polymerization ((c)) Phenol and formaldehyde
y called "additives"
additives , whereas those that form a clearly
(b) Co‐polymerisation (d) Benzene and toluene
(c) Linear polymerisation defined second phase are called "fillers".
(d) Condensation polymerization
Contd…
1 Plastici ers
1. Plasticizers 2 Fillers
2. Fillers 3. Catalysts:
y A filler is used to economize on the quantity of polymer
y These are usually added to promote faster and more
y Plasticizers are liquids of high boiling point and low required and/or to vary the properties to some extent,extent for
example, mechanical strength, electrical resistance etc.
complete
l polymerization
l i i andd as suchh they
h are alsol
molecular weight, which are added to improve the called 'accelerators' and 'hardeners' e.g., ester is used
y A filler, whose function is to increase mechanical strength, is as a catalyst for Urea Formaldehyde.
plastic behaviour of the polymer. termed a "reinforcing filler".
4. Initiators:
y A filler is commonly fibrous in nature and is chemically inert
y They are essentially oily in nature.
nature Organic solvents,
solvents with respect to the polymer with which it is to be used.
used y As the name indicates,, the initiators are used to
y Common fillers are wood flour, cellulose, cotton flock, and initiate the reaction, that is, to allow polymerization to
resins and even water are used as plasticizers. paper (for improving mechanical strength); mica and asbestos begin. They stabilize the ends of the reaction sites of
(for heat resistance); talc (for acid resistance).Other filler the molecular chains.
chains H2O2 is a common initiator.
initiator
materials are : fabric, chipped‐wood moulding compound, 5. Dyes and Pigments:
wood veneer,, textile or g
glass fibres. y These are added,
added in many cases,
cases to impart a desired
y The commonly used "reinforcing filler agents" with plastics are : colour to the material.
fibres/filaments of glass, graphite or boron.
6. Lubricants: 8 Solvents:
8.
y Solvents are useful for dissolving certain fillers or
IES 1992
IES‐1992
y Lubricants are added to the polymers for the following
purposes : to reduce friction during processing,
processing to prevent p
plasticizers and help p in manufacturing g byy allowing
g p
Fillers are added to plastics to
parts from sticking to mould walls, to prevent polymer processing in the fluid state, For example, alcohol is (a) Improve flow
films from sticking to each other and to impart an elegant added in cellulose nitrate plastics to dissolve Camphor.
fi i h to
finish t the
th final
fi l product.
d t Commonly
C l usedd lubricants
l bi t H
However, subsequently,
b tl the
th solvents
l t mustt be
b removed d ((b)) Reduce brittleness
include : oils, soaps and waxes. by evaporation. (c) Facilitate process ability
77. Flame retardants: 9. Stabilisers and anti
anti‐oxidants
oxidants are added to retard (d) Reduce cost
y Most plastics will ignite at sufficiently high temperatures. the degradation of polymers due to heat, light and
The non‐inflammability of the plastics can be enhanced oxidation.
either by producing them from less inflammable raw 10. Elastomers are added to plastics to enhance their
materials or by adding "flame retardants". The common
flame retardants are : compounds of chlorine, bromine and
elastic properties.
phosphorous.
h h N t Above,
Note: Ab excepting
ti fillers,
fill all
ll other
th materials
t i l used,
d
fall under the category of "Additives“.
IAS 2007
IAS‐2007 IAS 1998
IAS‐1998 IAS 1994
IAS 1994
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using Match List‐ I (Name of moulding composition to prepare plastics)
p
To reduce the consumption y
of synthetic resins,,
the code given below the Lists: with List II (Property of moulding composition) and select the correct
with List‐II (Property of moulding
answer using the codes given below the lists: the ingredient added is
List I List II List ‐ I List – II
(Additive for Polymers) (Purpose) A. Binder 1. Reduce cost, shrinkage (a) Accelerator
A. Plasticizer 1. Allows polymerization B. Filler 2. Make the moulding of plastic easier
to begin C. Plasticizer 3. Cellulose derivatives (b) Elastomer
B. Filler 2. Colours the material D. Lubricant 4. Accelerate condensation and ((c)) Modifier
polymerization
C. Initiator 3. Acts as internal
lubricants
5. Toughness and resistance to (d) Filler
temperature.
4.
4 Improves strength
p g
Code:A B C A B C Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 (b) 3 2 1 (a) 3 1 2 5 (b) 3 1 5 2
(c) 1 2 3 (d) 3 4 1 ( )
(c) 5 3 1 4 (d) 3 5 l 4
Plastic Process
Plastic Process Injection Mo lding
Injection Moulding
y The common forms of raw materials for processing y The polymer is melted and than forced into a mould.
plastics into products are :‐ pellets, granules, powders, y Thermoplastic pellets melted and melt injected under
sheet, plate, rod and tubing. high pressure (70 MPa) into a mold. Molten plastic
y Liquidd plastics
l are usedd especially
ll in the
h fabrication
f b off takes the shape of the mold,
mold cools,
cools solidifies,
solidifies shrinks
and is ejected.
reinforced ‐ plastic parts.
y Molds usuallyy made in two p
parts ((internal and external
y Thermoplastics
Th l i can be b processed d to their
h i final
fi l shape
h part).
by moulding and extrusion processes. y Use of injection molding machine mainly used for
y However,
H extruding
t di i often
is ft used d as an intermediate
i t di t thermoplastics
h l i (gears,
( cams, pistons,
i rollers,
ll valves,
l
process to be followed by other processes, for example, fan blades, rotors, washing machine agitators, knobs,
vacuum forming or machining.
machining handles, camera cases, battery cases, sports helmets Fig. Injection moulding
etc…)
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 220 of 240 Contd… Rev.0
E tr sion
Extrusion y The process is continuous and provides a cheap and Compression mo lding
Compression moulding
y Long plastic products with uniform cross sections are rapid method of moulding. y A compression mould is made of two halves with one
readily
dil produced
d d byb the
th extrusion
t i process. each
h being
b i connected
d to the
h platens
l off the
h press.
y Common production shapes include a wide variety of
y Thermoplastic pellets & powders are fed through a hopper y The mould is electrically heated to maintain the
into the barrel chamber of a screw extruder. A rotating g
solid forms, as well as tubes, pipes, and even coated
wires
i and d cables.
bl required temperature.
temperature
screw propels the material through a preheating section,
where it is heated, homogenized, and compressed, and y Material is placed in the mould, and it is closed with a
then forces it through a heated die and onto a conveyor hydraulic
y cylinder,
y , or toggle
gg clamp.
p
belt. y The pressure maintained on the material is of the
y As the plastic passes onto the belt, it is cooled by jets of air order of 14 to 40 MPa of moulding area.
or sprays off water which
h h harden
h d it sufficiently
ff l to preserve y As the material comes in contact with the heated
its newly imparted shape. mould surface, it softens and fills the entire cavity and
y It continues to cool as it passes along the belt and is then at the same time initiates the chemical reaction which
either cut into lengths or coiled. cures the part.
Fig. Extrusion
Contd… Contd…
y Cure
C i
time i determined
is d i d by
b the
h thickest
hi k i
cross section, Transfer Mo lding
Transfer Moulding
mould temperature, material type and grade.
y Transfer moulding is very similar to compression
y After
Aft curing,
i the
th mouldld opens and d the
th partt is
i ejected.
j t d moulding and is developed to avoid the disadvantages
y The most widely used plastic is phenol‐ formaldehyde, found in that process.
commonly known as 'Bakelite’
Bakelite. y In this
h method,h d thermosetting
h charge
h is heated
h d and
d
compressed in a separate chamber and then injected
into the closed mould where it is allowed to cool and
solidify.
y Transfer moulding is capable of moulding part shapes
that are more intricate than compression moulding
but not as intricate as injection
j moulding.
g
Contd…
Blo mo lding
Blow moulding
y Blow moulding is the process of inflating a hot,
hot hollow,
hollow
thermoplastic preform or parison inside a closed mould so
that its shape conforms to that of the mould cavity.
y Typical parts made are bottles, toys, air ducts of automobiles,
chemical and gasoline tanks, and a number of housholds
goods.
d
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 221 of 240 Contd… Rev.0
IES 2005
IES‐2005 Thermoforming
y In this process, a thermoplastic sheet can be formed into a
p p y
Thermoplastic materials cannot be produced by: three‐
three dimensional shape by the application of heat and
(a) Injection moulding process differential pressures.
y First, the plastic sheet is clamped to a frame and uniformly
((b)) Extrusion process
p heated to make it soft and flowable.
flowable
(c) Blow moulding process y Then a differential pressure (either vacuum or pressure or
(d) Both (a) and (b) above both) is applied to make the sheet conform to the shape of
a mould ld or die
di positioned
ii d below
b l the h frame.
f
y It is possible to use most of the thermoplastic materials.
The starting g material is a p plastic sheet of uniform
thickness.
y It is a relatively simple process and is used for making such
parts as covers,, displays,
p p y , blister p
packaging,
g g, trays,
y , drinking
g
cups and food packaging.
Contd… Contd…
IES 2004
IES‐2004 IES 2009
IES‐2009
Match List I (Type of moulding) List II (Mechanism involved) and Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer
select the collect answer using the codes given below the Lists: using the code given below the Lists:
List I List II
List‐I List‐II
A. Compression moulding 1. Mould cavity must be heated
to cure the plastic forced (Article) (Processing Method)
i i
into it. A. Disposable coffee cups 1. Rotomoulding
B. Injected moulding 2. Similar to Hydraulic
extrusion B. Large water tanks 2. Expandable bead
C
C. Jet moulding 3
3. Analogous to the hot moulding
pressing of powered metals C. Plastic sheets 3. Thermoforming
D. Extrusion moulding 4. Analogous to die casting of D. Cushion pads 4. Blow moulding
metals
A B C D A B C D 5
5. Calendering
(a) 2 4 1 3 (b) 3 1 4 2 Code: A B C D A B C D
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 3 4 1 2 (a) 3 5 1 2 (b) 4 5 1 2
( ) 4
(c) 3 2 1 (d) 3 1 5 2
IAS 1999
IAS‐1999 IAS 2007
IAS‐2007 IAS 2004
IAS‐2004
g p
Which one of the following are the processes for Which one of the following statements is not Which of the following are the characteristics of the
thermosetting materials? correct? injection moulding
ld of plastics?
f l
(a) In injection die moulding, exact amount of 1. It is the most economical method of mass producing a
1. Compression single item
material to fill the cylinder is delivered
2. Transfer moulding 2. In most cases finished products are obtained
(b) Injection die moulding is generally limited to
33. Injection moulding
j g forming thermoplastic material
4. Extrusion 3. There is lot of waste of thermoplastic since the
(c) Thermosetting plastics are more suitable for runners and sprues can not be reused.
g g
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: extrusion moulding
Select the correct answer by using the following codes:
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (d) Extrusion moulding process is used for giving (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
shapes, such as rods, tubes, pipes, ropes etc.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

IAS 2003
IAS‐2003 IAS 1997
IAS‐1997 IES 2002
IES‐2002
g
Consider the following statements in respect of Which of the following processes can be used for g
Which of the following are fabricated using g
fabrication of plastic products: mass production of plastic containers (with lid) of engineering plastics?
1. Compression moulding is analogous to hot pressing of 5 liter capacity?
1. Surface plate
powdered metals.
d d l 1 Injection moulding
1.
2. Gears
2. Jet moulding is a modification of compression moulding. 2. Jolt moulding
3 Blow moulding
3. 33. Guide ways for machine tools
y
3. Injection moulding
I j ti ldi is analogous to die casting of metals
i l t di ti f t l
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 4. Foundry patterns
4. Transfer moulding is similar to hydraulic extrusion.
Whi h f th t t
Which of these statements are correct?
t t? Codes: g g
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1
(c) 1, 2 and 4
1 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
2 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES 2004
IES‐2004 IES 2011
IES 2011
Match List I (Material) with List II (Typical use) and Assertion (A) : The plastic organic materials
the correct answer using the codes given below the
h h d b l h can be b easily
il shaped
h d or moulded
ld d by
b mechanical
h i l
Lists: action.
List I List II Reason (R): It is widely in use as it can be
A. Branched polyethylene 1. Bottles permanently moulded.
B. Polyester
y 2. Textile fibres ((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the
C. Polyvinylidene chloride 3. Films for packaging correct explanation of A
D. Linear Polyethylene 4. Transparent film (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT
A B C D A B C D the
l i off A
(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 3 2 1 4 (c) A is true but R is false
( ) 2
(c) 3 1 4 (d) 3 2 4 1 (d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
El t
Elastomers y When a force is applied, the polymer stretches by y The elasticity or rigidity of the product can be determined
y Elastomers are a special class, of linear polymers that uncoiling. When the load is removed, the molecules recoil by controlling the number of cross‐links within the
display an exceptionally large amount of elastic and the material returns to its original size and shape.
shape material.
t i l
deformation when a force is applied. y The relationship between force and stretch does not, y Small amounts of cross‐linking leave the elastomer soft
however,, follow Hooke's Law. and flexible,
flexible as in a rubber band.
band
y Many can be stretched to several times their original
y In reality, the behaviour of elastomers is a bit more
length. Upon release of the force, the deformation can y Additional cross‐linking restricts some of the uncoiling,
complex. While the chains indeed uncoil when placed
be completely
p y recovered,, as the material q quicklyy under load,
load they also tend to slide over one another to and the material becomes harder,, stiffer,, and more brittle,,
returns to its original shape. In addition, the cycle can produce a small degree of viscous deformation. When the like the rubber used in bowling balls.
be repeated numerous times with identical results, as load is removed, the molecules recoil, but the viscous y If placed under constant strain, however, even highly cross‐
with the stretching of a rubber band.
band d f
deformation
i i not recovered
is d andd the
h elastomer
l retains
i linked material will exhibit some viscous flow over time.
y In the elastomeric polymers, the linear chain‐type some permanent change in shape. This phenomenon is known as stress relaxation.
molecules
o ecu es aaree ttwisted
sted o
or cu
curled,
ed, much
uc likee a cocoil y By cross
cross‐linking
linking the coiled molecules, however, it is y The rate of this relaxation depends on the material,
material the
spring. possible to restrict the viscous deformation while retaining force, and the temperature.
the large elastic response.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 223 of 240 Contd… Rev.0
IES 2011
IES 2011 R bb
Rubber y Natural rubber compounds are outstanding for their
During tensile testing it has been observed that for y Natural rubber, the oldest commercial elastomer, is made y g
flexibility, good electrical insulation, low internal
some material the deformation is fully recoverable from
f the
h processedd sap off a tropicall tree. friction, and resistance to most inorganic acids, salts,
and time‐independent, but does not obey Hook’s y It could be vulcanized (cross‐linked) by the addition of and alkalies.
l
law. Th material
The t i l is
i : about 30% sulphur followed by heating to a suitable
temperature. The cross‐linking restricts the movement of y However, they have poor resistance to petroleum
(a) Elastomer the molecular chains and imparts strength. products, such as oil, gasoline, and naphtha.
(b) Rubber
R bb y Properties
P i couldld be
b further
f h improved
i d by
b various
i additives
ddi i y In addition,
dd they
h l
lose their
h strength
h at elevated
l d
(c) Polymer (e.g., carbon black) which act as stiffeners, tougheners, and temperatures, so it is advisable that they not be used at
antioxidants.
(d) Aluminium
l alloy
ll temperatures above 175
175°F
F (80
(80°C)
C).
y Accelerators have been found that speed up the
vulcanization process. These have enabled a reduction in y They also deteriorate fairly rapidly in direct sunlight
the amount of sulfur such that most rubber compounds unless specially compounded.
compounded
now contain less than 3% sulphur.
Contd… Contd…
Different types of rubber Applications
y Rubber and similar synthetic materials such as

Natural rubber Tires, gaskets, hose IES 2008
IES‐2008
Polyacrylate Oil hose, O‐rings
p
Neoprene have a varietyy of application
pp y
in machinery. EDPM(ethylene propylene) Electric insulation, footwear, hose, belts Which material is used for bushes in the bushed‐
y Rubber should be protected from high temperature, Chlorosulfonated polyethylene Tank lining, chemical hose, polyethylene shoe, pin type of flexible coupling?
soles and heels
oil and sunlight.
g Polychloroprene (neoprene) Wire insulation, belts, hose, (neoprene) gaskets,
Wire insulation belts hose (neoprene) gaskets
(a) Gun metal (b) Plastic
seals, linings (c) Rubber (d) Aluminium
y It is an excellent material for seats and diaphragms, for
Polybutadiene Tires, soles and heels, gaskets, seals
water lubricated bearings, for parts subjected to Polyisoprene Same as natural rubber
vibrations (such as vibration mountings, flexible Polysulfide Seals, gaskets, diaphragms, valve disks
couplings and flexible bearing) and for tubes and SBR (styrene butadiene) Moulded mechanical goods, disposable
pharmaceutical items tyres
pharmaceutical items, tyres
hose.
Silicone Electric insulation, seals, gaskets, O‐rings
y In industry, hard rubber is used for electric insulation, Epichlorohydrin Diaphragms, seals, moulded goods, low‐
switch
it h handles,
h dl bearings,
b i etc.
t ttemperature parts
t t
Urethane Caster wheels, heels, foam padding
Contd… Fluoroelastomers O‐rings, seals, gaskets, roll coverings
IES 1997
IES‐1997 C i
Ceramic y Most have crystalline structures, but unlike metals, the
Which one of the following g materials is used for y Ceramic materials are compounds of metallic and bonding g electrons are g g ionic
generally captive in strong
car tyres as a standard material? nonmetallic elements (often in the form of oxides, or covalent bonds. The absence of free electrons makes
carbides, and nitrides) and exist in a wide variety of the ceramic materials poor electrical conductors and
(a) Styrene‐butadiene rubber (SBR) compositions and forms.
forms results
l ini many being
b i transparent in i thin
hi sections.
i
(b) Butyl rubber y The American Ceramic Society has defined ceramic
y Because of the strength of the primary bonds, most
((c)) Nitrile rubber products as those manufactured" byy the action of heat
p
on raw materials, most of which are of an earthy ceramicsi have
h hi h melting
high lti temperatures.
t t
(d) Any of the above depending upon the need
nature (as distinct from metallic, organic etc.) while of y Ceramic articles of industry are : Dinner ware,
the constituents of these raw materials,
materials the chemical electrical and chemical porcelain,
porcelain refractory bricks and
element silicon, together with its oxide and the tiles, glass, porcelain enamels, abrasives, cutting tools,
compounds thereof (the silicates), occupies a bricks and tiles, cements and concretes, whitewares,
predominant position." mineral Ores, slags and fluxes and insulators etc.
y Ceramics can be natural or manufactured: P ti fC i
Properties of Ceramics y In general, ceramics are hard, brittle and high
melting point materials with :‐
y Natural Ceramics : The most frequently
q y used, y The co‐valent bonding
g of ceramic materials,, alongwith
g
y desirable electrical, magnetic and optical
desirable electrical magnetic and optical
naturally occuring Ceramics we : Silica (SiO), Silicates their high melting point and relative resistance to properties, i.e., low electrical and thermal
and Clay minerals. oxidation, make ceramics good candidates for high conductivity.
y Manufactured Ceramics : Such ceramics include : temperature applications.
li i y good chemical and thermal stability, that is, high
SiC, Al2O3, Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) and many varieties y In addition, they are relatively cheap and abundant hot‐strength and high corrosion resistance, and
off Oxides,
O id C bid
Carbides, Nit id
Nitrides, B id
Borides andd more andd are nott dependent
d d t on import
i t for
f supply.l freedom from oxidation.
complex ceramics. y good creep resistance, and
y Many ceramics retain strength to much higher
y High compressive strength and excellent
g p g
temperatures than metals.
metals resistance to wear.
y There being virtual absence of ductility in ceramics, so, y Their low density is also an attractive feature to
in general,
general they can not be machined or built up from minimise centrifugal stresses in parts rotating at
stock. high speed.
Contd…
IES 2008
IES‐2008 IES 2002
IES‐2002 P i fC i
Processing of Ceramics
Consider the following statements relating to g
Which one of the following is true?
mechanical properties of ceramics:
h l f The processing of ceramics,
ceramics except glass,
glass follows the
(a) Structure of metallic materials consists of atoms
1. Tensile strength is theoretically high but in practice Powder Metallurgy route, that is, consists of the
quite low.
quite low having valence of 5, 6 or 7
2. Compressive strength is many times lower than tensile (b) Ceramic materials have long range electron matrix following steps :‐
strength. bond
3. Shear strength is high. 1 Preparation of powders
1.
(c) Polymers are composed of long chain of repeating
4. Transverse strength is easy to ascertain. molecules 2. Mixing and Blending of powders
Whi h f h
i b ? (d) Ceramics are weaker than metals because of weak
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 electrostatic bond 3. Compacting of powders
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
4. Firing or Sintering.
M hi i fC i
Machining of Ceramics PRODUCT APPLICATIONS
PRODUCT APPLICATIONS 2 R f t i
2. Refractories
1. Clayy pproducts : Clayy bodyy ceramics include y Refractory ceramics are the materials which are capable of
y Most ceramics are sintered to their finish withstanding
ith t di highhi h temperature
t t in
i various
i situations.
it ti The
Th
whitewares and stoneware. refractory materials are of three types.
dimensions. y Whitewares includes such families of products as y Acidic refractories are based on alumina‐silica
earthenwares, China and porcelain. composition,
ii varying
i f
from pure silica
ili to nearlyl pure
alumina, through a wide range of alumina silicates.
y However, sometimes, they are machined to get better y Whitewares are largely used as tile, sanitary ware, low y The basic constituent of basic refractories is magnesia,
g ,
dimensional accuracy and surface finish. and high voltage insulators, and high frequency MgO. Basic refractories include chrome‐magnesite,
applications. dolomite, limestone and magnesite.
y Machining of ceramics can be done with Diamond y Neutral refractories include substances which do not
y Stoneware applications
l are : Glazed
l d pipes, roofing
f tiles
l combine with either acidic or basic oxides. With increasing
abrasives, LBM, EBM and CHM. and tableware. alumina content, silica‐alumina refractories may gradually
g from an acidic to neutral type.
change yp A typical
yp neutral
character is exhibited by such refractories as Carbon,
graphite, carbide, chromite, bauxite and forsterite.
y Refractories are used in the construction or lining of
C bid f t
Carbide refractory y Nitrides have only slightly lower melting points than carbides.
y Carbides have the highest melting point of all the y Cubic boron nitride, CBN, is the hardest material after diamond
furnaces,
furnaces boilers,
boilers flues,
flues regenerators,
regenerators convertors,
convertors substances.
b t and is used as cutting tool material.
material Silicon nitride,
nitride Si3N4,
Si3N4 is
used for ceramic engine components, turbine disks and rocket
y Silicon carbide, SiC, is difficult to sinter, but pressure
crucibles, dryers, pyrometer tubes and in many others, sintered or reactive sintered solid bodies of SiC are used as nozzles.
hi h
high‐temperature resistance‐heating
i h i elements,
l rocket
k y Sialon (Si ‐ Al ‐ O ‐ N), N) that is oxynitrides,
o nitrides have
ha e better
primarly to withstand the high temperature. oxidation resistance and is used for cutting tools and welding
Al2O3 nozzels and sand blast nozzles.
y Ceramics such as UO2,, UC and UC,, are used in nuclear pins.
y The most widely used oxide refractory ceramic is
applications as fuel elements, fuel containers, moderators, y Borides
d (of
( f Chromium,
h Zirconium and d Titanium)) are usedd as
alumina . It is sintered into cutting tool bits, control rods and structural parts. turbine‐ blades, Rocket nozzles and Combustion chamber
y Boron carbide, B4C, is extremely hard and is used as a liners.
spark
k plug
l insulators,
l h h temperature tubes,
high b melting
l grinding grit. y Cermet is a composition of ceramic and metal. This material
y Other carbides (Tungsten Carbide, Tantalum Carbide and shows better thermal shock resistance than ceramics, but at the
crucibles, wear components and substrates for Titanium carbide) are used in the sintered form as cutting same time retains their high
g refractoriness.
electronic circuits and resistors. tool materials. y It is used as cutting tool material, as crucibles and as jet engine
Contd…
nozzles.
3 Electrical and Magnetic

3.Electrical and Magnetic 4 O ti l A li ti
4. Optical Applications 5 Ph h
5. Phosphorescence
Applications y Ceramics are notably
y useful as a p g , because it is
pigment, y Ceramic p p
phosphors g of a characteristic wave‐
emit light
y Ceramics find wide applications in electrical and exceptionally durable. It is completely oxidised and not length when excited or pumped by some appropriate
electronic industries. subject to chemical attack and variation. energy source (an electric discharge or electron beam).
y As
A i
insulators,
l semi‐conductors,
i d di l
dielectrics,
i y Yttralox (a new ceramic material) is useful in optical y Light tubes, VDT's and colour T.V. rely on this
ferroelectrics, piezoelectric crystals. appIications, becuase it is as transparent as window phenomenon.
y Ceramics such as glass,
glass porcelain,
porcelain alumina,
alumina quartz and glass
l and
d can resist
i t very high
hi h temperature.
t t Ytt l is
Yttralox i y Of increasing interest are Laser materials, The most
mica, are getting heavy demands. completely free from pores. widely used Laser is ruby (an Al2O3 , crystal doped with
y Ceramics,, such as SiC,, are used as resistors and
y Generally,
Generall Ceramics are opaque, opaque because of the Cr ions).
ions)
heating elements for furnaces.
presence of tiny pores within them that scatter light. y They are being used for machining, welding and
y Ceramics, having semiconducting properties, are used
f thermistors
for h i andd rectifiers.
ifi B i
Barium titantate,
i f
for cutting etc.
etc
example, is used in capacitors and transducers.
IES 2002
IES‐2002 Gl
Glass y Vitreous materials or inorganic glasses are the fusion
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer: y Glasses are,, by
y definition,, "Ceramics" because the products which during solidification from a liquid state
failed to crystallise.
crystallise
List I (Material) List II (Application) starting materials needed to produce glass are typical
y During the cooling process, the glasses exhibit no
A. Ceramics 1. Construction of of ceramic materials. However, they are produced by discontinuous change g at anyy temperature
p and onlyy a
chemical plants the
h melt l processing
i route, instead
i d off the
h powderd progressive increase in viscosity is noticed. In fact, glass is a
B. Refractory 2. Columns and pillars metallurgy route used for other ceramics. hard liquid.
C. Stones 3. Lining of furnaces y In
I ceramic i science,
i th word
the d "glass"
" l " signifies
i ifi any y Glass Forming Constituents : Silica,Silica which is obtained
amorphous component of ceramic mixture. from high‐purity silica sand is the most widely used glass‐
D. High silica glass 4. Tiles forming constituent.
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D y However,
Ho e er in general terms,
terms glass is a transparent silica y Other glass forming constituents are the oxides of boron,
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3 product which may be amorphous or crystalline, vanadium, germanium and phosphorous. Some other
( ) 4
(c) 1 2 3 (d) 2 3 4 1
depending on heat treatment.
treatment elements and compounds such as tellurium, selenium and
BeF2 can also form glasses.
y Glasses may be either inorganic or organic.
y Along with oxides, fluxes are also added to the charge IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2008
IES‐2008
for a g
glass. Fluxes lower the fusion temperature of the Structure of common glass is g
Which one of the following is correct?
glass and render the molten glass workable at (a) Amorphous When "devitrification" of inorganic glasses is done,
reasonable temperature. (b) Partially crystalline ((a)) Glass transforms from crystalline to non‐
y
y However, fluxes may reduce the resistance of glass to (c) Fully crystalline crystalline state
chemical attack, render it water soluble or make it
((d)) None of the above ((b)) Glass transforms into a fully transparent material
y p
subject
bj t tot partial
ti l or complete
l t devitrification
d it ifi ti (th t is,
(that i
crystallisation) upon‐cooling; Such a glass is (c) Glass transforms from non‐crystalline state to
undesirable since the crystalline are extremely weak poly‐crystalline state
and brittle. (d) Glass is relieved of internal stresses
y Stabilizers are therefore, added to the glass batch to
overcome these problems.
C it
Composites IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2009
IES‐2009
What are composites? Assertion (A) : A composite is a multiphase p g yp
Nano composite materials are highly preferable in
y Composites are the multiphase materials, which can be material
t i l which
hi h is
i artificially
tifi i ll made
d as one thatth t
occurs naturally. design consideration for their
defined as any multiphase material that is artificially made
and exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of Reason ((R): ) Technology gy of modern ageg requires
q a (a) High resistance to crack propagation
the
h constituent
i phases.
h material with unusual combination of properties (b) Vibration resistance
y The constituent phases of a composite are usually of macro that cannot be met by metal or alloys.
sized p
portions,, differ in form and chemical composition
p ((c)) Impact resistance
p
and essentially insoluble in each other. (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A (d) High resilience
Why do we need composites?
y Composites are the class of materials with special ((b)) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is NOT the
properties. correct explanation of A
y Properties of the composite can be tailored to meet the (c) A is true but R is false
required purpose such as superior properties like higher (d) A is
i false
f l but
b R isi true
strength to weight ratio, high modulus and high
temperature stability along with good damping ability.
TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS y The
Th matrix
i material
i l should
h ld be
b : ductile
d il with
i h its
i A l t dM t i l
Agglomerated Materials
modulus of elasticity much lower than that of the
y Composite materials may roughly be classified as : y Agglomerated materials or particulate composites
dispersed phase.
phase Also,
Also the bonding forces between the consist of discrete particles of one material,
1. Agglomerated materials or Particulate Composites two phases must be very strong.
2. Reinforced materials surrounded by a matrix of another material. The
y Depending upon the nature of the reinforcing materials are bonded together into an integrated mass.
mass
3. Laminates materials (shape and size), the reinforced composites y Two classic examples of such a composite material are :
4. Surface‐Coated materials. can be classified as: Concrete formed byy mixing gg
gravel,, sand,, cement and
y The particulate composites and reinforced composites 1. Particle reinforced composites or particulate water and agglomeration of asphalt and stone
are constituted by just two phases, the matrix phase particles, that is used for paving the highway surfaces.
and the dispersed phase.
phase reinforced composites.
Other examples of particulate composite materials
y The matrix phase is continuous and surrounds the 2. Fibre reinforced composites. include :‐
dispersed
p phase. The aim is to improve
p p the strength
g y In p particle reinforced composites,
p , the dispersed
p phase
p 1.. GGrinding
d g aand d cutt
cutting
g wheels,
ee s, in whichc ab
abrasive
as e
properties of the matrix material. is in the form of exi‐axed particles, whereas in fibre‐ particles ( Al2O3 , SiC, CBN or diamond) are held
reinforced composites, together by a vitreous or a resin bond.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Pageit227
is inofthe
240form of fibres. Contd… Rev.0 Contd…
C
2. Cemented d carbides,
bid i which
in hi h particles
i l off ceramic i IES 2009
IES‐2009 Reinforced Materials
Reinforced Materials
materials, such as WC, TaC, TiC and of Cobalt and nickle, y Reinforced materials form the biggest and most
are bonded together via Powder Metallurgy process, to g p
Which of the following composites are
produce
d cutting
i tooll materials.
i l Cobalt
C b l acts as the
h binder
bi d for
f important group of composite materials.
materials
ceramic particles. During sintering, the binder melts and dispersion‐strengthened composites’?
y The purpose of reinforcing is always to improve the
forms a continuous matrix between the ceramic particles. ((a)) Particulate composites
p
Thi method
This th d is
i called
ll d as "Vitreous
"Vit sintering",
i t i " thatth t is,
i strength properties.
properties
sintering with the formation of liquid phase. (b) Laminar composites y Reinforcement may involve the use of a dispersed phase
3. Cermets (Ceramics + metals). Metals (W, Mo, Ni, Co (c) Fiber reinforced composites
act as binders
bi d and d the
h product
d i made
is d by b Powder
P d or strong fibre,
fibre thread or rod.
rod
Metallurgy method. (d) Short‐fiber discontinuous composites y The matrix material provides ductility and toughness
y The sintering
g temperature
p is the meltinggppoint of the metal. and supports and binds the fibres together and
y In the resulting composite material, the metal contributes transmits the loads to the fibres.
high toughness and thermal shock resistance, while the
ceramic
ce a c co contributes
t butes higher
g e refractoriness
e acto ess aand d ccreep
eep y The fibres carry
y most of the load.
resistance, superior chemical stability and abrasion
resistance.
Contd…
y Reinforcing Fibres :A good reinforcing fibre should have :

IES 2010
IES 2010
y The toughness of the composite material increases,
high elastic modulus, high strength, low density, reasonable Consider the following statements regarding
g will be needed to break or pull
because extra energy ductility and should be easily wetted by the matrix.
matrix composite materials:
out a fibre. y Metallic fibres such as patented steel, stainless steel, 1. Material is termed as advanced composite, if fibers are
y Also, when any crack appears on the surface of a fibre, tungsten and molybdenum wires are used in a metal matrix
directionally oriented and continuous.
continuous
only that fibre will fail and the crack will not such
h as aluminium
l andd titanium.
y Carbon fibres and whiskers are also used to produce ultra‐ 2. Reinforced fiber glass products are strong and light
propagate catastrophically as in bulk material.
high strength composites.
composites weight.
g
y Wood and bamboo are two naturally occurring fiber
d db b ll fb
y Fibres need not be limited to metals. Glass, ceramic and 3. Concrete is reinforced with steel rebar, the rebar becomes
composites, consisting of cellulose fibers in a lignin polymer fibres are used to produce variety of composites matrix.
matrix.
matrix h i wide
having id range off properties.
i
4. Pearlitic steels are composite materials.
y The commonly used matrix materials are : Metals and y The ductile matrix material can be aluminium, magnesium,
nickle or titanium and the reinforcing fibres may be of Which of the above statements are correct?
polymers such as Al Cu Ni etc and commercial
polymers, such as, Al, Cu, Ni etc. and commercial
polymers. boron, graphite, alumina or SiC. (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
Contd… (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES 2007
IES 2007 IES 2002
IES‐2002 IES 1999
IES‐1999
p g
Wood is a natural composite consisting of which g
Which of the following fibre materials are used g
of the following? for reinforcement in composite materials? The strength of the fibre reinforced plastic product
(a) Lignin fibres in collagen matrix 1. Glass p p g
1. Depends upon the strength of the fibre alone
(b) Lignin fibres in apatite matrix 2. Boron carbide 2. Depends upon the fibre and plastic
((c)) Cellulose fibres in apatite matrix
p 33. Graphite
p 3. Is isotropic
(d) Cellulose fibres in lignin matrix Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 4. Is anisotropic
((a)) 1 and 2 ((b)) 1 and 3
3 Which of these statements are correct?
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

Whi k
Whiskers IES 2011
IES 2011 A li i f i f d i l
Applications of reinforced materials
y Whiskers are single
g crystals in the form of fine filaments, a ‘Whiskers’ are 1. Glass‐fibre reinforced p plastics : Here,, we have gglass
few microns in diameter (20‐50 nm dia.) and short in (a) Very thin metallic particles fibres in a matrix of unsaturated polyester.
length (a few mm).
(b) Very thin single
g crystals y Glass fibre‐reinforced plastics are used to make : boat
y Th
These single
i l crystall whiskers
hi k are the
h strongest known
k hulls, Car bodies, truck, cabins and aircraft fittings.
(c) Very thin polycrystals
fibres.
((d)) Fiber p
particles of aspect
p ratio less than 10 2. C‐C Composites : These composites have graphite
y Their high strength is due to the high degree of perfection
fibres in a carbon matrix.
and the absence of dislocation in their structure.
y This material is being used to make : Nose cone and
y Their strength
g is manyy times g greater than that of the
normal metals. l d
leading edge
d off the
h missiles
l and d space shuttles,
h l racing
car disk brakes, aerospace turbine and jet engine
y They are introduced into resin or metallic matrix for the
purpose of high strength and high stiffness at high components rocket nozzles and surgical implants.
components, implants
temperatures.
Contd…
3. Graphite fibre‐reinforced epoxy : (Organic or Resin

IES 2009
IES‐2009
p
matrix composites) ) : This material is being g used to g
Which one of the following materials is not a
make m y parts of a fighter plane. composite?
4. Automative uses : Bodyy p
4 panels,, drive shafts,, springs
p g (a) Wood
and bumpers, Cab shells and bodies, oil pans, fan (b) Concrete
shrouds, instrument panels and engine covers. ((c)) Plywood
y
5. Sports equipment : Golf club shafts, baseball parts, (d) Sialon
fishing rods, tennis rackets, bicycle frames, skis and
pole
l vaults.
l
H d T
Hardness Test IES 1992
IES‐1992 IAS 2001
IAS‐2001
Hardness as a function of carbon content is shown With the
th increase
i off percentage
t off carbon
b in
i the
th
Definition: Hardness is a very important but hard to in steel, which one of the following properties does
define property of materials. ( ) g
(a) Fig‐A increase?
(a) Modulus of elasticity (b) Ductility
“Hardness
Hardness is the resistance offered by a material (b) Fig B
(b) Fig‐B (c) Toughness (d) Hardness
to indentation.”
(c) Fig C
(c) Fig‐C
(d) Fig D
(d) Fig‐D

Brinell Hardness test
M h’ Scale of Hardness
Moh’s S l fH d y Most commonly used tests.
y It cannot be used on very hard or very soft material.
Material Moh’s hardness y It is best if the thickness of the material is at least 10
y A 10 mm tungsten carbide or hardened steel ball
Talc 1 times the depth.
intended.
Gypsum 2 y Tensile strength = k×BHN MPa
y Gradually applied load.
load
Calcite 3 k = 3.296 for alloy steel
Fluorite 4 y Load applied at right angle to the specimen surface
3 34
= 3.342 for Plain Carbon steel.
A tit
Apatite 5 y Indentation diameter made on the specimen is
measured. y For steel, flexural endurance limit σ e
Orthoclase 6
Quartz 7 BHN =
Load
oad
=
P
k f / mm2
kgf
σ e = 1.75 × BHN MPa
Topaz
Corundum
8
9
Surface Areaof Indentation
πD×
(D − D −d2 2
) VHN ≈ BHN
2
Diamond 10 BHN
P → Kgf ; D and d in mm Rc ≈
Contd… 10
IES 2010
IES 2010 IES 1992
IES‐1992 R k ll H d
Rockwell Hardness test
The hardness of lathe bed material should be
A carbon steel having Brinell Hardness y A sphere – conical diamond cone of 120
120º angle and a
measured by
d b spherical apex of radius 0.2 mm is used
number 100 should ultimate tensile
(a) Rockwell tester y Depth
p of indentation t is measured.
strength closer it
(b) Brinell hardness tester y Gradually applied load,
(a) 100 N/mm2 (b) 200 N/mm2
(c) Shore Scleroscope 2 2 y Load is applied at right angle to the specimen surface.
( ) 350 N/mm
(c) N/ (d) 1000 N/mm
N/
(d) Vickers hardness tester y R = 100 – 500 × t
y Depending on the load used a scale A,
A B,
B C,
C etc.
etc used.
used
y Rockwell test should not be used on thin materials
(generally less than 0.16 mm, on rough surface or on
materials that are not homogeneous).
IAS 1999
IAS‐1999 Vi k h d
Vickers hardness test Th S l
The Scleroscope
A measure of Rockwell hardness is the (i) A square based diamond pyramid having 136 136º (i) Based on the rebound height of a ball from the
(a) Depth of penetration of indenter between the opposite faces is used. specimen.
(b) Surface area of indentation ((ii)) Average
g Diagonal
g of the indention ((D)) is ((ii)) Harder the material,, higher
g is the height
g to which
(c) Projected area of indentation measured. the ball rebounds.
(d) Height of rebound 1.854
1 854 p p in kgf ((iii)) Scleroscope
p hardness numbers are comparable
p
VHN = , only among similar materials. A comparison between
D2 D in mm.
steel and rubber would not be valid.
(iii) Even
E a light
li ht load
l d will
ill produce
d plastic
l ti deformation
d f ti
that so why we may use VHT on very hard material
likes Tungsten Carbide.
Carbide

Knoop Test (Micro Hardness Test) IES 1992
IES‐1992 Durometer
y Various micro hardness tests have been developed for Which of the following would you prefer for
application where it is necessary to determine the checking the hardness of very thin sections? y When
Wh testing
i soft,
f elastic
l i materials,
i l such
h as
hardness of a very precise area of material, or where ((a)) Hebert cloud burst test
rubbers and non rigid plastics, a durometer is
the material or surface layer is exceptionally thin. use
(b) Shore's Scleroscope
y Special machine have been developed for this purpose.
(c) Knoop hardness test
The location for this test is select in the high
(d) Vickers hardness test Herbert Cloudburst hardness test:
magnification.
y A smallll diamond
di d penetrator is i then
h l d d with
loaded ih a y It is used to know the uniformity of hardness
predetermined load ranging fm 25g to 3000g. over a surface.
Charpy and Izod test

IES 1992
IES‐1992 y Toughness of a material is measured by means of impact y In the Charpy impact test, the specimen is held between
two grips whereas in the Izod impact test the specimen is
tests.
Herbert cloudburst Hardness test is conducted to held at one end like a cantilever .
y Notched bar prepared as per standard from the test
know y The standard test specimens used in the izod and Charpy
material, is held in a vice and a weight is allowed to swing
((a)) Uniformityy of hardness over a surface impact tests are made of bars with a square cross section of
from a known height in such a way that it hits the notched 10 mm.
(b) Softness of non‐metallic components bar in its path and breaks it.
y The impact resistance is dependent upon the material
(c) Hardness of non
non‐metallic
metallic components y Since the material has absorbed some amount of energy gy composition as well as the heat treatment process given to
during its fracture, the swinging mass loses part of its it.
(d) Hardness at specified depth inside the surface.
energy and therefore will not be able to reach the same y The annealed materials normally would have better
h i ht from
height f where
h it started.
t t d toughness
h than
h the
h corresponding
di normalized
li d or
y The loss in height (h) multiplied by the weight represents quenched specimens. Coarse‐grained structure would tend
the energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture,fracture g
to have higher ductilityy compared
p to fine g
grain structure
which can be directly measured from the indicator on the and consequently better toughness.
tester. Contd…
Sh F bili T
Sheet Formability Tests GATE 2006
GATE‐2006 IES 2002
IES‐2002
y During the various sheet metal forming processes, the Match the items in Column I and Column II. Assertion ((A):) The hardness test is a slow,, expensive
p
stresses and strains developed in the material are quite Column I Column II method of assessing the mechanical properties of
P. Charpy test 1. Fluidity materials.
complex. So, any measure of the formability of the
Q. Knoop test 2. Micro hardness Reason (R): The hardness is a function of yield stress
sheet metal on the basis of material properties derived and the work hardening rate of material.
from a simple tension test( for example, % elongation R. Spiral test 3. Formability
((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct
as an index
i d off ductility
d tilit off the
th material)
t i l) is
i nott very S Cupping test
S. C i t t 4. T
Toughness
h explanation of A
accurate. 5. Permeability (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
y So cupping tests have been developed to evaluate the correct explanation of A
formability of the sheet metals. (a) P ‐ 4, Q ‐ 5, R ‐ 3, S – 2 (b) P ‐ 3, Q ‐ 5, R ‐ 1, S ‐ 4 (c) A is true but R is false
((c)) P ‐ 2, Q ‐
, Q 4,4, R ‐ 3,
3, S – 5 ((d)) P‐ 4,
4, Q ‐
Q 2, R ‐
, 1, S –
, 3 (d) A is false but R is true

Duralumin IES 1993
IES‐1993
y It is an important and interesting wrought alloy. y
Duralumin Alloy contains aluminium pp
and copper
y Its composition is as follows: in the ratio of
y Copper = 3.5 – 4.5%; Manganese = 0.4 – 0.7%; %Al %Cu
M
Magnesiumi = 0.4 – 0.7%,
% and d the
th remainder
i d i
is
aluminium. (a) 94 4
y This alloy possesses maximum tensile strength (upto ((b)) 990 8
400 MPa) after heat treatment and age hardening. (c) 88 10
After working, if the metal is allowed to age for 3 or 4 ((d)) 86 12
d
days, i will
it ill be
b hardened.
h d d This
Thi phenomenon
h i known
is k
as age hardening.
y It is widely used in wrought conditions for forging,
forging
stamping, bars, sheets, tubes and rivets.
IES 1992
IES‐1992 Magnalium Hindalium
g
Which of the following statement is incorrect y It is made by melting the aluminium with 2 to 10% y It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium with a
about duralumin? magnesium in a vacuum and then cooling it in a small quantity of chromium.
(a) It is prone to age hardening vacuum or under a p pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres.
p
(b) It can be forged y It also contains about 1.75% copper. Due to its light
((c)) It has good machining properties
g gp p weight
g and g good mechanical p properties,
p it is mainlyy
(d) It is lighter than pure aluminium used for aircraft and automobile components.
Copper zinc alloys (Brass)

Copper‐zinc alloys (Brass) y The addition of zinc strengthens the material and IES 1992
IES‐1992
incidentally changes the colour to a yellow or gold g p
Addition of which of the following improves
y The most widely used copper zinc alloy is brass.
copper‐zinc
effect.
ff machining of copper?
y There are various types of brasses, depending upon the y The ratio of copper and zinc can be varied for
proportions
p p of copper
pp and zinc. (a) Sulphur
advantages and the addition of other elements gives
y This is fundamentally a binary alloy of copper with still more variety of combinations of properties such as (b) Vanadium
zinc each 50%.
5 machinability, strength, hardness, ductility (hot or ((c)) Tin
cold),
ld) conductivity
d and
d corrosion resistance as well
ll as
y By adding small quantities of other elements, the (d) Zinc
many others.
properties of brass may be greatly changed.
y Lead additions are used to improve machinability. The
Lead additions are used to improve machinability The
y Applications of Cu alloys include: costume jewellery, lead is insoluble in the solid brass and segregates as
coins, musical instruments, electronics, springs, small globules that help the swarf to break up in to
g p p
bushes, surgical and dental instruments, radiators, etc. small pieces and may also help to lubricate the cutting
tool action.
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 232 of 240 Rev.0
IES 1992
IES‐1992 Copper tin alloys (Bronze)
Copper‐tin alloys (Bronze) y The hardness and strength of bronze increase with an
g
Cartridge brass can be y The alloys of copper and tin are usually termed as increase in tin content.
(a) Cold rolled into sheets bronzes. y The ductility is also reduced with the increase in tin
((b)) Drawn into wires y The useful range of composition is 75 to 95% copper percentage above 5.
andd 5 to 25%% tin. y When aluminium is also added (4 to 11%), the
(c) Formed into tubes
y The metal is comparatively hard, resists surface wear resulting alloy is termed aluminium bronze, which
(d) Any of the above.
andd can be
b shaped
h d or rolled
ll d into
i wires,
i rods
d andd sheets
h h a considerably
has d bl higher
h h corrosion resistance.
very easily. y Bronzes are comparatively costly compared to brasses
y In
I corrosion
i resistant
i t t properties,
ti bronzes
b are superior
i d to the
due h presence off tin
i which
hi h is
i an expensive
i metal.
l
to brasses. y The colour of aluminium bronze is similar to that of
22 caratt gold
ld and
d it is
i frequently
f tl called
ll d ‘imitation
‘i it ti
gold’.
Contd…
IES 2011
IES 2011 Phosphor bronze
Phosphor bronze IES 2006
IES‐2006
Aluminium Bronze is also known as : y When bronze contains phosphorus, it is called In case of power screws, what is the combination
(a) Muntz metal phosphor bronze. of materials used for the screw and the nut?
(b) White metal y Phosphorus increases the strength, ductility and ((a)) Cast iron screw and mild steel nut
(c) Duraluminium soundness
d off castings.
(b) Carbon steel screw and phosphor bronze nut
y This alloy possesses good wearing qualities and high
((d)) Imitation g
gold (c) Cast iron screw and cast iron nut
elasticity.
l i i
(d) Aluminium screw and alloy steel nut
y A common type of phosphor bronze has the following
composition
iti according
di tot Indian
I di standards
t d d Copper
C =
87–90%, Tin = 9–10%, and Phosphorus = 0.1–3%.
y The material is specified for pump parts,
parts gears,
gears
springs, power screw nuts and bearings.
IES 1992
IES‐1992 Gun Metal
Gun Metal IES 2003
IES‐2003
p g p p p p
The percentage of phosphorous in phosphor bronze y It is an alloy of copper, tin and zinc. , j g ,
Gunmetal, which is used in journal bearings,
is y It usually contains 88% copper, 10% tin and 2% zinc. contains
(a) 0.1 (b) 1 y This metal is also known as Admiralty g
gun metal. (a) 88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn
(c) 11.1 (d) 98 y The zinc is added to clean the metal and to increase its (b) 80% Cu, 10% Zn, 10% Al
fluidity. ((c)) 85% Cu, 5% Mg, 10% Al
5 ,5 g,
y It is not suitable for being worked in the cold state but (d) 85% Cu, 5% Sn, 10% Pb
may be forged when at about 600°C.
y It is extensively used for casting boiler fittings, bushes,
bearings, glands, etc.

IES 2011
IES 2011 Monel metal
IES 1994
IES‐1994 Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
gp
Which of the following pairs are correctly y the code given below the lists : y It is an important alloy of nickel and copper.
matched? List –I List –II y It contains 68% nickel, 29% copper and 3% other
1. Silicon steels ………Transformer stampings constituents like iron, manganese, silicon and carbon.
A Gun Metal
A. Gun Metal 1 Worm wheel
1. Worm wheel It is superior to brass
b and
d bronze
b in corrosion resisting
2. Duralumin ……Cooking utensils.
B. Phosphor bronze 2. Cylinder block properties.
33. Gun metal................. Bearings
g
y It
I is i usedd for
f making
ki propellers,
ll pump fittings,
fi i
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. C. Gray cast iron 3. Piston condenser tubes, steam turbine blades, sea water
C
Codes: D Al allo
D. Al alloy 4 Bushings
4. Bushings exposed parts,
parts tanks and chemical and food handling
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 Codes plants.
A B C D A B C D
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 4 2 1 3
IES 2011
IES 2011
Admirality Brass is used for
(a) Condenser Tubes
(b) Rivets
(c) Piston rods
((d)) Utensils
IES 2006
IES‐2006 IES 2003
IES‐2003 IES 2004
IES‐2004
Match List‐I (Composition) with List‐II (Application) and select y
Monel metal is an alloy of y pp
Match List I (Alloy) with List II (Application) and select
the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:
the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
List‐ I List ‐II (a) Iron and carbon
A. Commercial bronze (10% Zn) 1. Radiator List I List II
B
B. Red brass (15% Zn) 2 Spring metal
2. Spring metal ((b)) Copper and zinc
pp A Silicon steel
A. 1
1. Marine bearings
C. Aluminium brass ( 22% Zn, 2% Al) 3. Forging and (c) Aluminium and copper B. High carbon steel 2. Cutting tools
stamping
D
D. P‐bronze (11 % tin) small amount of P) 4 Power plant
4. Power plant (d) Copper and nickel C. High speed steel 3. Springs
and chemical D. Monel metal 4. Transformer
equipment laminations
Codes: A B C D A B C D Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 4 1 3 (b) 3 1 4 2
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 3 4 1 2
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 1 3 2 4

Inconel Nichrome Nimonic
y It consists of 80% nickel, 14% chromium, and 6% iron. y It consists of 80% nickel and 20% chromium.
y It consists of 65% nickel,
nickel 15% chromium and 20% iron.
iron
y This alloy has excellent mechanical properties at y It has high strength and ability to operate under
y It has high heat and oxidation resistance.
ordinary and elevated temperatures. intermittent heating and cooling conditions.
y It is used in making electrical resistance wire for
y It can be cast, rolled and cold drawn. y It is widely used in gas turbine engines.
electric furnaces and heating elements.
y It is used for making springs which have to withstand
high temperatures and are exposed to corrosive action.
y It is also used for exhaust manifolds of aircraft engines.
Babbit metal IES 2011

IES 2011 IES 1995
IES‐1995
y The tin base and lead base babbits are widely used as a Babbit is an alloy of g g
Babbit lining is used on brass/bronze bearings to
bearing material, because they satisfy most (a) Sn, Cu, Sb and Pb (a) Increase bearing resistance
requirements for general applications. (b) Sn and Cu ((b)) Increase compressive strength
p g
y The
h babbit
b bb is generally
ll used
d as a thin
h layer,
l 0.05 mm to (c) Sn, Cu and Pb (c) Provide anti‐friction properties
0.15 mm thick, bonded to an insert or steel shell. The
composition of the babbit metals is as follows: ((d)) Sn,, Cu and Sb (d) Increase wear resistance.
y Tin base babbits : Tin 90% ; Copper 4.5% ; Antimony
5% ; Lead 0.5%.
0 5%
y Lead base babbits : Lead 84% ; Tin 6% ; Anitmony
9 5% ; Copper 0.5%.
9.5% 0 5%
IES 2009
IES‐2009 IES 2008
IES‐2008 IES
y
Why are babbit y g
alloys used for bearing material? g
Which one of the following is correct? g
Tin base white metals are used where the bearings
(a) They have excellent embeddability Babbitt are used for are subjected to
((b)) They are relatively stronger than other bearing
y y g g ((a)) Gears ((b)) Bearings
g (a) Large surface wear
materials (c) Bolts (d) Clutch liners (b) Elevated temperatures.
((c)) They do not lose strength with increase in
y g ((c)) Light load and pressure
g p
temperature (d) High pressure and load.
(d) They have high fatigue strength

IES 1998
IES‐1998 IES 2005
IES‐2005 IES 2007
IES 2007
Match List‐I (Alloys) with List‐II (Applications) and Match List I (Alloy) with List II (Major Constituent) Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code
given below the Lists:
select the correct answer using the codes given below
l h h d b l and select the correct answer using the code given
d l h h d List I List II
the lists: below the Lists: (Component) (Required Property)
List‐II
List List‐II
List II List I List II A. Blades of bulldozer 1. High wear resistance and
g
high toughness
A. Chromel 1. Journal bearing A. Babbitt 1. Nickel B. Gas turbine blades 2. Low Young’s modulus and
high fatigue strength
B. Babbit alloyy 2. Milling cutter
g B. Invar 2. Tin and lead C
C. Drill bit 3
3. High wear and abrasion
C. Nimonic alloy 3. Thermocouple wire C. Gun Metal 3. Aluminium resistance
D. Springs of automobiles 4. High creep strength and
D. High speed steel 4. Gas turbine blades D. Duralumin 4. Copper good corrosion resistance
Code:A B C D A B C D Code:A B C D A B C D Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 1 4 3 2
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 3 4 1 2 (a) 2 4 1 3 (b) 3 1 4 2 (b) 3 4 1 2 (d) 1 2 3 4
( ) 2
(c) 4 1 3 (d) 2 1 4 3 ( ) 2
(c) 1 4 3 (d) 3 4 1 2
Col mbi m/Niobi m

Columbium/Niobium IES 2011
IES 2011 Nimonic 90
y Columbium finds much use in large‐scale applications, Columbium is a : y A precipitation hardenable nickel‐chromium‐cobalt alloy,
suchh as steel
t l for
f automobile
t bil bodies
b di and d pipelines.
i li The
Th use having
h i highhi h stress‐rupture
t t strength
t th andd creep resistance
i t att
that probably will consume most of the columbium is (a) Nuclear material
elevated temperatures up to about 950 °C.
microalloying. (b) Automobile material y For springs exposed to lower loads,
loads the material can be used
y Relatively small amount of columbium lend high strength (c) Film material up to 700 °C.
to steel. The microalloyed, or high‐strenght, low‐alloy
(HSLA) steels,
steels are used for automobile bodies,
bodies structures ( )
(d) Foam material y Nimonic 9 90 offers g
good resistance to corrosion and is non‐
of all kinds, and high‐pressure pipe, particulary in the oil magnetic.
and gas industry. y Applications include the aircraft industry, gas turbines,
y Columbium
l b with
h oxygen as dominant
d substiutitional
b l vehicle
h l components and d springs in highh h temperature
alloying atoms is used in the nuclear fusion reactor. environments, and thermal.
y Nuclear material refers to the metals uranium,
uranium plutonium,
plutonium y Operating temperature: ‐100
100 – + 550 °C
and thorium, in any form, according to the IAEA
Ferro electricity
Ferro‐electricity Piezo electricity
Piezo‐electricity IES 1993
IES‐1993
y Ferro‐electricity is defined as the spontaneous alignment y Piezo‐electricity, or pressure electricity, is defined as
polarization induced by the application of external force. QQuartz is a
off electric
l t i dipoles
di l by
b their
th i mutual
t l interaction
i t ti in
i the
th
absence of an applied electric field. y Hence, by reversing the direction of external force, direction (a) Ferroelectric material
of the field can be reversed i.e. the application of an
y This arises from the fact that the local field increases in external electric field alters the net dipole length and causes ((b)) Ferromagnetic material
g
proportion to the polarization. Thus, ferro‐electric a dimensional change. (c) Piezoelectric material
materials must posses permanent dipoles. Ex.: BaTiO3, y This property is characteristic of materials having
complicated structures with a low degree of symmetry.
symmetry (d) Diamagnetic material
Rochelle salt (NaKC4H4O6.4H2O), potassium dihydrogen
phosphate (KH2PO4), potassium niobate (KNbO3). y Thus, piezoelectric materials can be used as transducers –
devices that convert mechanical stress into electrical energy
y These
Th materials
t i l have
h extremely
t l high
hi h dielectric
di l t i constants
t t att andd vice
i versa.
relatively low applied field frequencies. y Application for these materials includes microphones,
y Thus,
Thus capacitors made from ferro ferro‐electric
electric materials are ultrasonic generators, sonar detectors, and mechanical
strain
i gauges. Ex.:
E B i
Barium titanate,
i l d titanate,
lead i l d
lead
smaller than capacitors made of other dielectric materials. zirconate (PbZrO3), ammoinium dihydrogen phosphate
(NH4H2PO4), and quartz. Rev.0
Welding cracks
Welding cracks y Cracks in the base metal usually occur at low y Cold cracking can occur due any to the following
y Cracks may occur at the following locations :‐
temperatures (around 200°C) and are known as Cold several factors :‐ improper welding conditions, the
(i) In the weld (Fuse) Metal Zone cracks. presence of gas and other impurities in the weld,
f d h i i i i h ld
(ii) In the Base metal zone wrong choice of filler rod and metallurgical factors
y On the other hand, the cracks in the weld metal zone
such as excessive cooling rate resulting in the
(iii) S
(iii) Sometimes, the cracks originate in one Zone and
ti th k i i t i Z d occur while the metal is still very hot. Such cracks are
hil h l i ill h S h k formation of martensite and formation of brittle
then spread to the other Zone. called Hot cracks. phases in the weld when cold or the formation of
y Cracks in the weld may be due to structural stresses in
C k i th ld b d t t t l t i phases which are brittle at high temperatures
h hi h b ittl t hi h t t
the metal (for example, the formation of martensite), [Allotropic transformations].
heavy shrinkage extra high amount of sulphur
heavy shrinkage, extra high amount of sulphur, y Cracks in the base metal can occur due to the
phosphorous or carbon in the metal, excessively rigid following reasons :‐ Corrosion, Base metal defects,
clamping of the parts being welded or the presence of
p g p g p Base metal composition variations, hydrogen
gases in the weld metal. embrittlement
bi l and internal stresses set up due to
d i l d
restrained shrinking after welding.
Contd… Contd…
IES 2005
IES‐2005 H bi l
H‐embrittlement dP i i
and Passivity IES 1992
IES‐1992
ot c ac s occu t e e d a d us o o e as t e
Hot cracks occur in the weld and fusion zone as the y Hydrogen embrittlement
yd oge e b tt e e t is form of failure than
s o o a u et a Presence of hydrogen in steel causes
metal solidifies. Which of the following are the causes corrosion,but occurs as a result of hydrogen produced (a) Reduced neutron absorption cross‐section
for hot cracks? during corrosion. Atomic hydrogen diffuses into crystals
and inhibits dislocation motion, causing failure.
d i hibi di l i i i f il (b) improved weldability
1. Presence of sulphur and phosphorus in the base metal
y Counter measures: heat treatment; removal of hydrogen (c) Embrittlement
2. High carbon or alloy content of the base metal
3. Moisture in the joint or electrode
source.
source (d) corrosion resistance
y Passivity: It is form protection against corrosion. It results
4. Joint restraint
, g y
from thin, strong adherent oxide layer formed over the
l h h d b l surface. Usually observed in Al, Cr, Fe, Ni, Ti and their
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 alloys. Passive layers may get damaged during mechanical
( ) 3 and 4
(c) d (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
d vibrations, and so these metals are prone to erosion
ib i d h l i
corrosion.
IES 2006
IES‐2006 IES 1992
IES‐1992
In case of power screws, what is the combination For the pipe fitting like elbow, tee, union etc.
of materials used for the screw and the nut? which of the following is preferred?
((a)) Cast iron screw and mild steel nut ((a)) Pig iron
g
(b) Carbon steel screw and phosphor bronze nut (b) Malleable iron
Other questions
(c) Cast iron screw and cast iron nut (c) Spheroidal graphite cast iron
(d) Aluminium screw and alloy steel nut (d) High carbon steel

IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES 1992
IES‐1992 IES 2006
IES‐2006
g p yp p
Which of the following display properties similar g p
Addition of which of the following improves p g
Disruptive strength is the maximum strength of a g
to that of steel machining of copper? metal, when
1. Black‐heart cast iron (a) Sulphur (a) Subjected to 3 principal tensile stresses at right
2. White‐heart cast iron (b) Vanadium angles to one another and of equal magnitude
33. Gray cast iron
y ((c)) Tin (b) Loaded in tension
4. Pig iron (d) Zinc (c) Loaded in compression
((a)) 1 and 2 onlyy ((b)
) 33 and 4 only
4 y (d) Loaded in shear
IAS 1996
IAS‐1996 IAS 1998
IAS‐1998 IES 1996
IES‐1996
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer Which of the following methods are suitable for The limit to the maximum hardness of a work
using the codes given below the lists:
h d b l h l the production of super alloys? material which can be machined with HSS tools
List I (Cutting tools) List II (Major constituent) 1. Atomization from molten state using inert gas. even at low speeds is set by which one of the
A Stellite
A. l
l. Tungsten 2. Atomization using plasma arc and rotating
A i i i l d i f ll i
following tool failure mechanisms?
l f il h i
B. H.S.S. 2. Cobalt electrode. (a) Attrition
C. Ceramic 3. Alumina 3 Reduction and crushing.
3. Reduction and crushing
D. DCON 4. Columbium
(b) Abrasion
5. Titanium (c) Diffusion
Codes:
Codes: A B C D A B C D (d) Plastic deformation under compression.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) 5 1 3 4 (b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
( ) 2
(c) 1 3 4 ( )
(d) 2 5 3 4
GATE 2002
GATE‐2002 IES 2009
IES‐2009 IES 1992
IES‐1992
y
The ductility of a material with work hardeningg p g yp
Nano composite materials are highly preferable in Machine tool frame should have
(a) Increases (b) Decreases design consideration for their (a) High rigidity to weight ratio
((c)) Remains unaffected ((d)) Unpredictable
p (a) High resistance to crack propagation ((b)) Graphite in the form of nodules
p
(b) Vibration resistance (c) Low hardness
((c)) Impact resistance
p (d) High work hardness
(d) High resilience

GATE 1995
GATE‐1995 IES 2009
IES‐2009 JWM 2010
JWM 2010
Consider the following properties of engineering
g
Machine tool structures are made …………..for high gp p p y
Which one of the following possesses the property
materials
process capability. (tough/strong/rigid) of nonsparking character?
1. Density
(a) Hadfield's manganese steel (b) Spring steel
2. Conductivity
C d ti it
(c) Stellite (d) Invar
3. Elasticity
4. Hardness
H d
5. Ductility
Which of these are mechanical properties of a
material ?
( ) d l (b) d
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) 3, 4 and 5 (d) 2, 4 and 5
IES 2011
IES 2011
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2011
IES 2011 Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
Materials which show direction dependent properties are Lead is widely used in: the code given below the lists :
called: (a) Transformers List –I List –II
(a) Homogeneous (b) Switch gear
g A. System
y 1. Free energy is a minimum
gy
(b) Visco‐elastic (c) Galvanized pipes B. Phase 2. Chemical elements or chemical
(c) Isotropic ((d)) Batteries compounds
(d) Anisotropic C. Phase 3. Consists of solids, liquids or gasses or their
equilibrium combination
D. Components
Codes 4. Homogeneous portion of a system that
A B has uniform physical characteristics
C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 3 1 4 2
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES 2011
IES 2011
GATE‐2005 IAS‐1998 Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the lists :
When
Wh the th temperature
t t off a solid
lid metal
t l increases
i Magnesium is extruded and not rolled because
M i i t d d d t ll d b
(a) Strength of the metal decreases but ductility (a) It has a low melting point
A. Elasticityy 1. Deform non elastically without fracture
y
increases (b) It has a low density
I h l d i
(b) Both strength and ductility of the metal decrease B. Malleability 2. Undergo plastic deformation under tensile
(c) Its reactivity with roll material is high load
( ) Both
(c) B th strength
t th andd ductility
d tilit off the
th metal
t l increase
i ( ) It has a dose‐packed hexagonal structure
(d) C. Ductility 3. Undergo plastic deformation under
(d) Strength of the metal increases but ductility compressive load
decreases D. Plasticity 4. Return to its original shape on unloading
Codes
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 3 2 1
IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2011
IES 2011 IES 2010
IES 2010
Injection moulding process used to produce Assertion (A) : Solid solutions of metal are The correct statement is
thermoplastic matrix composites with fibre crystall whose
h propertiesi are close
l to those
h off (a) Characteristic of any series of alloys cannot be
reinforcement normally gives: the solvent.
found by phase diagram.
( ) Short
(a) h fibre
f b composites Reason (R) : They retain the same crystal lattice
and type of bond. (b) Phase diagram does not give amount of
(b) Two layer structure composites ((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the phases which are a function of composition,
p p ,
(c) Continuous fibre composites correct explanation of A temperature and pressure.
(d) Single layer composites (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT
the
l i off A (c) The phase may be liquid or vapour with
(c) A is true but R is false ordered crystal structure.
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t (d) Phase diagram provides the information on
how rapidly equilibrium is reached.
JWM 2010
JWM 2010 IES 2010
IES 2010
Assertion (A) : Electric arc furnace can be used for Consider the following:
acid and basic method of steel making.
acid and basic method of steel making
1. Water
Reason (R) : Impurities are eliminated extensively
in acid are process.
in acid are process 2. Ice
3. Brine solution
4 Oil
4.
Which of these is/are used as quenching
The End
The End
media
di ini case off Alloy
All steels?l ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) Only

Casting, Welding, Machine Tools, Material SC PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Casting, Welding, Machine Tools, Material SC PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

S d i

y Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold. y The mold is reassembled with the pattern board

y Drag: Lower moulding flask.

y Cope: Upper moulding flask.

y Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three‐

IES‐2001 IES‐1996 IES 2007

Liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage y Gray CI with a carbon equivalent of 4.3% has y Pattern Allowances

GATE‐2008 GATE 2011 IAS‐1995

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 4 of 240 Rev.0

The pattern material should be IES‐1994 GATE‐2000

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 6 of 240 Rev.0

ISRO‐2011 Core Desired characteristics of a core

be core oil (1%) and water (2.5

IES‐2002 GATE 2008 (PI)

y Plasticity: It is the measure of the moulding sand to flow Oth S d

IES 2011 IES 1998

IES‐2006 GATE – 2010 (PI) GATE‐2007

GATE 2011 (PI)

(c) Hemispherical riser conditions. What is the difference in the solidification

(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 y Modulus = volume/Surface area

equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of dimensions ( AV ) Riser

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 15 of 240 Rev.0

IES‐1995 GATE‐1998,2007, 2014(PI) IAS 1994

Cupola IES 2012

IES‐2001 IAS‐2004 GATE‐2003

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 20 of 240 Rev.0

IES‐2009 IAS‐2001 IAS‐2004

Cast Aluminium Code

y Materials can be cast: CI, Al and Cu alloys.

Molding Sand in Shell Molding y Hot coating: the mixture is heated to 150oC– 180oC prior

y Cold coating: quartz sand is poured into the mixer and

y Smoother surface finish.

y Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 22 of 240 Rev.0

IES‐2006 IES 2007 IAS‐2007

y After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the

Advantages Limitations Applications

y High melting point alloy can be cast, almost any

IES 2011 GATE‐2006 GATE‐2011 (PI)

IAS‐1996 Permanent Mould Casting Advantages

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 25 of 240 Rev.0

y Better mechanical properties compared to sand y Part size is limited y Toys

IES‐2005 IES‐2006 IES‐1995

IES 2011 GATE‐2007 IES‐1995

y During cooling lower density impurities will tend to rise

IES 2007 IES‐2000 IAS‐2004

IES‐2000 Dry Sand Molding Slush Casting

IAS‐2004 IES 2011 IES 2012

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 31 of 240 Rev.0

Pit Moulding IES‐1996 Loam Moulding

GATE‐1996 IES‐2003 IES‐1993

IAS‐2004 GATE 2007 (PI)

Case of Cast Iron Case of Stainless Steel Case of Stainless Steel

IES 2011 IES 2011 IES‐2006

IES‐1999 IES 2010

y Combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) in a Three types of flames can be obtained by varying

y Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)

Diagram y Fluxes may be used to clean the surfaces and remove

Oxy acetylene welding equipment IES 2010

GATE‐1994 GATE‐2003 IES 2010

IAS 1994 IAS‐1995 IES 2012

For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 38 of 240 Rev.0 Contd…