Stones as Building

Material
 Classification of Rocks
• Geological classification
– Igneous rocks.
 Igneous rocks are hard and nonporous
 They are formed from cooling of molten magma
 Its example is granite which consist of 60-80% silica.
 The interior of earth is at very high temperature which
causes melting of silicates lying therein. This molten
mass is known as magma.
 This molten magma forces up to the earth surface in
the form of volcanic eruptions where it solidifies in the
form of Igneous Rock

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 Geological classification
–Sedimentary rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are soft and fairly porous.
They are formed from deposits of pre-existing igneous
rocks that are eroded as Sediments, settled in layers
mostly on sea beds and become compacted.
They are composed of grains bound together by a
cementing medium and their strength and durability
depends on nature of cementing material.
Sandstone, chalk and limestone, margalla stone

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 Geological classification
–Metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic rocks are hard and non-porous
rocks.
They are formed from pre-existing igneous or
sedimentary rocks that has been altered by intense
heat or pressure.
There best examples are quartzite, marble and
slates.

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 Physical classification
–Stratified rocks
– They are composed of sediments usually with a
layered appearance.
– The sediments come from mostly pre-existing
rocks which have been broken up and the
transported by water or wind.
– Most of sedimentary rocks show more or less
inclined strata due to disturbing forces.
– Slate, sandstone, lime stone are example of
stratified rocks.

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 Physical classification
–Unstratified rocks
– The unstratified rocks do not show layered
appearance
– The unstratified rocks cannot be easily split into
slabs
– Igneous and metamorphic rocks are unstratified
because they are not arranged in any definite form
in layers e.g. Granite
–Foliated rocks
– have tendency to split up only in a definite direction

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 Chemical Classification
–Siliceous rocks
– In siliceous rock, Silica (SiO2) / sand is the main
component e.g. sandstone and quartzite
–Argillaceous rocks
– These types of rocks contain clay or alumina
Al2O3. e.g. Slate, mudstone.
–Calcareous rocks
– contain calcium carbonate or lime. Limestone,
marble, dolomite, etc.

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 Practical Classification
– Granites
– Basalts
– Marbles
– Sandstones
– Slates
–Selection of stone
1. Cost quarrying and cutting, dressing,
transportation charges, etc.
2. Fashion & Ornamental value (Color Shade)
3. Durability (Resistive to fire)
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 Moh’s Hardness Scale
Hardness Mineral
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Sapphire
10 Diamond

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 Artificial Stone
Definition - Building material made with cement, sand
and natural aggregates of crushed stone for use in place
of natural stone
Properties
– Molded into most complex forms
– Cast into any size
– Reinforced to desired higher strength
– Desired coloring may be achieved
– Desired finish may be achieved
– Made with white cement, sand and natural
aggregates of crushed stone

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 Artificial Stone
• Concrete block. Cast in molds for steps,
window sills, masonry work, etc
• Ransom stone. Soda silicate plus cement for
decorative flooring
• Victoria stone. Granite pieces immersed in
soda silicate for two months
• Bituminous stone. Provide noise, wear and
dust resistant stone surfaces

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 Tests of Stones
 Weathering test of natural building stones
 Durability test of natural building stones
 Water absorption test
 Test for determination of true specific gravity
 Compressive strength test

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 Tests of Stones
• Crushing test
• Impact tests
• Fire resistance test
• Attrition test
• Acid test
• Smith’s test
• Crystallization test
• Freezing and thawing test

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 Selection of Sample for Tests
 A truly representative sample of grade of stone should
be selected
 Sample may be selected from excavated stone or
natural rock
 Separate samples weighing at least 25 kg each shall
be collected from differing strata
 Test pieces for toughness or compressive strength test
shall be at least 10.0 x 12.5 x 7.5 cm in size
 Test pieces shall be free from layers or fractures

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 Durability Test
 Specimen
– 5 cm diameter, 5 cm high cylinders or 5 cm cubes
– Smooth finished, edges rounded to 0.3 cm
 At least three test samples dried for 24 hrs and
weighed as W1
 Samples suspended in solution of 14% sodium
sulphate decahydrate (density 1.055 kg/m3) for 18 hrs
at room temperature
 Samples air dried for 30 minutes
 Samples now oven dried for 24 hrs at 105 ± 5°C

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 Durability Test
Samples cooled down to room temperature to
complete one cycle
Weight W2 at the end of every 5th cycle noted
and 30 cycles completed
Durability expressed as

W1  W2
Change in Weight  100
W1

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 True Specific Gravity Test
 Crush 0.5 kg of thoroughly washed specimen to 3 mm
size, mix and make samples of 50 gm each
 Sample ground in agate mortar to pass 150 microns
sieve
 Sample is dried at 100°C, cooled in desiccators
 Specific gravity bottle is cleaned, washed, dried,
cooled and weighed (W1)
 About 15 gms sample placed in specific gravity bottle
closed with stopper and whole weighed as W2
 Three fourths of specific gravity bottle filled with
distilled water

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 True Specific Gravity Test
• Bottle boiled for 10 minutes while removing
entrapped air
• Bottle cooled to room temperature, filled with water,
stoppered and weighed as W3
• Bottle emptied, washed, filled with only distilled
water, stoppered and weighed at room temperature as
W4
W2  W1
True Specific Gravity 
(W4  W2 )  (W3  W2 )
True Specific Gravity Apparant Specific Gravity
True Porosity 
True Specific Gravity
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 Test for Compressive Strength
• Specimen Preparation
– Cube size 5 cm, cylinder diameter 5 cm, height 5 cm
– Load bearing surfaces finished as nearly true, parallel and
perpendicular planes as possible
– Loaded face dimensions measured to nearest 0.2 mm
– Specimens kept immersed in water at 20 to 30°C for 24 hrs
for saturated condition testing
– Specimens oven dried at 105 ± 5°C for 24 hrs and cooled
down to room temp for dry testing
• Testing load gradually increased @ 140 kg/cm2 per minute until
break down
• Max load applied divided by area of bearing surface is taken as
the compressive strength of specimen
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 Crushing Test
 Sample 40 mm x 40 mm x 40 mm cube
 Saturation in water for 72 hours
 Axial loading on cube @ 13.7 N/mm² per minute
 Maximum load at which specimen crushes is the
crushing strength per unit area (N/mm²)
– Limestone – 50
– Sandstone – 70
– Granite – 70 to 130
– Slate – 70 to 200
– Basalt – 150 to 200
– Gneiss – 200 to 400

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 Impact Test
 Specimen 25 mm diameter cylinder, 25 mm height
 Impact testing machine hammer and anvil
 20 N hammer falls axially in vertical direction on
specimen
 Blow height
First blow – 1 cm
Second blow – 2 cm
Third blow – 3 cm
nth blow – n cm
 nth blow breaking the sample has toughness index
value as n
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 Attrition Test
• Also know as abrasion test, determines the rate of wear of
stones used in road construction
• Deval’s attrition testing machine
• Test details
– 60 mm size pieces of sample stone weighing 50 N placed in
two 200 mm and 340 mm cylinders of machine
– Cylinders rotated for 5 hours @ 30 rpm
– Contents sieved through 1.5 mm sieve, and material
retained is weighed
– Percentage wear = loss in weight / initial weight x 100

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 Miscellaneous Tests
• Fire Resistance Test
– Stone free from calcium carbonate can resist fire
– Few drops of dilute sulphuric acid dropped over
stone if produces bubbles detects presence of
calcium carbonate
• Acid Test
– Stone is kept for one week in 1% strong solution
of sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. High
alkaline and lime content stones loose material

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 Miscellaneous Tests
• Smith’s Test
– Indicates presence of earthy matter
– Sample broken into small pieces in put into clean water and
shaken vigorously
– Dirty color shows presence of earthy matter
• Crystallization Test/ Weathering Test
– Shows durability or weathering quality
– Sample of stone immersed in solution of sodium sulphate
and dried in hot air
– Wetting and drying done for two hours and difference in
weight recorded

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 Miscellaneous Tests
• Freezing and Thawing Test
– Sample of stone immersed in water for 24 hours
– Sample placed in freezing machine at -12 °C for 24 hours
– Sample thawed in shade at room temperature
– Procedure repeated several times and behavior noted

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 Quarrying of Stones
• Quarrying it is the art of taking stones of
various sizes from natural rocks.
• Quarry it is the part of the natural rock from
which useful material is obtained.
• Quarrying Methods
 Excavation Method
 Wedging Method
 Heating Method
 Blasting Method
• Excavation Method This method is applied
when stones are lying buried in earth.
• Wedging Method This method is suitable
quarrying soft stratified rocks. By this method
slabs of required sizes could be quarried with
minimum of wastage. steel wedges and pins
are used.
• Heating Method in this method Rock
surface is heated for several hours which
result into unequal expansion and
crushing of rock into small pieces.
• Blasting Method in this method
quarrying of stone is done with
explosives. Apparatuses used in this
method are jumper boring bar.
Quarrying Tools
 Blasting Procedure
• Boring. Drilling of holes in rock using jumper,
manual drilling or machine drilling using mechanical
power.
• Charging Placing of required quantity of
explosive charge in the hole at desired location.
Quantity depends upon explosive strength,
blasting method, number of holes, type and mass
of rock.
• Tamping Placing of charge, explosion cable
(cordite), and sealing off the escape of gases
• Firing explosion mechanism (electrical or non-
electrical detonators) or fuse ignition
Blasting Precautions
• Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or
early morning. Blasting should be made public with
sufficient time allowed to retire to safe distance
• 200 m radius danger zone should be marked with red
flags
• First aid should be made available
• Proper record of number of charges prepared, fired
and exploded to account for misfires
• Explosive should be handled carefully
• Detonators and explosive should not be stored and
kept together