Solar Cell Design Paper 

Nikhil Sharma

Cole Schumacher

EE 332 - 2019

Dr. Vikram Dalal

1
Abstract 2

Introduction: 3
Solar Cell Unit (pn junction) 3
Absorption and Conversion Efficiency 4
Advantage of certain semiconductors 6
Objective 7
Generation/Recombination 7
Generation 7
Recombination 8

Losses of Energy 8
Shadowing Loss 9
Finger/Grid Resistance 9

Design Analysis 10
Resistivity 10
Power Loss 11
Shadowing 11

Efficiency of 46% 11

Table of References 12

2
Abstract 

In this research paper, we explore the Solar Cell manufacturing process by explaining the base
concepts of how the physics allows us to make such products. From the basic solar cell to the
efficiencies of various semiconductors, we scavenged books and websites for information that
would benefit us in understanding and then going on to design our own 6x6 cell.We did this by
isolating our potential losses; calculating what its resistivity would be, loss of direct optical power
due to shadowing. By knowing that we were able to choose an organic photovoltaic ink system
that suited our specifications potential losses. Our knowledge of the potential shadowing and
current lost in the fingers of the grid allowed us to choose an ink that reflected that.

Introduction: 

Solar Cell Unit (pn junction)1 

When it comes to

semiconductors, it is

impossible to talk about them

for very long without hitting

on the idea of the pn junction.

This is one of the most

important concepts to discuss and understand when working with semiconductors, and of course

1
​(Encyclopædia Britannica)

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solar cells are no exception to this rule. In fact, a solar cell is essentially just a very large surface

area pn junction. As photons of light comes into contact with the solar cell, they cause generation

of electric current in the depletion region (zone). When the photons are absorbed they cause

electrons to move, which creates free electrons and holes, and these free electrons and holes then

move to opposite sides of the cell. This movement of electrons/holes is what causes a current to

be produced in the cell, as can be seen clearly in Figure 2 above. The physics of the pn junction

in semiconductors, and how they interact with photons of light, allow us to be able to produce

electricity from the sun's light.

Absorption and Conversion Efficiency  

There are several factors that affect the efficiency of solar cells. In this section we will discuss a

few of the most important factors and what level of impact these factors have on the overall

efficiency. This will not be an exhaustive list of factors, but it will hit on some of the key effects

and some of the physics behind why these factors have an impact on efficiency.

The first factor that has an impact on efficiency

is the temperature of the cell. Although the

temperature of the cell is not known to have the

biggest impact on the efficiency of solar cells, it

does lead to efficiency decreases as temperature

increases. As the temperature of the cell

increases, it leads to a decrease in the bandgap

of the material. This decrease in bandgap leads to a decrease in the open-circuit voltage, since a

4
lower bandgap means that less wavelengths of light can be absorbed. The goal for us is to find

the ideal temperature which leads to the most efficient solar cells. To do this we need to compare

the voltage and current levels for cells at several different temperatures. Using the voltage and

current numbers we can determine the total power output for the cells. As is shown in the figure

above, the best temperature for solar cell efficiency is around 25 degrees celsius. We will use this

number in all of our calculations, when we need to find values for the kT/q or anything else that

may come up.

The next, and most important, factor in calculating the

efficiency of a solar cell is the cell’s energy conversion efficiency.

This efficiency is calculated by using the ratio of the maximum

power output divided by the input light irradiance multiplied by the

surface area of the cell. Conversion efficiencies have been rising steadily in all types of solar

cells since they were first introduced, but they still have yet to attain to the values we would hope

for. There has been much research done that has led to higher conversion efficiencies, but this

usually requires stacking of solar cells or using

multijunction cells. We will not be dealing with

these cases. We are simply addressing the single

crystal silicon cells, since these are the most

prevalent. All of our calculations are based off of

these assumptions. As can be seen in the figure at

right, the conversion efficiency for silicon is sitting

at right around 24%. For our calculation we will be

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using this percentage. Also in the graph is another very important concept called the

Shockley-Queisser Limit. No single junction solar cell is able to exceed this limit of efficiency.

There are several ways to exceed this efficiency; such as using more than one semiconductor in a

cell, using multiple junctions in a cell, or concentrating the sunlight using lenses. We will not be

addressing any of these situations in our paper, but it is important to realize that these methods

do exist.

Advantage of certain semiconductors 

As we can see from the figure below, Si has the largest wavelength range out the three. This

allows us to deduce that it would be better suited for the absorption of energy from a source such

as the Sun. THis is because the sunlight comes through with wavelength of different ranges.

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Objective 

Using the specifications of a 6 cm x 6 cm solar cell, the goal is to design the grid and electrodes

to have the maximum efficiency. The grid and electrodes need to be made from common and

available inks, and also the production method needs to be practical.

Generation/Recombination 

The generation and recombination in a solar cell occurs when the number of free electrons and

holes is increased due to the different wavelengths of light entering into the semiconductor. In

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generation electrons are knocked free, and then in recombination they are brought back into

equilibrium. This creates an electric field in the semiconductor that can be collected and stored as

usable energy. This electricity can then be collected by small wires and then moved to bus wires,

where it can then be connected in series or parallel with many other cells. With all of these cells

connected together collecting their little bits of energy, it can lead to a panel that produced a

significant output.

Generation 

Through photogeneration there can be observed

certain levels of generation of moving electrons and

holes in the semiconductor. The rate of

photogeneration can be calculated by observing the

absorption coefficient of the cell, as well as the

intensity of light coming in. The goal is to find the

best possible rate based off of these conditions. At

right is shown the photogeneration rate that we are using, which is around 22.

Recombination 

In our solar cell, recombination occurs

between the free holes and electrons, and this

is what allows our semiconductor to actually

be effective in producing energy. As

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electrons and holes are impacted by the photons, they must recombine to create equilibrium. As

this occurs, as shown in the image here, there is a current created between the anode and cathode

of the semiconductor. This current is one of the crucial things we need to calculate, and it is also

crucial in enabling the cell to produce power.

Losses of Energy 

In the energy industry, efficiency is essential for making the most out of your resources, and it

has been a factor that has hounded solar companies from the second they entered the market. The

following are some of the factors that explore why these losses exist.

Shadowing Loss 

One of the leading factors that explains in the

resulting efficiency for solar cells, is the light

that never absorbed by the cell due to the

presence of the bussbars and fingers that

obstruct the lights path. A higher aspect ratio

for the solar cell helps to make sure as much

light is able to pass through which can later be converted to electricity.

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Finger/Grid Resistance  

The “fingers” on the solar cell are

essential for carrying current from

the cell to an external circuit. This

means that there is some

semblance of resistance in the

circuit which can loss in the final

output. However, when compared to the loss due to “shadowing”, this has an extremely meager

effect on the final output.

Design Analysis

We decided to use 2.089*E19 as our doping parameter as we thought it gave us the best results

with doping and sheet resistance in mind. Furthermore, the emitter thickness will be t = 0.0001

cm.

Resistivity 

2
(Neamen, Donald A.)

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 3

Since μ = 96.233 we can determine the Resistivity using the following formula.
1
ρemit = qN d μt

Ω
Therefore the resistivity is 31.1 m

Selection of ink 

We decided to use the ink

from Sigma-Aldrich4,Catalog
Number 711349, Organic
Photovoltaic Ink System. We
chose this specific one
because of its use of both
‘hole transport’ and
‘photoactive’ inks in tandem.

Though it’s annealing conditions are quite ordinary, only allowing 110-175 C, we believe that
once it has been manufactured the positives will outway the negatives. And even though this is
a relatively new, we believe that this unique system will allow for much more effective results.

3
Screenshot taken using TI-Nspire CAS Software
4
(Aldrich-Sigma)

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Efficiency of 46% 

In late 2013, scientists at CEA-Leti in France5

were able to establish a new world record for the

conversion of sunlight to electricity. They utilized

a multi-junction solar cell to get a conversion

efficiency of 46% breaking through the previous

30% limitations. The multi-junction cells were used in conjunction with CPV (Concentrator

Photovoltaic) systems creating low-cost electricity.

To better show the potential of this technology, the engineers at CEA used a Fresnel lens to

concentrate the intensity of the sunlight.

Conclusion 

In conclusion, our group used the resources at our disposal to go through all the necessary

information that would be needed to calculate the values for a solar cell operating at ideal

conditions. We recognize that all of our values will not be accurate for everyone in every

situation, but everything should be pretty close to accurate in most situations. Everything is

5
(​Fraunhofer ISE)

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calculated to the best of our ability with complete accuracy based off of the current industry

standards. In wrapping up the calculations and research, it is fairly clear that solar cells still have

not attained to being as efficient in energy production as people would hope. And using a single

junction solar cell, like we did in this paper, will naturally have limitations that cannot be

exceeded. However, there is also much research going on in the area of solar energy, and there is

a bright future for this industry. In this paper, we theorized in order to create the most efficient

possible single junction silicon solar cell. However, if allowed to use different methods, the

efficiencies could be increased greatly. It is our hope that there will soon be some sort of

breakthrough in the solar energy field, that allows this sustainable energy to become a much

larger player in the overall energy production of the world. This would lead to a healthier and

more sustainable planet.

Table of References

Imagesco.com. “Photovoltaic Cells – Generating Electricity.” ​How Photovoltaic Cells

Generate Electricity,​ ​www.imagesco.com/articles/photovoltaic/photovoltaic-pg4.html​.

OpenStax CNX,

cnx.org/contents/3QU3ovtd@1/An-Introduction-to-Solar-Cell-Technology.

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“New World Record for Solar Cell Efficiency at 46% - Fraunhofer ISE.” ​Fraunhofer

Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE,​ 12 July 2018,

www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/press-media/press-releases/2014/new-world-record-for-solar-cell

-efficiency-at-46-percent.html​.

Ashok, S., and Raymond T. Fonash. “Solar Panel Design.” ​Encyclopædia Britannica,​

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 11 Sept. 2018,

www.britannica.com/technology/solar-cell/Solar-panel-design​.

“The Shockley Queisser Efficiency Limit.” Solar Efficiency Limits,

solarcellcentral.com/limits_page.html.

“Simulating Solar Cell Devices Using Silvaco TCAD Tools.” SILVACO,

www.silvaco.com/tech_lib_TCAD/simulationstandard/2008/apr_may_jun/a1/a1.html.

T. 

Butler, Keith, et al. “Ferroelectric Materials for Solar Energy Conversion: Photoferroics

Revisited.” Energy & Environmental Science, Royal Society of Chemistry, 22 Dec.

2014, pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2015/ee/c4ee03523b.

“Solar Shadowing - Reducing the Losses.” SolarBooks.com.au, 5 June 2019,

solarbooks.com.au/solar-shadowing/.

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PVEducation​, www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom.

“Solar Cells Temperature Effect.” Solar Cells Temperature Effect, 6 Sept. 2017,

solarcellskakedan.blogspot.com/2017/09/solar-cells-temperature-effect.html.

Neamen, Donald A. ​Semiconductor Physics and Devices: Basic Principles​. McGraw-Hill,

2012.

Aldrich, Sigma. ​Organic Photovoltaic Ink System​.

www.sigmaaldrich.com/content/dam/sigma-aldrich/docs/Aldrich/Bulletin/1/711349bul.pdf.

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