1 Notation.

• Theorems, corollaries and definitions will be referenced with curly braces: {·}
• Single equations will be referenced with round braces: (·)

• If no explicit braces are used, functions’ arguments go up to the next addition, e.g. sin 2x + 1 =
sin(2x) + 1.

2 Misc
Corollary 1.
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
(For the integral of sin(x)/x see {3})
Proof. 1. Using the Taylor series of sin(x):
∞ ∞ ∞
!
sin x 1 X (−1)k x2k+1 X (−1)k x2k X (−1)k x2k
lim = lim = lim = lim 1 +
x→0 x x→0 x (2k + 1)! x→0 (2k + 1)! x→0 (2k + 1)!
k=0 k=0 k=1
∞ ∞ ∞
X (−1)k x2k X k 2k
(−1) x X
= lim 1 + lim =1+ lim =1+ 0=1+0
x→0 x→0 (2k + 1)! x→0 (2k + 1)!
k=1 k=1 k=1
=1

2. Using L’Hôpital’s rule:

d
sin x 0 dx sin x cos x
lim = “ ” = lim d
= lim = cos 0
x→0 x 0 1
dx x
x→0 x→0

=1

3 Fourier transformation
Throughout this text, the Fourier transformation and its inverse are defined as
Z ∞
1
F[f (x)](k) = Ff = √ dx e−ikx f (x) (1)
2π −∞
Z ∞
1
F −1 [f (k)](x) = F −1 f = √ dk eikx f (k) (2)
2π −∞

3.1 Fourier representation of the delta distribution

Corollary 2. Let g1 (x) be a continuous function with
Z ∞
dxg1 (x) = 1 (3)
−∞

and let

gn (x) = ng1 (nx) (4)

then
Z ∞
lim dxφ(x)gn (x) = φ(0) ∀φ ∈ S
n→∞ −∞

1
In other words,
lim gn (x) = δ(x)
n→∞

where S is the space of test functions, i.e.

dβ
S = {φ(x) ∈ C ∞ [−∞, ∞] : sup xα φ(x) < ∞ ∀α, β ∈ N}
x∈R dxβ
Colloquially speaking, that is the set of functions that fall to zero very quickly for large x.
Proof. Let
Z x Z x
(4)
fn (x) := dy gn (y) = dy ng1 (ny)
−∞ −∞

Now substitute ny = z to get

Z nx
fn (x) = dz g1 (z)
−∞
(R
∞ (3)
dz g1 (z) = 1 for x > 0
⇒ lim fn (x) = R−∞
−∞ = θ(x)
n→∞ dz g1 (z) = 0 for x < 0
−∞

Thus,
Z ∞  Z ∞ 
∞ dφ(x)
lim φ(x)gn (x)dx = lim [φ(x)fn (x)]−∞ − fn (x)dx
n→∞ −∞ n→∞ −∞ dx
The boundary term vanishes since f is finite and φ ∈ S, i.e. φ(∞) = φ(−∞) = 0. What’s left is
Z ∞ Z ∞
dφ(x) dφ(x)
θ(x)dx = − dx = −(φ(∞) − φ(0)) = φ(0)
−∞ dx 0 dx

1 1 sin(x)
Corollary 3. The function π sinc(x) = π x is normalized,
Z ∞
1 sin x
dx =1
−∞ π x
Proof.
∞ ∞
eiz
Z Z 
1 sin x 1
dx = Im dz
−∞ π x π −∞ z
+/−
Now start adding zeros to create a closed path the residue theorem can be applied to. CR stands for
the semi-circle in the upper/lower imaginary half-plane with positive orientation.
Z ∞ Z −1/R Z R !
eiz eiz eiz eiz eiz
 Z Z
1 1
Im dz = Im lim dz + dz + dz + dz − iπ
π −∞ z π R→∞ −R z −
C1/R z 1/R z +
CR z
−
The addition of −iπ is necessary as the integral over C1/R does not vanish by itself. In all detail:
Z 2π 1 iϕ Z 2π Z 2π
eiz 1 iϕ ei R e
Z
1
iR cos ϕ − R1
sin ϕ R→∞
dz = dϕ i e 1 iϕ = i dϕ e e −−−−→ i dϕ = iπ
−
C1/R z π R Re π π
Z π iϕ Z π
eiz eiRe
Z
R→∞
dz = dϕ iReiϕ = i dϕ eiR cos ϕ e−R sin ϕ −−−−→ 0
CR+ z 0 Reiϕ 0

The last limit stems from that exp(i · “real”) is finite and sin ϕ is positive in the interval of integration.
Everything taken together (with the sequence of the curves denoted simply as CR ),
Z ∞
eiz eiz eiz
 I   
1 1 1
Im dz = Im lim dz − iπ = Im lim 2πi Res − iπ
π −∞ z π R→∞ CR z π R→∞ z=0 z

eiz
 
1 1
= Im lim 2πi lim z − iπ = Im (2πi − iπ) = 1 Im i = 1
π R→∞ z→0 z π

2
Theorem 4. One representation of the delta distribution is
Z ∞
1
δ(x) = dx e−ikx
2π −∞
Proof. Let
Z n
1
gn (x) = dk eikx
2π −n

Then
 n
1 1 ikx 1 n 1 inx 1 sin(nx)
e − e−inx = n


gn (x) = e = = ng1 (nx)
2π ix −n tπ n 2i π nx
With and corollaries 2 and 3,
Z ∞
1
lim gn (x) = dk eikx = δ(x)
n→∞ 2π −∞

Corollary 5. The operations given in (1) and (2) are inverse to each other, i.e.
F −1 Ff = f
Proof.
 Z ∞ 
1
F −1 Ff = F −1 [F[f (x)](k)](x) = F −1 √ dξ e−ikξ f (ξ) (x)
2π −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1 1
=√ dk eikx √ dξ e−ikξ f (ξ) = dξ dk eik(x−ξ) f (ξ)
2π −∞ 2π −∞ −∞ 2π −∞
Z ∞
{4}
= dξ δ(x − ξ)f (ξ)
−∞
= f (x) = f

Definition 6. Define the convolution of two functions as

Z ∞
(f ∗ g)(x) = dy f (y)g(x − y)
−∞

Theorem 7. Convolution theorem.

√
F(f ∗ g) = 2π Ff · Fg
Proof.
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 −ikx
F(f ∗ g) = F dα f (α)g(x − α) = √ dx e dα f (α)g(x − α)
−∞ 2π −∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
=√ dα dx e−ikx f (α)g(x − α)
2π −∞ −∞

dx
Substitution: x = x(β) = β + α; = 1; t(∞) = ∞, t(−∞) = −∞
dβ
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 dx −ikx(β)
⇒ F(f ∗ g) = √ dα dβ e f (α)g(x(β) − α)
2π −∞ −∞ dβ
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
=√ dα dβ e−ik(β+α) f (α)g(β)
2π −∞ −∞
√ Z ∞ √ Z ∞
1
= 2π √ dαe−ikα f (α) 2π dβ e−ikβ g(β)
2π −∞ −∞
√
= 2π Ff · Fg

3
Corollary 8. The Fourier transformation of a function with a constant offset in x direction differs from
the transformation of that function without the offset by just a constant phase factor:

F[f (x + x0 )] = e−ikx0 Ff

Proof. This one is pretty straight forward, using only a substitution to get rid of the offset.
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1
F[f (x + x0 )] = √ dx e−ikx f (x + x0 ) = √ dξ e−ik(ξ+x0 ) f (ξ)
2π −∞ 2π −∞
Z ∞
1
= e−ikx0 √ dξ e−ikξ f (ξ) = e−ikx0 Ff
2π −∞

Corollary 9. The fourier transformation of the Lorentz distribution is given by

 
1 Γ 1
F = − √ e−kΓ (Γ > 0)
π x2 + Γ 2 2π

Proof. First note that F(k) = F(−k) = F(|k|). Then

  Z ∞ Z ∞
1 Γ 1 −i|k|x 1 Γ Γ 1
F =√ dx e =√ dx e−i|k|x 2
π x2 + Γ2 2π −∞ π x 2 + Γ2 3
2π −∞ x + Γ2
Z R
Γ 1
=√ lim dx e−i|k|x 2
3
2π R→∞ −R x + Γ2

b − be the semi circle in the lower complex half-plane with radius R, centered at 0 and running in
Let C R
mathematically negative direction. Then
π iϕ π
e−i|k|Re e−i|k|R cos ϕ e|k|R sin ϕ R→∞
Z Z Z
1
dx e−i|k|x = dϕ iReiϕ = dϕ i Γ2
−−−−→ 0
b−
C R
x + Γ2
2
2π R2 e2iϕ + Γ2 2π Reiϕ + Re iϕ

The resoning behind that limit is that |e−i|k|R cos ϕ | = 1; ϕ ∈ R, and both 1/denominator and the other
e(·) term converge to 0. Note that this does only hold because sin ϕ ≤ 0 for ϕ ∈ [π, 2π]. Thus, with
− b− ,
CR := R + CR

  Z R Z !
1 Γ Γ −i|k|x 1 −i|k|x 1
F =√ lim dx e + dx e
π x2 + Γ 2 2π 3 R→∞ −R x2 + Γ 2 Cb−
R
x2 + Γ 2
e−i|k|x
I
Γ 1 Γ
=√ dx e−i|k|x 2 = √ 2πi Res
2π 3 C∞ − x + Γ2 2π 3 x=−iΓ x2 + Γ2
√ √
2iΓ e−i|k|x 2iΓ e−i|k|(−iΓ)
= √ lim (x + iΓ) = √
π x→−iΓ (x − iΓ)(x + iΓ) π (−iΓ − iΓ)
1 −|k|Γ
= −√ e
2π

Corollary 10. The fourier transformation of the Gauß curve is

x2 k2
    
1 1
F √ exp − 2 = √ exp − 1 (σ > 0)
2πσ 2σ 2π 2 σ2

4
Proof.
Z ∞
x2 x2
    
1 1 1
F √ exp − 2 =√ dx e−ikx √ exp − 2
2πσ 2σ 2π −∞ 2πσ 2σ
Z ∞  2

1 x
= dx exp − 2 − ikx
2πσ −∞ 2σ
Z ∞   2
i2 k 2 σ 2 i2 k 2 σ 2

1 x
= dx exp − + ikx + −
2πσ −∞ 2σ 2 2 2
Z ∞ 2 !
i2 k 2 σ 2

1 x ikσ
= dx exp − √ + √ +
2πσ −∞ 2σ 2 2
 2 2 2Z ∞  2 !
1 i k σ x ikσ
= exp dx exp − √ + √
2πσ 2 −∞ 2σ 2
√
Now substitute t(x) = √x + ikσ
√ ; dx = 2σ to get
2σ 2 dt

x2 √ Z ∞ √ √
    2 2  2 2
1 1 k σ −t2 1 k σ
F √ exp − 2 = exp − 2σ dt e = exp − 2σ π
2πσ 2σ 2πσ 2 −∞ 2πσ 2
k2
 
1
= √ exp − 1
2π 2 σ2

This is especially interesting for σ = 1, because then F(Gauß) =Gauß, i.e. the function is invariant under
Fourier transformation.
Corollary 11. Both Lorentz and Gauß distribution are representations of the delta distribution if their
width vanishes.
The proof follows trivially from corollary 2. Just substitute σ, Γ by 1/n and it’s obvious they’re of the
form ng1 (nx); also, both functions are already normalized.
Proof.
1
1 Γ 1 n 1 1
lim = lim = lim n = lim ng1 (nx) = δ(x)
2
Γ→0 π x + Γ 2 n→∞ π x + 12
2 n→∞ π (nx)2 + 1 n→∞
n
2 2
   
1 x 1 (nx)
lim √ exp − 2 = lim n √ exp − = lim ng1 (nx) = δ(x)
σ→0 2πσ 2σ n→∞ 2π 2 n→∞