Don Tan BSN NC

FUNCTIONAL ORG 
4. Endocrine Chemical Messenger
 Hormones & Neurohormones
 Secreted into the bloodstream
Chemical Messenger  Travel through circulation to target cells
 e.g. epinephrine & insulin
 allow cells to communicate with each other to
regulate body activities
Secretion FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 controlled release of chemicals in the cell 1. Metabolism (thyroid)

2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
4 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGER 5. Water balance (pituitary)
6. Heart rate and heart pressure regulator
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients (thyroid,
1. Autocrine Chemical Messenger parathyroid, pancreas)
 Stimulates the cell that originally secreted it 8. Control of reproductive functions (testes, ovary,
 Stimulates the same cell type pituitary)
9. Uterine contractions and milk release
 e.g. eicosanoids 10. Immune system regulation
11. Stress (adrenal)
2. Paracrine Chemical Messenger
12. Growth (pituitary)
 Secreted by one cell but act locally on neighboring
cells
 Secreted into the extracellular fluid
Endocrine System
 e.g. somatostatin
 composed of endocrine glands and specialized
3. Neurotransmitters endocrine cells
 Also called as, Neuromodulators  ductless; secretes directly to the bloodstream
 Secreted by neurons that activate adjacent cell  endo – “within”
 Secreted into the synaptic cleft  krino – “to secrete”
 Are paracrine agents but are different from
paracrine messengers

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Hormones c. two systems work simultaneously

 epinephrine as neurotransmitter is sent first,
 chemical messengers followed by the epinephrine as hormone
 secreted in minute amount d. some hormones secrete hormone
 products that delivers messages  Neuropeptides or Neurohormones
 hormon – to set into motion  e.g. labor-inducing hormone oxytocin
 regulates psychological processes in the body e. both neurotransmitters and hormones affect their
targets through receptors linked to G proteins
Target tissue/ cells/ effectors

 specifc cells affected by a hormone Endocrine vs Nervous (Differences)

Exocrine Glands

 have ducts that carry their secretion to the outside of Endocrine Nervous
the body or to a hollow organ Directly to target
Mode of transport bloodstream
cells
Endocrinology
Faster
Speed of
 study of the endocrine system More slow (high-speed
response
electrical signals)
Glands Duration of
Long-lasting Short-lived
response
 organs that produce & secretes chemical substances Autonomic
that the body can use Growth
Body processes responses
Metabolism
Voluntary actions

Endocrine vs Nervous (Similarities)

Amplitude-modulated signals

a. Both use the same structure in the brain
 Hypothalamus
o endo: sends hormone :: nerv: detects temp
b. neurotransmitters and hormones
 Epinephrine
o endo: hormone :: nerv: neurotransmitter
 the concentration of the hormone determines the
strength of the signal and the magnitude of the
response
Frequency-modulated signals
 the strength of the signal depends the frequency, not
the size, of the action potentials

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*blood has hydrolytic enzymes that can degenerate or break *hormones that are bound to a binding protein are too large to
down small, water-soluble hormones – these small hormones enter or diffuse through capillary walls. Some are used as a
are easily filtered in the kidney reservoir; so, when blood level of the hormone begins to
decline, the bound hormones are dissociated to stabilize levels

Binding proteins
CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES
 hormone chaperones
 protects small hormones from degradation by
hydrolytic enzymes and from being filtered
 makes lipid-soluble hormones more soluble in water Lipid – Soluble Hormone Water – Soluble Hormone
Steroid Hormones Amino Acid Based
Bound Hormones Hormone
Non polar Polar
 hormones attached to a binding protein Low solubility to plasma Soluble in water (duh)
 Exits as bound  Exits as free
hormones hormones
*the binding of hormones is reversible. Hormones dissociate  Half-life ranges  Have short half-life
from their binding proteins at their target tissue. This is very from days to weeks  Are quite large
important because only free hormones can diffuse through  Removed from the molecules, thus
capillary walls. circulation through capillaries are
conjugation or the fenestrated (very
attaching of water – porous)
soluble molecules
Free hormones  Stimulate the
synthesis of new
 hormones dissociated from binding proteins
proteins
Aldosterone, estrogen, Oxytocin, antidiuretic
progesterone, hormone
*some hormones exist as free hormones, they don’t need testosterone, T3 & T4, LH,
binding proteins. Hence, there are hormones that are “always FSH, Calcitriol
free” and “sometimes free”

3 MAIN PATTERNS IN HORMONE SECRETION

1. Chronic

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 Results in constant blood level of hormone over

long period time
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE
2. Acute
 Occurs when hormone’s concentration changes 1. Humoral
suddenly and irregularly, and its circulating levels  There exists a companion hormone that works
differ with each stimulus opposite to the secreted hormone
3. Episodic  Work together to maintain homeostasis
 Occurs when hormones are secreted at fairly  e.g. aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide (blood
predictable intervals and concentrations pressure)
2. Neural
Lipid soluble = chronis & episodic water soluble = acute
 Inhibits targets just as they stimulate targets
3. Hormonal
 Inhibiting hormones
STIMULATION OF HORMONES RELEASE o Hormones that prevent the secretion of
1. Humoral (body fluids) tropic hormones
 Molecules in the bloodstream can directly stimulate
hormone release
2. Neural Negative Feedback
 Neurotransmitters stimulates the cells to secrete
their hormone  Most
3. Hormonal  Hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself
 Hormones stimulate the secretion of other once (1) blood levels reach a certain level and (2) there
hormones is adequate amount of hormone to activate the target
cell
 Self – limiting system
Tropic hormones

 Hormones that stimulate the secretion of another

hormone Positive Feddback
 FSH, ACTH, LH, TSH  Promote further synthesis and secretion of tropic
hormone
 Self – propagating system; Self – Promoting
 Whereby the stimulation of hormone secretion
increases over time

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 e.g. oxytocin  decrease in receptor number due to depletion of

energy and nutrients
Receptors
Up – regulation
 target cell proteins
 increase in rate of receptor synthesis in target cells

*a hormone can only stimulate on cells that have the receptor

for that hormone
CLASSES OF RECEPTORS
Receptor site 1. Lipid – soluble hormone binds to nuclear receptors
 Found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm
 specific portion of each receptor molecule where a  Cytoplasmic receptors move to the nucleus when
hormone bind activated
Specificity  Pass through the cell membrane
2. Water – soluble hormone binds to membrane – bound
 the tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one receptor
type of receptor  Proteins that extend across the plasma membrane,
 allowing only one hormone to bind to it which hormone – binding sites are exposed
 epinephrine can bind to a “family” of receptors that are
structurally similar
Agonist *lipid – soluble hormone diffuses to the plasma and binds to its
receptors
 drugs that binds to a hormone receptor and activates it
*hormone – receptor complex binds to DNA to produce a
Antagonist response

 a drug that binds to a hormone receptor ad inhibits its * when hormone – receptor complex binds to hormone –
actions response element, it activates the transcription of mRNA

Down – regulation *mRNA moves to the cytoplasm to be translated into specific

proteins by the ribosomes
 desensitization occurs as the number of receptors
rapidly decrease after exposure to certain hormones

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Hormone – response element 1. G proteins have three subunits (α, β, and Y) that freely
floats in the plasma membrane. Hormone binds to
 Nucleotide sequence in the DNA membrane – bound receptor.
Transcription factor 2. After binding, the receptor changes shape and G
proteins bind to it. GTP replaces GDP on the α subunit
 Combination of hormone and its receptor of the G protein
3. G protein separates from the receptor. GTP linked α
subunit activates cellular responses
MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS ACTIVATE RESPONSE 4. When hormone dissociates from receptor, additional G
IN TWO WAYS proteins are no longer activated. Inactivation of the α
subunit occurs when phosphate is removed from GTP
1. Altering the activity of G proteins
2. Altering the activity of intracellular enzymes
G PROTEINS AND ADENYLATE CYCLASE (PART 2 sa ywa
na process)
Intracellular mediator

 Second messenger 1. After a water – soluble hormone binds to its receptor, G

 Chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone binds
to certain membrane – bound receptor
 Activates specific cellular processes in response to the
hormone
Second – messenger system
 Coordinated set of events
 Usually employed by water – soluble hormones that
are unable to cross the target cell’s membrane
protein is activated
2. The activated α subunit, with GTP bound to it, binds to
adenylate cyclase enzyme to convert ATP to cAMP
(cyclic adenosine monophosphate)
3. The cAMP activates protein kinase enzyme, which
phosphorylate specific enzymes activating the. The
chemical reactions catalyzed by the activated enzymes
produce the cell’s response
4. Phosphodiesterase enzymes inactivate cAMP by
converting cAMP to AMP

G PROTEINS (ywa naprocess)

Amplification

 A single hormone activates many second messenger,

in which activates enzymes that produce an enormous
amount of final product

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 3 G proteins, 10 adenylate cyclase enzyme, 21 cAMP,
and 36 protein kinase enzymes (cascade effect)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Posterior Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus
 Within diencephalon, below thalamus
 Regulates secretory activity of the pituitary gland
 Controls the adenohypophysis through hormones that
are delivered by the hypothalamohypophysial portal
system
 Gate – Keeper – regulating the release and inhibition
1. Growth hormone – releasing hormone
2. Growth hormone – inhibiting hormone
(somatostatin)
3. Thyrotropin releasing hormone
4. Corticotropin releasing hormone
5. Gonadotropin releasing hormones
6. Prolactin releasing hormone
7. Prolactin inhibiting hormone Anterior Pituitary Gland
Pituitary gland
 Posterior to hypothalamus
 Hypophysis
 Secretes nine major hormone that regulates body Portal Systems
function and the secretory activity of several other
endocrine glands
 Master gland
 Infundibulum – connects pituitary to the hypothalamus
 rests in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
 Neurohypophysis
 Continuous with the hypothalamus in the brain
 Its hormones are called Neuropeptides or
Neurohormones
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
 Vasopressin
 Water conservation hormone
 Hypo: diabetes insipidus
 Hyper: brain edema
2. Oxytocin
 Milk let down and uterine contractions
- Sucking of the nipples stimulates the
neurohypophysis to secrete oxytocin
 Adenohypophysis
 Develops from pituitary diverticulum or Rathke
pouch – roof of the embryonic oral cavity
 Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis are
traditional hormones, not neurohormones
 Directly connects a primary capillary network to a
secondary capillary network
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4. Gonadotropin: Luteinizing Hormone

Hypothalamohypophysial portal system
 One of the major portal systems in the body
 Provides a means by which the hypothalamus, using
the neurohormones as chemical messengers,
regulates the secretory activity of the adenohypophysis
Releasing hormones
 Hypothalamic hormones that stimulate anterior
pituitary secretion
Inhibiting hormones
 Stimulates estrogen and testosterone production
 Interstitial cell – stimulating hormone (ICSH)
5. Gonadotropin: Follicle – Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary
and sperm cells in the testes.
6. Prolactin
 Milk production by mammary glands
 Target: Mammary
7. Melanocyte – Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
 Increased melanin deposition in the skin
 Target: Skin

 Hypothalamic hormones that decrease anterior Thyroid Gland

pituitary secretion
 Anterior of the neck; surrounding the trachea
 Made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band
1. Growth Hormone (GH) called, isthmus
 Somatotropin or Somatostatin  One of the largest endocrine glands
 Growth of bones and muscles  Requires iodine to function
 Hypo: pituitary dwarf
 Hyper: acromegaly and gigantism
2. Thyroid – Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Follicles
 Thyrotropin
 Target: Thyroid gland  Small spheres with simple cuboidal epithelial cells for
 Stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones its wall
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Colloid
 Target: Adrenal gland
 Increase secretion of glucocorticoid hormones  Gelatinous material inside the follicle
(cortisol)
Thyroglobulin
 Hyper: Cushing’s Syndrome
 Hypo: Addison’s Disease  Highly concentrated protein that composes the colloid
Iodine

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 Regulate metabolism – how quickly food is burned u  Low osteoclast breaks down bone, less Ca+ is lost
in urine
 High osteoclast breaks down bone, more Ca+ is lost
1. Thyroxine T4 in urine
2. Triiodothyronine T3
*Diseases: osteoporosis, hypo & hyperparathyroidism
3. Calcitonin
 Regulating blood calcium levels
 Reduces calcium level by reducing the rate at
which bone is broken down Adrenal Glands
*Diseases: goiter, thyroid cancer, hypo and hyperthyroidism  Hat shaped
 Top of the kidney

Hyperthyroidism Hypothyroidism Adrenal Cortex

Increase metabolic rate, high Decrease metabolic rate, low
body temp, heat intolerance body temp, cold intolerance - Outer part
Weight loss, increase appetite Weight gain, decrase appetite - Maintain blood pressure and metabolism and levels of
Warm, flushed skin Dry, cold skin estrogen and progesterone
Hyper activity Somnolence Renin
Grave’s disease Myxedema
Cretinin - Protein molecule that converts angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I
Angiotensin – Converting Enzyme
- Converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II
Parathyroid Gland
Angiotensin II
 4 glands around thyroid gland
- Causes smooth muscles in the blood vessels to
constrict and acts on adrenal cortex to increase
1. Parathyroid Hormone aldosterone
 Parathormone
 Increase blood calcium level by stimulating bone Adrenal Medulla
breakdown

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- Inner part  Consists of pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans

- Deal stress and produce fight or flight reaction  Alpha – glucagon
 Beta – insulin
 Delta – somatostatin
Polyuria – need to urinate
1. Medulla: Epinephrine frequently
- Adrenaline
2. Medulla: Norepinephrine Polydipsia – increase of thirst and
- Noradrenaline fluid intake

*Cathecholamines Polyphagia – increased appetite

1. Insulin
*work rapidly to help body deal with stress and produce fight or - Works on high glucose levels
flight reaction (adrenaline rush) - Target: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose
- Lower glucose level by stimulating glucose
transport into body cells
3. Cortex: Mineralocorticoids - After meals – glucose is high – insulin is
- Aldosterone secreted
- Regulate blood volume and blood levels of K+ - Diabetes Miletus
and Na+ - DM Type I diabetes = insulin dependent
- Particular to the elimination of K+ o Juvenile onset
- Water and sodium retention o The body does not produce insulin
4. Cortex Glucocorticoids - DM Type II diabetes = insulin independent
- Cortisol o Common; obese
- Increases the breakdown of proteins and lipids o The body produces minimal insulin or body
and increase their conversion to forms of cells do not react to insulin
energy the body can use 2. Glucagon
5. Cortex: Androgen - Works on low glucose level
- Stimulate the development of secondary male - Target: Liver
sex characteristic - Increase glucose level by stimulating the liver to
break down glycogen to produce glucose
- In between meals – glucose is low – glucagon
is secreted
3. Somatostatin
Pancreas - Inhibition of insulin and glucagon secretion

 Stomach and small intestine Thymus Gland

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 Posterior to sternum; thoracic cavity below the neck - Maintain secondary male sex characteristic and
 Active during childhood stimulate sex cell production
 Shrinks during adulthood 2. Interstitial Cell – Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
- Does not function anymore because other
glands are doing it for the thymus
Ovaries
1. Thymosin  Abdomen; end of fallopian tube
- Responsible for normal development of T
lymphocytes and immune response 1. Estrogen
- Menstrual cycle, maturation of genitalia, aids in
*Disease: thymus cancer or glaucoma mammary and uterine development and
function
2. Progesterone
Pineal Gland - Menstrual cycle, maturation of genitalia, aids in
mammary and uterine development and
 between pons & side of function
 Pea shaped 3. Inhibin
- Inhibits FSH secretion
4. Relaxin
- Increases flexibility of connective tissue in the
1. Melatonin
pelvic area
- Regulate sleep-wake cycles
- Inhibition of gonadotropin – releasing hormone
secretion
2. Arginine vasotocin
- Possible inhibition of gonadotropin – releasing
hormone secretion

Testes
 Within scrotum

1. Testosterone

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