Chapter 1

Introduction

Aluminum alloy is mostly used in Automobile, Aerospace, Aeronautical,

Defence, Marine and transportation industry due to its certain advantages like high
strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance, good malleability and formability, high
electrical and thermal conductivity etc. It also possesses good cast ability and low
recycles cost from the environmental point of view. There are various alluminuium alloys
used in the industry depending upon their application. In automobile industry high
strength to weight ratio becomes important factor and automobile parts have complex
and intricate design so it becomes difficult and challenging to manufacture it by other
manufacturing processes. Therefore casting process is widely used in the automobile
industry.

Casting process is one of the widely used manufacturing processes in the

industry due to its certain advantages over other manufacturing process. There are various
types of casting process such as investment casting, centrifugal casting, plaster casting
sand and die casting. Gravity Die casting process is widely used in the industry. Die
casting process are mainly classified as like high Pressure Die casting (HPDC), Low
pressure die casting (LPDC) and gravity die casting process (GDC).sometimes gravity
die casting process is referred as Permanent mould die casting process because metal
mould which consists of one or two parts can be used to produce many casting
components of same design. In GDC, molten metal enters in the mold by gravity force.
Simple and removable cores generally made of metals and sometimes complex and non-
removable cores are made of sand and plaster this type of GDC process is termed as
semi-permanent gravity die casting process. GDC process is commonly used for high
volume production for simple shape casting. It can also be used for complex parts but
production quantities must be high enough to justification of cost of the mold. In short
Sand casting, Lost Wax casting, Permanent mold casting and Centrifugal casting are
widely used in the industry.

Gravity Die casting (GDC) process involves many process parameters. It

becomes essential to find out critical process parameters which are affecting mechanical
properties of finished product directly and indirectly. These process parameters includes
Melting temperature, melt temperature during pouring, Die temperature, pouring method
and time, solidification rate,
 Different standards are used for aluminum alloy designations like ISO (India),
UK, USA (ASTM), UNI (Italy), and Japan etc.

Al-Si is commonly used alluminuium alloy for casting in automobile industry.

Since Si increases fluidity in the casting its content is more PDC (pressure Die casting)
than GDC. Mechanical properties of PDC components are superior to GDC components.
Hence there is scope to enhance the mechanical properties of the GDC components by
optimizing the process parameters. These mechanical properties include the Ultimate
Tensile Strength (UTS), % Elongation, Hardness etc. The correlation between
Microstructural factors and mechanical properties is to be analyzed.

A microstructural factor affects the mechanical properties

significantly. Secondary Dendritic arm spacing (SDAS), Size of primary α-Al,
Morphology of intermetallic phases and eutectic silicon. Casting process parameters and
Microstructural and metallurgical factors are interlinked with each other at some extent.
By optimizing the process parameters it is possible to obtain desired microstructure
which would ultimately affects on the mechanical properties.
 Chapter 2 Literature survey

2.1 Introduction to Gravity Die casting process

Gravity die casting was one of the very earliest processes,

invented for metal and light alloy die casting. In this process which can be fully
automated, the molten metal is poured directly from a ladle into a semi-permanent or
permanent die. [1]

In Gravity Die Casting (GDC) process is also called as Permanent

Mold Die Casting process, a metal mold is made of two or more parts. It is repeatedly
used for the production of many castings of the same form. The liquid molten metal
enters the mold by gravity force. Simple and removable cores are usually made of metal,
but more intricate cores are made of sand or plaster. When sand or plaster cores are used
in gravity Die casting process, the process is referred as semi-permanent mold casting.
[2]

Permanent mold casting has the following demerits:

1. S
ome complex shapes of components are difficult to make using permanent mold casting,
because location of parting line, undercuts and difficulties in removing the casting from
the mold.

2. A
s initial investment and tooling cost of GDC process is high and therefore it cannot be
used when production quantities are comparatively less as it becomes more expensive.

3. P
ermanent mold casting is not suitable for all alloys

4. T
o protect the mold from molten metal, die coatings are required.

Aluminum, magnesium, zinc, and copper alloys products can be

manufactured by gravity die casting (GDC) process. Process parameters associated with
GDC process affects the mechanical and physical properties of the cast component
significantly. It is essential to study the effects of process parameters and their operating
ranges before understanding the metallurgy of the components. Following are some
important and critical process parameters in gravity die casting process. [2]

1. M
elt holding time

2. D
ie or mold preheat temperature
 3. M
olten metal temperature during pouring

4. P
ouring mechanism and time

5. G
ate and Riser Design (Die design)

6. D
ie coating material and thickness.

1. M
elt holding time

In general, melt is hold or stored in a holding furnace while

casting of the components. The holding furnace is equipped with heating coils, to
maintain the temperature of the melt within a specified range. During this period, melt is
in continuous contact with atmosphere, which may lead to increase in hydrogen content
in the melt. Therefore, the time period of melt holding should be as low as possible.
Increase in hydrogen content may cause gas porosities, and can affect mechanical
properties of the cast component. [2].

2. D
ie or mold preheat temperature;

Die is preheated before casting to reduce the temperature gradient

between the pouring temperatures of molten metal and die temperature. Solidification
rate or cooling rate is dependent on the temperature gradient. [2]

If temperature difference is too low, unnecessary it increases the

cooling rate and decreases the solidification time so it causes the shrinkage. If mold
temperature is high it decreases the cooling rate resulting the die soldering and affects
the die life adversely. [2]
 3. M
olten metal temperature during poring

In GDC process, components are cast with metal that is

maintained within a relatively narrow temperature range. For alluminuium alloys usually
the range is 680˚C to 800˚C, depending upon the liquidus temperature of the particular
alloy.

If temperature of pouring is lower than optimum, there are

chances that, mold cavity will not fill, the gate or riser section will solidify before the
last section of the casting. Low pouring temperature subsequently results in misruns,
porosity, poor casting detail, and cold shuts. While, if pouring temperature higher than
optimum may cause casting shrinkage. And mold warpage (loss of dimensional
accuracy). High pouring temperature can also shorten the mold life. [2].

4. P
oring mechanism and time
 Now-a-days, in industries, the molten metal is poured in to the
mold cavity using robotic automated arms. This allows uniform and fixed quantity of
melt pouring with reduced time period. Manual pouring may introduce casting defects,
such as gas porosities or blow holes in the cast component.

Pouring time of the melt needs to be optimized with respect to

volume of the casting. High pouring rate may form turbulence in the casting, which is
highly undesirable. [2]

5. G
ate and Riser Design (Die design)

Feeder (riser) act as a liquid metal reservoir, that provides liquid

feed metal until the end of solidification. Riser also serves as a heat reservoir, creating a
temperature gradient that induces directional solidification. In industries, simulation
software is employed for the design of risers (over flows) and gates. Improper riser
design can lead to casting defects or loss of metal.

6. D
ie coating material and thickness.

In GDC process, Die coat is employed for three main reasons,

which are as given below

i. T
o provide a protective barrier between the mold surface and the casting to prevent Die
erosion and wear.

ii. T
o provide some degree of control over the solidification rate and direction.

iii. T
o provide a barrier between the mold and casting so that the casting will release from the
Die.

iv. P
rotect the die from soldering effect and increases the die life.
 Die coating can be used to control the thermal gradients to achieve
directional solidification as required. This allows a pathway for feed of metal to flow
into the solidifying structure and compensate for normal metal shrinkage during
solidification. [2].

2.2 A
l-Si Alloys:

Due to economic and environmental requirements, it is becoming

increasingly important to reduce vehicle weight. For such objective, Al-Si cast alloys
have been widely employed to produce automotive components working at ambient and
fairly high temperature (up to 200ºC) due to excellent characteristics such as low cost
manufacturing, excellent castability, high specific strength and recyclability.
 Fig 1.Aluminium-Silicon binary phase diagram representing range of silicon
concentrations in hypo-eutectic and hyper-eutectic Al-Si alloys. [3].

2.2.1 Effect of alloying element

1. Silicon (Si)

Silicon is the most important single alloying element used in

majority of aluminum casting alloys. It is primarily responsible for so good castability
(high fluidity, low shrinkage), low density(2.34g/cm3) which can be advantage in
reducing total weight of cast component and has very less solubility in Aluminum
therefore precipitates as virtually pure Si which is hard and improve the abrasion
resistance. Si reduces thermal expansion coefficient of Al-Si alloys. Machinability is
poor with addition of silicon in Aluminum. [4]

2. C
opper (Cu)

Copper has effect on the strength and hardness of aluminum

casting alloys, both in heat treated and not heat treated and at both ambient and elevated
service temperature also. It improves strength on the expense of ductility. It has been
found that Ultimate tensile strength of the alloys increased with heat treatment (T6) in
which copper phase precipitate in the form Al2Cu phase. Strength increases because of
precipitation of copper bearing phase in the interdendritc space cause by increasing
copper content. [5]

3. M
agnesium (Mg)
 Magnesium (Mg) Provides substantial strengthening and
improvement of the work hardening characteristics of alluminuium. It can impart good
corrosion resistance and weld ability or extremely high Strength. Silicon combines with
magnesium to form the hardening phase Mg2Si
 That provides the strengthening. Mg2Si response is more as
compared to Al2Cu in heat treatment process. Mg addition amount is beneficial to
enhance the mechanical properties. [5]

4. M
anganese (Mn)

Adding manganese to aluminum alloys enhances the tensile

strength as well as improves low- cycle fatigue resistance significantly. Corrosion
resistance is also improved by the addition of manganese. It increases both yield and
ultimate tensile strength significantly without decreasing ductility.Mn would try to form
the intermettalic with Fe i.e. α-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2 which is less detrimental and harmful as
compared to β- Al5FeSi.[5]

5. T
i (Titanium)

Improved corrosion properties can be obtained from increasing

the Ti contents in alluminuium alloys to a level above the normal practice for grain
refinement. However, increasing the Ti content above the Peritectic point, 0.15%, can
influence the grain refinement and cause casting difficulties. .It was found that with
normal Ti contents in the range of 0.015%, the grain refinement is effective. TiAl3 and
TiB2 are formed in the alluminuium alloy in casting in which TiAl3 particles are larger in
size as compared to TiB2 particles which acts as the nucleation sites for the primary α-
alluminuium.

6. Z
inc( Zn)

Zinc is only present in aluminum casting alloys of 7XXX series

as a primary element; otherwise, zinc is present rarely as an acceptable impurity element
in many secondary (scrap based) dies casting alloys. As such, zinc is normally neutral; it
neither enhances nor detracts from an alloy’s properties.

7. I
ron (Fe)
 Iron is considered as impurity in Al alloy casting. Si it needed to
investigate various sources of iron and how it enters aluminum alloys .Iron leads to the
formation of complex inter-metallic phases during solidification. These phases can
adversely affect mechanical properties, especially ductility, and also lead to the
formation of excessive shrinkage porosity defects in castings. It is important to
understand the levels of iron that can be tolerated, how to maintain these levels and how
to minimize the negative effects of iron. Wherever possible, iron levels in Al-Si alloys
should be kept as low as practical in order to avoid the detrimental effects on mechanical
properties, particularly ductility and fracture toughness. This means minimizing
 Iron contamination through careful selection of raw materials (i.e.
ingots, etc.) Iron levels above the critical level for the silicon content of the alloy should
be avoided as these can cause serious loss of ductility in the final cast product. It
decreases casting productivity by increasing rejections due to shrinkage porosity.

2.2.3 Solidification process

Solidification is the transformation between liquid and solid

states. It may be described by nucleation and growth process. Nucleation is a formation
of a new phase in a distinct region separated from the surroundings by a discrete
boundary. During solidification, solid nuclei form in the liquid and subsequently grow
until the whole of the volume is solid. [6]

i. H
omogeneous Nucleation

The theory is based on the free energy changes from liquid to

solid. The maximum free Energy change (or activation energy) for homogeneous
nucleation to occur (ΔG* hom) may be expressed as

Where V is the volume of a sphere, ΔGv is the volume free energy,

A is the area of a sphere and γSL is the surface free energy.

Fig 2.The graphic interpretation of free energy in homogeneous and

heterogeneous system. [6]

The excess free energy associated with the solid particle can be
minimized by the correct choice of particle shape. The free energy ΔG is the difference
between the interfacial energy γSL and volume free energy Vs,
 Fig 3.The free energy change associated with homogeneous nucleation of a
sphere of radius [6]

Any embryos which form above Tm (melting temperature) will

rapidly dissolve. However below Tm, the embryo reaches a critical radius r*. If r< r* the
system can lower it’s free energy by dissolution of the solid, whereas when r> r* the free
energy of the system decreases as the solid grows. Unstable solid particles with r < r*
are known as clusters or embryos while stable particles with r> r *are referred to as
nuclei r* is known as critical nucleus size. Since ΔG = 0 when r = r* the critical nucleus
is effectively in (unstable) equilibrium with the surrounding liquid. [6]

ii. H
eterogeneous Nucleation

The nucleation is considered to be heterogeneous when it takes

places on the surface of the mould or on the particles presents in the system. Nucleation
can occur on preferential sites. The theory has been developed by Turnbull (Turnbull D.
1950) then Volmer (Volmer M. 1952), for spherical cap of solid which form on a planar
substrate. A critical factor is the wetting angle θ, which is the function of the surface
energies of the liquid–mould interface γSL, the crystal- substrate interface γSM and the

liquid-substrate interface γML as shown on Fig 4.

 Fig 4.The schematic illustration of wetting angle between the mould and solid
[6]
 Fig 5.The diagram of energy barrier in heterogeneous
nucleation[6]

2
.2.4.
Growth

After nucleation a first step is to consider the growth of nucleus.

This requires an examination of the nature of the interface between the growing solid
and the liquid. The structure and form of the interface influences both the
microstructural morphology of the resultant solid and also the number and distribution of
imperfections with the solid. It also has an effect on thermal and constitutional changes in
the adjacent liquid, and the interaction between these effects, in turn lead to growth
modifications. Growth plays an important role in solidification. Solidification can occur
with a planar, cellular or dendritic interface.
 Fig 4.The comparison between different growths types: plane, dendrite and
cellular. [6]

i. D
endritic Growth

If a state of metastability or instability is created near the growing

interface by the occurrence of inverted gradient of free energy, the growth energy will
break down and grow laterally and develop side branches. The interface thus
degenerates and grows dendritically. [6]

ii. C
ellular Growth

The existence of zone of constitutional supercooling, and thus a

negative gradient of free energy, ahead of the interface will make a initially planar
interface unstable to perturbation in shape. Jakson and Hunt (Jackson K.A, Hunt J.P.
1965) suggested that at low degrees of supercooling a cellular interface develops from
the planar interface.
 Solidification of Al-Si alloy

Al-Si alloys solidify by a primary precipitation of dendrites. An

illustration of primary alluminuium dendrite (α-Al) structure embedded in Al-Si eutectic
is given in Fig 5. In hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys primary alluminuium solidifies
dendritically and grows in <100> direction. Dendrites are often drawn having four
secondary arms growing around the primary stem at each junction which is true for
cubic structures .The undercooking depends on the cooling rate, the concentration of the
alloying element in the melt and the type of the alloying element. It is well established
that the undercooling increases with increasing cooling rate and increasing concentration
of the alloying element.[3]

Fig 5. Solidification structure of hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy [3]

2
.3 Casting defects in Al-Si Alloy casting

New classification of defects and imperfections for Al alloy

castings is studied. Five categories of internal and surface defects in castings have been
identified: shrinkage defects, gas-related defects, filling related defects, undesired
phases and thermal contraction defects. Briefly, shrinkage defects are macro or
interdendritic cavities due to the volume contraction during solidification. Gas-related
defects are spherical or elongated cavities characterized by smooth surface and caused
by entrapment of air, hydrogen, and vapour or lubricant-die release agent. Filling related
defects result from the interaction between melt flows at different temperature, while
undesired phases are non-metallic phases, such as oxides, pieces of refractory and dross,
which come from the interaction between melt and environment. Finally, thermal
contraction defects are cracks due to the casting contraction constrained by the die or
already solidified material. [7]
 1. S
hrinkage Defects

Shrinkage defects are metal discontinuities causing from volume

contraction during solidification and occur in regions with inadequate or even absent
feeding. Such regions are the last to solidify (hot spots) and are normally well inside the
casting, but sometimes they are sufficiently close to the casting surface to give rise to
surface defects.

2. G
as Related Defects

Gas-related defects are small cavities due to entrapment of air, or

gas mixture, inside the die cavity. It comprises Air entrapment porosity, Hydrogen
porosity, Vapour entrapment porosity, Lubricant and/or die release agent entrapment
porosity. Superficial gas-related defects are commonly known as blisters and pinholes.

3. F
illing related Defects

Filling-related defects are caused by unusual melt flow. During the

die cavity filling, liquid and solidified metal veins at different temperatures and
sometimes covered by oxide films can accidentally meet, causing a metallurgical in
homogeneity. Cold joint, Lamination, Cold shot are the examples of filling related
defects.

4. U
ndesired Phases

Some phases are undesired for their high hardness, stiffness,

brittleness and because they create microstructural discontinuities subsequent in crack
nucleation and propagation sites. Intermetallic sometimes can be identified as undesired
phases. Inclusions, Contamination defects are undesired phases defects.

5. T
hermal contraction defects
 Consist of cracks formed during solidification or cooling to room
temperature, when tensile Stresses, arising from material contraction, exceed the
ultimate tensile strength at local metal temperature Thermal contraction defects. Cold
crack, hot tear or hot crack is thermal contraction defects.

2.4 Intermetallic phases in Al-Si alloy casting

The mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys depend, besides the

concentration of Silicon, Copper, Magnesium and Iron, more on the distribution and the
shape of the intermetallic phases. [8].
 The presence of additional elements in the Al-Si alloys allows
many complex intermetallic phases to form, such as binary phases (e.g. Mg2Si, Al2Cu),
ternary phases (e.g.β-Al5FeSi, Al2CuMg, AlFeMn, A17Cu4Ni) and quaternary phases
(e.g. cubic-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2, Al8Mg3FeSi6 and Al5Cu2Mg8Si6), all of which may have
some solubility for additional elements.

1. β
-Al5FeSi

β- Fe phases precipitate in the interdendritic and intergranular

regions as platelets or needles (appearing as needles in the metallographic microscope).
Long and brittle Al5FeSi platelets (more than 500 µm) can adversely affect mechanical
properties, especially ductility, and also lead to the formation of excessive shrinkage
porosity defects in castings. [9] The microstructure representing the morphology of β -
Al5FeSi phase is given in Fig. 6 Long and brittle Al5FeSi platelets, of more than 500
micron, can adversely affect mechanical properties, especially ductility. Presence of β-
Fe can also lead to the formation of excessive shrinkage porosity defects in castings.
This is because the β- Fe phase has a tendency to restrict the flow of eutectic liquid during
solidification. [10]

Fig.6 Microstructure representing morphology of β - Al5FeSi intermetallic

phase [10]

2. α
-Fe-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2

Excess Manganese concentration in the alloy composition, may

reduce the formation of β- Al5FeSi phase and promote formation Fe-rich phase Al15 (Fe,
Mn)3Si2 (known as alpha iron or α-Fe phase). The α-Fe phase is present in the
morphology like ‘skeleton’ or in the ‘Chinese script’ form. This phase is considered to
be less harmful to the mechanical properties than β- Fe phase. The Chinese script
morphology of the α-Fe phase occurs during eutectic solidification with α-Aluminum
and is shown in the Fig 7. The α-Fe phase with polyhedral morphology has a very high
microhardness value of 600 – 700 HV at 0.1 Kgf load. During heat treatment, this phase
gets fragmented into fine Chinese script morphology. [11]
 Fig.7 Microstructures representing morphologies of α-Al15(Fe, Mn)3Si2
intermetallic phase in (a) Skeleton and (b) polyhedron [11]

3. A
l2Cu phase

Copper in Al-Si-Cu or Al-Si-Cu-Mg cast alloys is present

primarily as phases: Al2Cu, Al- Al2Cu-Si and/or Q-Al5Mg8Cu2Si6 intermetallic phases.
During solidification process, copper present in the alloy segregates to the liquid and its
concentration increases with increase in solid fraction which leads to the formation of
above mentioned phases.

Fig 8. Microstructure representing morphologies of Al 2Cu and eutectic Al2Cu

phases [12]
 4. π
– Al8Mg3FeSi6

The π-phase has a Chinese script or blocky morphology and is

often formed on the β-Al5FeSi plates. The volume fraction of π-phase depends on the
concentration of magnesium and iron in the alloy and the solidification rate. The π-phase
is the dominant phase, at about 1 vol. %, while the β-Fe phase is less than 0.1 vol. %.
 2.5 C
ritical parameters in Gravity Die Casting (GDC) process

There are various casting process parameters from reception of

raw material to heat treatment. But significant parameters are pointed out to correlate the
effect on mechanical properties via microstructural factors. Following are the important
parameter which contributes in the mechanical properties and ultimately quality of the
components.

Melting Temperature: Melting temperature of the ingot-scrap of

Al alloy casting is generally 800°c.

Pouring Temperature of the molten metal: Solidification rate is

dependent on both pouring temperature and the die preheat temperature. Range of
pouring temperature is 680°c- 800°c for the Al-Si alloy.

Die Temperature: Control of die temperature is difficult in the die

casting process. The cooling rate is critical factor so for this purpose die cooling
arrangement can be done. Die temperature for Al alloy varies from 250 °c to 400°c.

Grain refiners: Grain refiners are the added in alluminuium alloy

for reducing the grain size by providing the heterogeneous nucleation sites for primary
α-Al dendrites. Ti is important element for the grain refining mechanism. Different
content of Ti is added depending upon the chemical composition 0.2% is optimum level
of Ti for Al ally casting. Generally Al-5Ti-1B master alloy is used as grain refiners.

Eutectic Si modification: With small addition of impurity

elements such as strontium (Sr), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) or cerium
(Ce), eutectic silicon phase is modified. Eutectic Si undergoes a morphological
transformation from coarse needles/plate-like to fine and globular/fibrous morphology,
improving the mechanical properties of Al-Si alloy. Elements which produce a refined
flake-like structure of eutectic silicon are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se).
Sr, Na, and Sb produce significant modification at low levels of addition. Thus Sr and
Na elements used widely in industry. Na and Sr produce the strongest modifying action
at very low levels of addition.
 2.6 Scope of improvements in mechanical properties in GDC
process

To enhance the mechanical properties various aspects have to be

taken into consideration like minimization of casting defects, Eutectic silicon
modification ,Grain refining and low SDAS (Secondary Dendritic Arm Spacing ) and
morphology of β-Al5FeSi phase which is responsible for the loss in ductility. Shrinkage
porosity, Gas porosity and dross etc. are the common defects found in the Al- Si gravity
die casting and somehow these defects have to be minimized.

The morphology of eutectic silicon is acicular and sharpe needle

like structure in unmodified alloy which degrade the mechanical properties especially %
elongation. This morphology can be modified by adding modifying elements like Sr, Na,
K, Sb, Ca and Ce but Sr is most common and effective element used as modifier in Al-
Si alloy. It is interested to observe the so combining effect of grain refiners and
modifiers on mechanical properties.

Grain refiners play important role in the improving mechanical

properties of the cast components. There are various grain refining agents like B Nb, V,
W, Mo, Ce, and Z but for Al-Si alloy but most common is the Ti which is sometimes
added along with boron with different Ti to B ratio. General and most common master
alloy used as grain refiners for Al-Si alloy is Al-5Ti-1B.The main purpose of addition of
grain refiner is to reduce the grain size by providing the nucleation sites to primary α-Al.

SDAS is significant factor which determines the mechanical

properties. Reduction in SDAS value indicates the increase in mechanical properties.
SDAS is strongly dependant on the cooling rate. As cooling rate is high there would be
low SDAS so it is necessary to increase the cooling rate as high as possible.

Intermetallic phases in microstructure plays significant role

mechanical properties, formation of sharp and needle like intermetallic has to be
minimized as crack initiates at the edges of such phases and then it propagates in the
matrix. The most harmful and detrimental phase is β- Al5FeSi. The formation of this
phase is restricted by increasing cooing rate and maintaining the proper content of
manganese.

2.6.1 Grain refinement

The grain refinement theories were developed to explain the

phenomena of the grain refinement observed by Al-Ti-B addition to Al alloys. The
development of Nucleant paradigm is based on two theories: the Nucleant-particle theory
and the phase diagram theory. These two theories are related to two types of particles
present in the Al-Ti-B master alloy as following.

i. T
he Nucleant Paradigm: This theory suggests that the nucleation occurs on the borides
present in master alloy (TiB2, AlB2 and (Ti, Al)B2), while the second theory explains the
grain refinement by nucleation on Al3Ti.

ii. T
he Solute Paradigm Theory: It is proposed that the addition of Nucleant particles and
amount of segregating elements, quantified by the growth restriction factor (GRF) are
important in grain refinement. In this theory the effect of the solute on the growth of
dendrites and the constitutional undercooled zone in the front of the interface is equally
important with nucleation.

Grain refinement is important factor in gravity die casting process

as it includes the decrease in the grain size either by adding the grain refiners or by the
other methods like mechanical vibration, ultrasonic vibration, Electromagnetic stirring
and Alternating current electric pulse method. Sometimes the growth of primary
aluminium is transformed from columnar to equiaxed.

Mechanical vibrations are introduced to mould for AC4C

aluminum alloy in gravity die casting. For different frequencies of vibration the
improvement in mechanical properties are observed. The vibrator (CH25A; EXEN,
Tokyo, Japan) used in this study. Mechanical properties like Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS), % Elongation are enhanced significantly. [13]
 Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus. The bar with arrows at
the extremes indicates the motion direction of the mold during vibration. [13]
 It is observed that the Ultimate tensile strength is 150 Mpa when
there was no vibrations introduced but after vibration of frequency 112Hz, it was
observed that UTS improved up to 170 Mpa. Improvement in elongation is observed
from 2% to 4.5% at same frequency. [13]

Fig.10 Ultimate tensile strength (●) and elongation ( ) of casting specimens as a

function of the vibration frequency. [12]

Using stainless steel sloping plate for pouring the molten metal in
gravity die casting of A356 alloy at optimum angle improvement in mechanical (Grain
size, UTS,YS,% elongation) properties are observed. At 60°, grains of globular
morphologies are formed which gives better mechanical properties. [14]

Fig 11.Experimental set up for sloping plate [13]

Sloping plate is used for the pouring of molten metal into the
casting cavity in gravity die casting process. When sloping plate used, boundary layer is
formed and slurry is produced. At different slopping plate angles the different
mechanical properties are observed .Initially as angle is
 Increasing from 0° to 60° the UTS and percentage elongation is
increasing but after that mechanical properties are degrading from 60° to 75°. The
decreases in the mechanical properties are due to the churning action in the bifilms and the
turbulence created in the molten metal during solidification. [14]

Fig 12. Sloping plate angle vs. UTS [14] Fig 13. Sloping plate

Mechanical vibration method is used for improving YS, %

Elongation and UTS for A356 alloy. Vibration frequency used is 60Hz.Vibrating table is
used and Al-5Ti-1B grain refiner also added along with vibration and results were
analyzed. It is found that when only A356 alloy is casted tensile strength observed was
approximately 182 MPa. After adding the Al-5Ti-1B, UTS remains unchanged but when
vibrations along with Al-5Ti-1B are introduces the UTS shows increment up to 227 MPa
whereas percentage elongation decreased up to 2.3 when initially it was 3.4. Vibration
treatment caused the fragmentation of crystalline grains and the reduction of columnar
zones in casts. Structure of the alloy transformed from dendrite to fine grains. The main
purpose of vibration treatment of melt is to eliminate the chemical and structural
heterogeneity of solidifying alloys as well as to reduce the micros aggregation. [15]
 Fig 14. Mechanical properties of А356 aluminum alloy and aluminum-based
alloy, before and after vibration treatment. (1) А356 alloy (2) А356 alloy after vibration treatment and (3)
А356 + 0.5 wt% TiB2 after vibration treatment. [15]

Assessment of grain refinement using Al-5Ti-1B grain refiner is

carried out.Ti addition into 319 alloy melt up to 0.17 % (3.4 % Al-5Ti-1B master
alloy).Addition of Ti more than 0.17 wt% does not affect the grain size significantly. Ti
may react with elements of Al and B to form phases such as TiAl3, AlB2 and TiB2,
which may act as heteronuclei to nucleate the α-Al to achieve grain refinement.
However, if the concentration of Ti exceeds more than 0.17 wt%, the agglomeration of
TiAl3 and TiB2 would cause reduction in active Ti elements inside the melt and cannot
reduce the grain size. Therefore, the optimum level of Ti and B additions for the grain
refinement of 319 aluminum alloys is about 0.17 % Ti (3.4% Al-5Ti-1B). [15]

In short, additions of Al-5Ti-1B results in formation of two types

of particles these are TiB2 and TiAl3.TiB2 particles are smaller than the TiAl3 particles.
TiB2 acts as nucleation sites for primary α-Al and promotes the nucleation which would
ultimately decrease the grain size affecting than mechanical properties significantly.
Whereas TiAl3 dissolves in alluminuium matrix.

Grain size decrement is important for the improving the

mechanical properties. As Ti content is increases the grain size decreases. Up to 0.17%
Ti level grain size reduces effectively after that it does not decrease effectively. [16]
 Fig 15.Grain refining of 319 alloys as a function of Al–5Ti–1B wt% added to

the melt [16].

Grain refinement of hypoeutectic Al-7Si alloy induced by an Al-

V-B master alloy is carried out and it is compared with the Al-Ti-B alloys. The different
grain size is observed by using different grain refiners and different parameters. It is
observed that Al-V-B master alloy is a potentially Effective grain refiner for the Al-Si
alloys. [17]

The Al-V-B master alloys can effectively overcome the Si poison

effect in grain refinement and refine the as cast grain structure of the Al-7Si alloy
significantly. Refinement can be achieved in the Al-Si alloy with Al-V-B alloy also.
Whereas no effective refinement can be found when Al-B and Al-V master alloys are
added separately. Moreover, the excellent grain refining ability of the Al-V-B master
alloy has been proved by performing related comparative experiments established Al-Ti-
B master alloys. It is suggested that the Al-V-B master has ability to be used as grain
refiner.
 Fig 16.The microstructures of solidified Al-7Si with inoculation after
isothermal holding of 1 h observed by optical microscopy with polarized light (a) Al-3V-1.28B master
alloy (0.015 % V), (b) Al-3Ti-1B master alloy (0.015 % Ti),
(c) A
l-5Ti-1B master alloy (0.015 % Ti).[17]
 Although Al3V and VB2 particles are Present in the Al-V-B
master alloy, only the VB2 particles, rather than Al3V, are nuclei that provide the best
grain refinement of solidified Al-7Si alloy. [17]

Table 2 SDAS and grain size comparison for Al-3V-1.28B, Al-3Ti-1B, Al-5Ti-
1B [17]

I A A A
noculations l-3V-1.28B(0.015% l-3Ti-1B (0.015% l-5Ti-1B (0.015 % Ti)
V) Ti)
G 2 3 5
rain 80 ± 9 98 ± 16 22 ± 18
size(µm)
S 8 7 6
DAS (mm) 4.9 ± 6.9 1.7 ± 4.9 1.6 ± 8.6

Grain refinement of Al9Si0.45Mg is processed by two master

alloys separately. i.e. Al5Ti1B and Al3Ti3B and the results were analyzed. The effect of
grain refinement on grain size is observed which will ultimately effects on the
mechanical properties such as % elongation and Ultimate Tensile Strength. It shows that
the grain refinement by Al3Ti3B by is effective and provides better results.

Fig 17.Tensile properties, % Elongation and % elongation of the Al9Si0.45Mg

alloys under different grain refinement condition after T6 heat treatment. [18]

TiB2 and TiAl3 particles simultaneously formed in the Al5Ti1B

master alloy, while TiB2 and AlB2 particles coexist in the Al3Ti3B master alloy. The
inoculation of AlB2 particles under Al3Ti3B, results in the significant grain refinement of
the high silicon Al9Si0.45Mg cast alloy. The increase of strength in the Al3Ti3B refined
alloy is a result of the refinement of the primary α–Al grains, while the increase of
ductility in the Al3Ti3B refined alloy resulted from the reduced porosity defects as well
as the decreased grain size.[18]
 Enhancement the Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Casting
Alloys A356 is possible by Adding Nanorods Structures from Zinc Oxide. It acts as grain
refiner and modifiers as well as it modifies the eutectic silicon. The powders of ZnO
nanorods were prepared from Hexamine (Hexamethylenetetramine C6H12N4) with Zinc
nitrite hex hydrate (Zn (NO3)2.6H2O).After that it is added by different amount into melt
for refining purpose. As content of nanorods is increasing the mechanical properties
obtained are superior. [19]

Following results were observed for the mechanical properties

such as % elongation, Hardness, UTS (Universal Tensile Strength) against various
content of ZnO.

Table 3. Mechanical properties with ZnO additions content [19]

Z U E H
nO content ltimate Tensile longation % ardness (HB)
S (
tress (MPa) mm/mm)
W 1 1 7
ithout ZnO 83.4 4.45 4.3
0 2 2 7
.05 04 0.45 4.6
0 2 2 7
.1 11.5 3.73 5.2
0 2 3 7
.2 19 3.72 6.6

The enhancements of properties of A356 aluminum casting alloys

can be achieved by introduce nanoparticles (ZnO nanorods) because of the grain
refinement and the mechanism. Refining can be compared with the addition of Al-Ti-B
master alloy refining mechanism. [19]

Transformation process of sharp eutectic Si particles with course

α-Al primary dendrite into agglomerated network of spheroidzed and less angular
eutectic Si particles is carried out. These are uniformly distributed at the grain
boundaries with fine α-Al primary. The improvement of the mechanical properties that
included ultimate tensile strength, elongation, and hardness are 183.4 MPa to 219 MPa,
14.45% to 33.72%, and 74.6 HB to 76.6 respectively for A356 aluminum casting alloys.
[20]
 Fig 18. the schematic explanation to the effect of the weak AECP on grain

refinement: (a) without AECP; (b) under AECP [20]

Using alternating electric current electric pulse method Columnar

to equiaxed to transformation is witnessed and also grain refinement is carried out. [20]

2.6.2 E
utectic Si Modification

Strontium (Sr) can be used as modifiers for the eutectic

modification of alluminuium alloy in casting during solidification. The mechanisms for
modification of eutectic Si involves the two ways that is, 1.Impurity Induced Twinning 2.
Restricted growth of Euctectic silicon. Since the eutectic modification of Si contributes
to mechanical properties significantly it becomes more important factor to achieve.
[21].The modified and unmodified structure of Al–10 Si0.1Fe alloy is shown in fig 19.
 Fig 19.Optical micrographs of Al–10 Si0.1Fe alloy showing a eutectic
microstructure: (a and b) unmodified alloy, (c and d) alloy modified by 200 ppm Sr. [21]
 Additions of Sr, Yb and (Sr+Yb) to alluminuium melt for
modification purpose, it result the eutectic modification of eutectic silicon morphology
from plate like to fibrous structure. It is also observed that Nucleation temperature,
Growth temperature and minimum temperature is reduced by 2°c. Morphology of
eutectic Si in the Sr, Yb, and (Sr + Yb) modified alloys changed from a plate-like form
to fine fibrous structure. [22]

Fig 20. Cooling curves measured from the melts with different additions of
modifiers, for Al-7Si alloy with corresponding optical micrographs of representative eutectic structure in
each sample. [22]

Sb (Antimony) can be added as the modifier for Al-Si alloy

casting alloys. Different content of Sb is added to the alluminuium. Commercial Al-Si
alloys contain significant amounts of iron, which plays an important role in the
nucleation of the eutectic Si in these alloys. Relatively high iron contents (0.43 Fe)
promote the formation of the Fe-rich needles Al5FeSi (β-phase).In unmodified
hypoeutectic AlSi6Cu4 alloy, eutectic Si nucleates on these β-phases before the
nucleation of α- matrix and this results in free growth of silicon into the eutectic liquid
with its typical plate-like morphology. When alloy is not chemically modified, in
hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys, the growth of the β-phase is constrained which results in a
large number of equiaxed α-grains nucleating before nucleation of Si and hence silicon
is forced to grow in between the α-grains forming a fibrous, flake-like morphology. This
growth format is described by ability to twin easily and growth proceeds with the twin
plane re-entrant edge (TPRE) mechanism.[23]
 Fig 21.Effect of Sb-modification on the tensile strength [23].

A mutual poisoning effect occurs when the contents of Sr and B

exceed a certain limit The formation of the compound with 3:4 of the atom ratio of Sr
and B consumes a large amount of Sr and B in the melts at the same time, and
consequently results in a decrease in both the refining effect of B and the modifying
effect of Sr. [24]

The separate and combined addition of Ce and Sr had significant

effect on the solidification parameters, microstructure and tensile properties of Al8Si
alloy is studied. The addition of Ce increased the nucleation temperature of the
aluminium in that way, refining the aluminium grains. However, Sr did not show any
significant effect on aluminium nucleation temperature. The eutectic arrest temperature
was decreased significantly by the addition of Sr corresponding to the silicon
modification. The combined addition of Ce and Sr simultaneously yielded the benefits
of refinement and modification. The ultimate tensile strength of the alloy was
significantly improved by the addition of Ce and Sr. The ultimate tensile strength of the
alloy melt treated with Sr, Ce and Ce + Sr increased by about 40, 52 and 83 %
respectively.[25]
 2.6.3 S
econdary Dendritic Arm Spacing (SDAS)

SDAS (Secondary Dendritic Arm Spacing) plays important role

in mechanical property improvement. SDAS is inversely proportional to mechanical
properties. SDAS is greatly dependant on solidification rate or cooling rate. Thus
solidification rate or cooling rate is dependent on the Die temperature and poring
temperature. As cooling rate increases SDAS value decreases which ultimately increases
the mechanical properties like UTS, YS, and %Elongation.

At higher cooling rate the size and shape of eutectic silicon is

restricted and it is uniformly distributed which significantly contributes to the
enhancement in the % elongation. [26]
 Fig 22.Optical microscopy images showing the microstructure with different
cooling rates, (a) 4.78°C/s and 22 μm DAS, (b) 1.50°C/s and 51 μm DAS and (c) 0.18°C/s and 70 μm
DAS.[26]
 In Fig 22, it is observed that for A319 alloy as cooling rate
increases the SDAS decreases and the mechanical properties can be improved. With
decreasing secondary dendrite arm spacing, the elastic modulus increased with a
concurrent increase in the tensile strength and elongation. Alternatively, the thermal
expansion coefficient and hardness of the primary phases did not vary with DAS,
whereas the hardness of the eutectic phase increased with increasing DAS due to the
enlarged size of the eutectic particles whereas the hardness of the primary phase was
similar regardless of the DAS, due to the precipitates that formed during heat treatment.
As the temperature was increased, the hardness decreased [26]

Fig 23. Tensile test results of the A319 alloy, (a) YS (yield strength) and UTS
(ultimate tensile strength) and (b) EL (elongation).[26]

For the AlSi5Cu3 alloy the results obtained, confirms that cooling
rates influence the nucleation and growth of α-Al15(Fe, Mn)3Si2 and β-Al5FeSi phases.
The micrograph of the AlSi5Cu3 alloy reveals the presence of needle-like β-Al5FeSi
phase and the absence of α-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2 in the microstructure of the alloy solidified
in a low cooling rate (3.7 K/s in the liquid zone and 0.24 K/s in the mushy zone).
Absence of the the plateau of the β-Al5FeSi phase in the correspondent cooling curve
indicates that the formation of needles of the β-Fe5AlSi phase take place just before the
eutectic Al-Si phase. [27]
 2.6.4
Microstructure with less detrimental intermettalic phase

The most detrimental phase in Al-Si alloy is

monoclinic/orthorhombic Al5FeSi phase.
 Fig 24. Micrographs of various common iron-containing intermetallics
showing their typical morphologies in an Al- 5Si1Cu0.5Mg(Fe) alloys: (a) β-Al5FeSi platelets (b) script-
like α-Al8Fe2Si (c) π-Al8FeMg3Si6 phase growing from β

(d) s
cript-like π phase[28]

A critical issue for the effect of iron-containing intermetallic is

the time or temperature at which the different phases form during solidification. This is
influenced by both the concentration of the elements involved and cooling rates. Fig 17
shows a typical cooling curve of an Al-Si-Cu-Mg-Fe alloy with the location(s) of
intermetallic phase formation indicated.

Intermetallic particles forms earlier to the solidification of the

alluminuium Dendritic grain network (i.e. that grow freely within the liquid phase) or it
forms independently at the same time as the Dendritic network tend to grow relatively
large. Particles that form much later, i.e. during or after the period of Al-Si eutectic
solidification, are comparatively smaller because there is less liquid space available for
growth to occur during later stages. Normally speaking, the larger the particle, the more
unfavorable its effects on properties.
 Fig 25. Typical cooling curve (T vs. t) and cooling rate curve (dT/dt vs. t) for
an Al9Si3Cu0.5Mg1.0Fe alloy. The labeled peaks represent the following reactions (1) primary Al
dendrites (2) β-Al5FeSi (3) Al-Si eutectic (4) complex Mg2Si eutectic (5) complex Al2Cu eutectic. [28]

Wherever possible, iron levels in Al-Si alloys should be kept as

low as practical in order to avoid the damaging effects on mechanical properties,
particularly ductility and fracture toughness. This means reducing iron impurity through
careful selection of raw materials (i.e. ingots, silicon, etc.) and the maintenance of good
coatings on all steel tools used to prepare melts. Iron levels above the critical level for
the silicon content of the alloy should be avoided as these can cause severe loss of
ductility in the final cast product and decreased casting productivity through increased
rejects due to shrinkage porosity. The critical iron content (in wt %) for an alloy can be
calculated using the following relationship:

Fecrit = 0.075·[% Si] – 0.05.

If solidification/cooling rates are very high (as in high pressure

die casting), super critical iron contents may not be detrimental, but as the cooling rate
decreases (as in gravity die casting through to sand casting, etc.) the probability of super
critical iron levels causing problems dramatically increases. Very slow cooling rates can
lead to the formation of very large platelets. [28]

At low iron levels and high cooling rates (0.4% Fe, 23 µm DAS),
and in the unmodified condition, 319 alloys undergo crack initiation through the
fragmentation of Si particles, β-iron intermetallic, and CuAl2 particles. Crack
propagation is through the associating of the fragmented particles. A dimply structure is
observed for the Sr-modified alloys, indicating ductile fracture. [29]
 Fig 26. Optical micrograph showing fracture behavior of alloy with 0.4% Fe,
(DAS 23 μm), unmodified, edge. [26]

It is confirmed that the presence of a large fraction part of β-

intermetallic strongly chunks the interdendritic channels and promotes the porosity
formation as a result of permeability reduction and hydrogen super saturation in the
local subdivided domain. No β-intermetallic is directly nucleating a pore during
solidification; instead they appear to physically block and constrain pore growth and
contribute to an increase in pore tortuosity. In adding, β-intermetallic is found to
facilitate pore growth, which may be due to a low interfacial energy between the gas and
the intermetallic. [30]

Hand tapping of long freezing range LM25 or 356 Al alloy during

solidification in a permanent mould is a simple reasonable and effective technique for
metal casting to improve its density, hardness, ultimate tensile strength and % elongation.
Leaning of the mould while pouring liquid alluminuium alloy melt enhances density and
mechanical properties. Hand tapping of mould during solidification is a simple and
inexpensive means of structural refinement and property enhancement in long freezing
rage aluminum alloys. The hand tapping was induced by beating the mould walls using
two mild steel rods with possible uniform extent and rate (which were arrived at after
sufficient number of trials and practice) after completion of mould filling [31].
Increment in mechanical properties by hand tapping is shown in fig Table 4.
 Table 4 Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) for LM 25 alloy [31]

Undegassed Degasse
Melt d melt
T W W W W W
apping ithout ith ith ithout ith ith
conditio tappin tapping tappin tappi tappin tappi
n g (100 g ng g (100 ng
(200 beats/ (200
b
eats/mi min)
b
n)
eats/ eats/
min) min)
A 1 1 1 1 1
s cast 19 28 30.4 29.3 30.4 41.3
H 2 2 2 2 2
eat 66 71.50 75.3 74.6 74.5 80.2
Treated

The thinning effect of Al–5Ti–x(Mg–30%Ce) on Al–7Si as a

grain refiner is remarkable, because Mg encouraged the thinning effect of the rare earth
Ce on the precipitation phase TiAl3 in the refining agent, which provides more
heterogeneous nucleation during the solidification process of aluminum alloy. The
mechanical properties of Al-Si alloy by adding Al–5Ti–x(Mg– 30%Ce) master alloy,
results were investigated after refinement. We found that Al–5Ti–x(Mg– 30%Ce)
significantly improves the mechanical properties of the Al–Si alloy. The tensile strength,
hardness, impact toughness, and yield strength of Al–Si alloy under dynamic load were
significantly affected, and the variation trend of mechanical properties was consistent
with the effect of thinning agent. [32]
 Fig 27. The tensile properties of the Al–Si alloy. [32]

The relationships between mechanical properties and SDAS with

pouring temperature are presented in Fig 20 for the LM25 alloy and it is observed that
pouring temperature has a marked effect on SDAS and mechanical properties. Higher
pouring temperature leads to finer
 Secondary dendrite arm spacing and as a result the UTS and
Hardness of the alloy increases with a decrease in % elongation. [33]

Fig 28.Relationship between mechanical properties and SDAS with pouring

temperature [33]

It is observed that the combinative addition of La and B elements

can provide adequate grain refine ment in Al–Si casting alloy. The formed LaB6
particles are responsible for the improvement in grain refinement of a α-Al grains and
the removal of mutual harming between B and Sr elements. [34]

Yttrium is found to be able to modify the silicon eutectic phase

into a more fibrous form as compared with that of unrefined A356. Adding yttrium into
A356 will produce the high- melting point Al-Y compounds at the solid/liquid boundary
and leads to the formation of solute undercooling layer, suppression of the growth of a-
Al grains and subsequently grain refine the Dendritic structure of a-Al matrix .Grain
refinement with 0.3 wt% addition of yttrium shows the highest enhancement in tensile
strength by 40%. This shows that yttrium can significantly improve tensile strength of
A356. [35]
Fig 29. Ultimate tensile strength vs. Yitrrium content [6]
 The addition of the novel Nb–B grain refiner does not only leads
to finer primary α- Al grains but also to finer Al–Si eutectic phase due to the more
homogeneous spreading of the alloying elements in the solidification front and eutectic
pools.[36]

2.7 L
iteraturature survey summary

From the literature study it is found that to enhance the

mechanical properties of as cast components in GDC process following factors has to be
considered.

• G
rain size of the microstructure of cast alloy can be reduced by grain refiner’s addition by
providing the nucleation sites to α-Al. which ultimately improves mechanical properties
significantly, so development of grain refiners can be the interest of many researchers.

• E
utectic silicon can be modified by adding the modifiers like Sr, Na, K, Ca and Sb which
restrict the acicular, Sharpe needle like eutectic silicon growth by forming fine and
fibrous eutectic silicon. Dendritic growth of α-Al has to be avoided because it leads
segregation, and harmful intermettalic phase’s formation. Harmful phases such as β-
Al5FeSi has to be avoided by increasing cooling rate and providing the sufficient amount
of Mn which promotes to form α-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2 which is less detrimental.

• S
harp, needle like and complex intermetallic phase formation has to be avoided because the
crack initiation would occur at sharp edge which lowers the ductility.

• G
rain refinement is possible in many ways for Al-Si casting like mechanical vibration,
ultrasonic vibration, Electromagnetic stirring and AECP (Alternating Electric Current
Pulse).

2.8 Objective

From the literature survey of works of various researchers on

GDC, objective of this work have been decided as

1. F
or a given composition of aluminium alloy, to identify and optimize the critical process
parameters in gravity die casting so as to achieve optimized microstructure with
improved quality and reduced cost for a given application by using modifiers, grain
refiners. Quality will cover microstructure, mechanical properties and level of casting
defects.
2. T
o standardize the process of setting up the process parameters for a given composition
and application in GDC.
 Chapter 3
Experimental Work

To conduct the experiments in the die casting foundry trials have

can be planned before considering any constraints. Before performing all the trials it
becomes necessary to understand the efforts and cost involving the trials and benefit
getting out of it. It is noted the benefits can be in terms of output fraction of objectives
that has been defined. So following trials can be conducted sequencing on the basis of
Trial efforts and the Benefits.(i.e. Mechanical Properties like UTS, YS, % elongation).
But in the reality there are many constraints relating to conducting
the experimental trials successfully. For instance, application given is fixed so die for
application is constant. The parameters relating to die cannot be taken into consideration
like riser design, Gate design etc. Other constant important parameters are composition
and chemistry. So for a given application alloy chemistry is constant.
Composition can be varied up to some extent but it must not be
out of specification. Given alloy composition is equivalent to AC2B alloy in according
to the JIS H5202. Also minor element addition can be done but with specified range. So
all these are constraints gravity die casting process optimization. Again modification in
the die is not as much as possible it it would be depending on cost involvement, the
commercial viability and output and objective achieving through it.
Mainly trials are design according to some important parameters
like grain refinement, eutectic silicon modification, degassing parameters, and some
external means of modification and refinement such as the Ultrasonic vibrations,
mechanical vibrations, electromagnetic stirring, Alternating Electric Current Pulse
methods. It is found that the more effective and prominent methods for grain refinement
is mechanical vibration. In short trails and experiments are conducted according to the
various grain refiners and modifiers or the combination of different elements which can
be used as G.R. or modifiers independently.
Important part to mentioned here is die cooling provision .To
control the die temperature die cooling is necessary but if it would be available then
another parameters are entering in the process optimization like water temperature,
Cyclic or continuous cooling ,cycle time if it is cyclic cooling and water flow rate.
 Following trials have been designed for the better improvement in
the mechanical properties with efforts vs. benefit charts.

Trial plan chart

 Chapter 4
Findings
4.1 Establishing the Baseline
It becomes important to understand the current scenario of given
application for the future scope of improvement. It is necessary to understand the
existing mechanical properties of given application for given die casting process
parameters.
4.1.1 Objectives:
1. To get the current scenario regarding the properties like
hardness, SDAS, microstructural factors, chemical composition.
2. To compare the mechanical and microstructural factors from
different suppliers and to decide the future scope of improvement.
4.1.2 Inferences from the baseline:
 Fig 30.Bottom case with all 3 sections A, B, and Boss

 I
n as cast conditions, observed hardness values have not considerable variations across
all the 3 sections.

 D
AS value in the components from china supplier is lower than in house components due
to higher cooling rate.

 A
t boss.DAS value is more because boss solidifies later than the rest of the part of
component so cooling unit can be provided more effectively to boss region part of the
die.

 D
endritic structure observed and it has to avoided because it leads to the saggregation,
More DAS which are responsible for inferior mechanical properties

 D
etrimental phases such as β-Fe5AlSi has to be avoided by increasing cooling rate and
providing the sufficient amount of Mn which promotes to form α-Al15(Fe, Mn)3Si2
which is less detrimental.

 S
ilicon modification can be possible by the Sr (Strontium ) additions which leads to
better ductility and mach inability.

 S
harpe needle like and complex intermettalic phase formation has to be avoided because
the crack initiation would occur at the edge
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