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Perceived Benefits, Attitude, Image,

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Desire, and Intention in Virtual Golf
Leisure
a b c d
Heesup Han , Hyungshin Baek , Kyungsik Lee & Bumyoung Huh
a
College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University,
Seoul, South Korea
b
Air Busan, Busan, South Korea
c
With Air, Busan, South Korea
d
Cathay Pacific Airways, Busan, South Korea
Published online: 09 Apr 2014.

To cite this article: Heesup Han, Hyungshin Baek, Kyungsik Lee & Bumyoung Huh (2014) Perceived
Benefits, Attitude, Image, Desire, and Intention in Virtual Golf Leisure, Journal of Hospitality
Marketing & Management, 23:5, 465-486, DOI: 10.1080/19368623.2013.813888

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 Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23:465–486, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1936-8623 print/1936-8631 online
DOI: 10.1080/19368623.2013.813888

Perceived Benefits, Attitude, Image, Desire, and

Intention in Virtual Golf Leisure

HEESUP HAN
College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, Seoul, South Korea

HYUNGSHIN BAEK
Air Busan, Busan, South Korea
Downloaded by [Dalhousie University] at 00:26 31 December 2014

KYUNGSIK LEE
With Air, Busan, South Korea

BUMYOUNG HUH
Cathay Pacific Airways, Busan, South Korea

This study first aimed to dissect the components of the benefits

that such golfers perceive and/or expect from the game. The study
then proceeded to examine the role of these identified perceived
benefits in participants’ intention formation by considering their
relation to attitudes, image, and desires. Additionally, this study
investigated the mediating impact of desires. Both online and field
surveys were conducted. A total of nine dimensions of benefits were
identified through an exploratory qualitative approach. The col-
lected data (258 usable responses) were analyzed with a series of
multiple regression analyses. The results from the regression anal-
yses revealed that dimensions of perceived benefits are generally
associated with attitudes and image about screen golf, and that
social responsibility is relatively important in inducing attitudes
and image. Further, desires were found to be a significant mediator
in the proposed model.

KEYWORDS attitudes, image, desires, intentions, perceived

benefits, screen golf, virtual leisure

Address correspondence to Bumyoung Huh, PhD, Cathay Pacific Airways, 4th Floor,
Trade Center, 87-7, 4-Ka, Choongang-dong, Jung-Ku, Busan, Korea 600-729. E-mail: pusbyh@
hanmail.net

465
 466 H. Han et al.

INTRODUCTION

With entertainment and Internet technology continuously advancing, it is

now possible to imagine a world in which virtual, technology-assisted activ-
ities overtake real-world, fully physical activities as the first choice for
personal leisure. Such is already the case in the South Korean golf mar-
ket, where screen golf—a virtual form of golf employing sensors, screens,
and projectors to replicate a golf course experience—far outstrips field golf
in rates of participation. For example, Korea boasts a mere 260 field golf
courses, yet already has more than 10 times that number of screen-golf cafés
in operation (Choe, 2008), with hundreds of thousands of players engag-
ing in the screen version of the game regularly (Moon, 2008). Importantly,
screen golf shows no sign of slowing down or staying put: screen golf as
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a leisure pursuit is now spreading into the Americas, Australia, and Europe,
and in-home systems are becoming increasingly available (Owen, 2010), yet
very little research has been conducted to delineate the forces driving leisure
customers to choose screen golf and remain screen-golf participants in the
long term.
Many researchers agree that customers’ perceived and anticipated
benefits/outcomes, their attitudes toward a behavior, their image, and their
desires can have a vital role in generating behavioral intentions (Bagozzi
& Dholakia, 2006; Han & Kim, 2010; Han et al., 2011; Ramkissoon et al.,
2011; Taylor et al., 2009). In particular, a recent study in a tourism context
demonstrated that anticipating the benefit of a tourism visa exemption is
important in explaining the formation of travelers’ decisions to visit a certain
country (Han et al., 2011). Empirical evidence about the impact of attitudes
toward the behavior and image on intention formation has also been pro-
vided in a hospitality context (Han & Kim, 2010). Further, the significance of
desires in individuals’ decision-making processes has been clearly revealed
in the recent consumer behavior literature (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Taylor
et al., 2009). While this process has not yet been thoroughly examined in the
nascent screen-golf industry, it is reasonable to conclude that effectively man-
aging the enhancement of golfers’ favorable intentions (i.e., the intentions to
play and recommend screen golf), which are critical components of loyalty,
would contribute to improving industry profitability.
Numerous attempts have been made in consumer behavior and mar-
keting to investigate the role of customers’ perceived benefits/outcomes in
generating attitudes toward the behavior (e.g., Azjen, 1991; Han et al., 2010;
Lam & Hsu, 2006). However, to the best of our knowledge, no research has
yet attempted to identify the specific components and dimensions of golfers’
perceived benefits/outcomes behind their playing screen golf as leisure activ-
ity, or to examine the impact of these elements on attitudes about screen
golf and its image in the formation of behavioral intentions. In addition, little
research to date has developed a conceptual framework by considering the
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 467

possible relationships among perceived benefits, attitudes, image, desires,

and behavioral intentions in a single framework for the tourism industry.
Further, while previous studies in various settings have examined the role
of desires as a mediator in the decision-making process (e.g., Bagozzi &
Dholakia, 2006; Lee et al., 2012; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001; Taylor et al., 2009),
the notion that desires mediate the impact of both attitudes and image on
customers’ behavioral intentions has rarely been tested, particularly in the
screen-golf industry. Filling these gaps, the present study was designed to
achieve the following main objectives:

1. The first objective is to identify components (or dimensions) of the golfers’

perceived benefits of playing screen golf as a leisure activity through a
qualitative exploratory approach.
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2. The second is to investigate the impact of the perceived benefits of playing

screen golf on attitudes and image about screen golf, and to identify the
relative importance among the identified dimensions of perceived benefits
in generating attitudes and image.
3. The third is to examine the mediating role of the desires to play screen
golf in the relationship between its antecedents (attitudes and image about
screen golf) and outcome variables (intentions to play and recommend
screen golf).

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Virtual Golf Leisure
Screen golf is a technology that has evolved into a pastime and, possibly, a
passion. The technology is an interplay between screens, sensors and pro-
jectors. The screens display highly realistic reproductions of the fairways of
real-world golf courses; the sensors use lasers, infrared, and radar to track
the motion of players as they swing real clubs into real golf balls; and the
projectors display a virtual image of a ball in flight down the virtual fairway
as a ball so struck would be expected actually to fly (Jung et al., 2010).
Screen golf, whose market is rapidly growing, is becoming a social and
sporting phenomenon. With golf itself now the leading sport in the world for
economic expenditure with more than 60 million active participants (Wheeler
& Nauright, 2006), the window of opportunity for a golf substitute that could
overcome the financial and spatial constraints faced by golf enthusiasts in
many countries was significant (Fields, 2010; Moon, 2008; Shin & Yoon,
2010). As the screen-golf café is often conveniently located near business
districts and can offer not only virtual golf but also food and beverages, the
cafés are prime locations for groups of friends and colleagues to socialize and
spend leisure time (Choe, 2008; Fields, 2010). Beyond the local area, since
the virtual displays lend themselves to simultaneous duplication on multiple
 468 H. Han et al.

screens connected over the Internet, the technology allows for virtual golf
tournaments involving players many kilometers, or even continents, apart
(Choe, 2008; Moon, 2008). Yet even today screen-golf systems continue to
be used and refined as training aids (Kim et al., 2011), suggesting that both
the technology’s social and athletic purposes continue to grow.

Perceived Benefits of Playing Screen golf

While empirical identification and testing are lacking, a review of prior
researchers’ work in similar fields suggests that the major participation
motives of screen golfers are likely to include time, cost, freedom from walk-
ing, ease of accessibility, high availability of screen-golf cafés, convenient
locations, psychological profit, economic depression, freedom from the need
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for bring golf equipment, no need for reservations, availability of food and
beverages, exciting but less tiring, freedom from hot/cold weather, reduced
harm to the environment, reduction of water/soil/air pollution, avoidance
of poisonous chemicals used on field golf courses etc. (e.g., Moon, 2008;
Owen, 2010; Shin & Yoon, 2010; Yi, 2009). Screen golfers enjoy the physi-
cal activity of striking golf balls at full force and receive the psychological
gratification of watching a highly realistic, albeit vicarious, projection of their
ball’s flight, and they take in these pleasures in a venue that is at once
cheaper, more conveniently located, more conveniently schedulable, more
amenable to relaxation and sociability, and less detrimental to the natural
and physical environments than is traditional field golf. This panoply of
advantages suggests a wide range of potential benefits accruing to screen
golfers.
Although the relationships among perceived benefits, attitudes, and
image have rarely been examined, some evidence in previous studies
supports their being associated. The process by which conscious interpre-
tation of information, thinking and reflection, and prior knowledge creates
perceptions and expectations has long been considered a cognitive one
(Oliver, 1997; Han et al., 2011). Accordingly, in the present study, golfers’
perceptions/expectations can be described as a set of cognitive anticipa-
tions wherein some benefits/outcomes would be achieved by engaging in
screen golf rather than in “real” golf on traditional golf courses. Repeatedly,
studies from the marketing and business fields have commented on a direct
connection between cognition and evaluation and/or decision-making in
post-purchase behavior (e.g., Chen et al., 2009; Han & Back, 2008; Oliver,
1997; Oliver & Swan, 1989; Han et al., 2011). A slew of investigations in
multiple settings have descried the primacy of cognition in the formation of
positive evaluations and appraisals (which, in the present study, are called
“attitude”) and postpurchase decisions (e.g., Han et al., 2011; Han & Back,
2008; Oliver, 1997; Oliver & Swan, 1989), making the key role of a cogni-
tive process in the inducement of evaluations/appraisals almost universally
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 469

accepted. In addition, a recent study in a hospitality context indicated that

one’s perceived benefits/outcomes of a specific act significantly affected
attitudes toward that behavior, which indicate the degree of one’s favor-
able or unfavorable evaluations/appraisals (Kim & Han, 2010). Similarly,
Han and Kim’s (2010) findings in their recent research about hotel customers’
decision-making processes showed that the anticipated benefits/outcomes of
conducting a particular behavior held by an individual are highly associated
with his or her attitudes toward the behavior. Their findings also verified
the significance of the relationships among such variables as perceived
benefits, attitudes, and image in explaining customers’ purchasing decision-
making processes. Han and Ryu (2012) examined a customer’s postpurchase
decision-making process using a theory of repurchase decision-making in
a hospitality context. Their findings indicated that when image about a
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certain product is involved, an individual’s behavioral intention is better pre-

dicted. Image, in their study, was a critical factor affecting post purchase
decision-making processes, along with attitudes and expected outcomes.
Overall, based on the conceptual and empirical evidence discussed above,
it can be assumed that golfers’ perceived or expected benefits/outcomes
of playing screen golf, attitudes toward that behavior, and image about
screen golf can possibly likely be seen as connected, and that these vari-
ables have a critical role in explaining the formation of golfers’ behavioral
intentions.

Attitudes, Image, and Desires

Researchers have defined the concept of attitudes in numerous ways over
time, but there is general agreement that attitudes represent the degree of an
individual’s positive or negative assessment of a behavior (Ajzen, 1991) or a
pattern of favorable or disfavorable evaluations of a behavior or idea (Eagly
& Chaiken, 1993). That is, attitudes can be described as mainly evaluative
concepts. The same is true for defining/conceptualizing image. Image has
also been explained in a variety of ways, but most descriptions concur that
image is the individual’s ultimate perception of a product or service and its
attributes derived from his or her prior knowledge along with the processing
of current or new information (Bloemer & Ruyter, 1998; Han & Kim, 2010).
The state in which an individual has an internal or personal impetus to
undertake a behavior or seek a particular end can be called a state of desire
(Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004). Desires are regarded as hugely important in
socio-psychological research as they are the motives driving decision-making
and behavioral-intention formation (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004). The desire to
act is formed as positive appraisals accumulate from affective, cognitive,
evaluative, social, and other sources; this desire then leads into an intention
to act (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004; Prestwich et al., 2008). Both behavioral
and goal-based desires correlate strongly with behavioral intentions, but it
 470 H. Han et al.

is a mistake to assume desires and intentions are one and the same: desires
manifest solely what the individual wants to make happen, while intentions
incorporate behavioral influences and commitment to action (Ajzen, 1991;
Bagozzi, 1992; Prestwich et al., 2008). Hence, facilitating and inhibiting fac-
tors are built into intentions but not into desires. Both correlational and
experimental findings have demonstrated the significantly unique natures of
desires and intentions (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004).
The significance of desire and its role in decision formation is empha-
sized by many recent studies. Desires are frequently incorporated into
sociopsychological models as direct outcomes of attitudinal appraisals
and other cognitive/affective factors (e.g., total perception of a specific
act/image, anticipated emotions, perception of ease or difficulty of doing
an act) for clear explication of the human decision-making process in var-
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ious behavioral domains (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Bagozzi & Edwards,
1998; Lee et al., 2012; Leone et al., 1999; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004;
Taylor et al., 2009). In addition, according to these studies, desires signifi-
cantly affect individuals’ intention-formation and decision-making processes,
and strongly mediate the effects of attitudes, volitional and nonvolitional
factors, and other personal and critical reasons for acting (e.g., cogni-
tive, affective, and evaluative social identity, perception/image of a certain
phenomenon/behavior, past experiences) on behavioral intention (Bagozzi
& Dholakia, 2006; Bagozzi & Edwards, 1998; Lee et al., 2012; Leone et al.,
1999; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004; Poels & Dewitte, 2008; Taylor et al., 2009).
That is, desires provide the motivational force for one’s intention to con-
duct a specific behavior, and attitudes and other predictors of desires (e.g.,
perception/image of a certain phenomenon/behavior) contribute to building
his or her intention through desires. On the basis of this empirical evidence,
it should be true that golfers’ desires induce their intention to play screen
golf and enhance their willingness to recommend it to others. In addition,
these studies all support the proposition that golfers’ attitudes and image
about screen golf can possibly stimulate their desires to play screen golf,
and their desires mediate the impact of its antecedents on intentions.

Conceptual Model and Research Hypotheses

The proposed model as well as the hypothesized relationships between
variables are presented in Figure 1. This conceptual model includes such
constructs as attitudes and image about screen golf, desire to play screen
golf, and intentions to play screen golf and to recommend it. The model also
integrates the nine dimensions of the perceived benefits identified through
a qualitative approach (a total of nine factors were identified through a
comprehensive literature review and focus-group discussion) as antecedents
of attitudes and image (see “Identification of Perceived Benefits of Playing
Screen Golf” in the Methodology section).
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 471

Perceived Benefits of Playing

Screen Golf

Reduced expense

Easier access to
golfing opportunities H1a - i
Attitudes about
Convenience screen golf
Intention to play
screen golf
H3 H5
Time saving

Desires to play
Healthy environment
screen golf

Environmental
H6
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protection H4
Intention to
Social responsibility Image about recommend
screen golf screen golf

Engagement in eco- H2a - i

friendly practices

Availability of F&B
while golfing

FIGURE 1 Conceptual model.

Note. Hypothesis 7 targets the mediating impact of desire to play screen golf on intention
formation, thus it is not included in the figure.

H1: Perceived benefits of playing screen golf positively affect attitudes

about screen golf.
H1a: Reduced expense positively affects attitudes.
H1b: Easier access to golfing opportunities positively affects attitudes.
H1c: Convenience positively affects attitudes.
H1d: Time saving positively affects attitudes.
H1e: Healthy environment positively affects attitudes.
H1f: Environmental protection positively affects attitudes.
H1g: Social responsibility positively affects attitudes.
H1h: Engagement in eco-friendly practices positively affects attitudes.
H1i: Availability of F&B (food and beverages) while golfing positively
affects attitudes.
H2: Perceived benefits of playing screen golf positively affect image
about screen golf.
H2a: Reduced expense positively affects image.
H2b: Easier access to golfing opportunities positively affects image.
H2c: Convenience positively affects image.
H2d: Time saving positively affects image.
H2e: Healthy environment positively affects image.
H2f: Environmental protection positively affects image.
H2g: Social responsibility positively affects image.
 472 H. Han et al.

H2h: Engagement in eco-friendly practices positively affects image.

H2i: Availability of F&B while golfing positively affects image.
H3: Attitudes about screen golf positively affect desires to play screen
golf.
H4: Image about screen golf positively affects desires to play screen
golf.
H5: Desires to play screen golf positively affect intentions to play screen
golf.
H6: Desires to play screen golf positively affect intentions to recom-
mend screen golf.
H7: Desires to play screen golf mediate the impact of attitudes and
image on intentions to play and recommend screen golf.
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METHODOLOGY
Identification of Perceived Benefits of Playing Screen Golf
A qualitative exploratory approach was used to identify subjects’ perceived
benefits of playing screen golf. First, a comprehensive literature review was
combined with an elicitation study to develop measures for perceived bene-
fits. In line with common practices described by previous investigators, items
were elicited from a focus group populated by five screen-golf café practi-
tioners, five screen-golf customers, and two hospitality academics (e.g., Han
et al., 2010). The focus-group participants were asked to write down all the
possible benefits in response to open-ended questions (e.g., What do you
believe will be the benefits of playing screen golf rather than traditional
golf?). In the next step, they were requested to compare and discuss their
answers with other participants. It is standard practice in some qualitative
research methodologies to treat each sentence as one unit of analysis and
then classify these units into a series of pre-established categories, a “units of
analysis and categorization” approach that was also employed in this study
(Bergadaa, 1990; Spiggle, 1994). That is, the categories were identified and
articulated through the focus-group discussion. Particularly, all participants’
answers were determined to be appropriate units through discussion. For
instance, if a focus-group participant stated “There is cost saving involved”
when answering the question, the response was coded as “cost saving.”
These individual responses were then categorized, the process whereby dis-
creet units of data (in this case, the response sentences) are classified as
belonging to or exemplifying a larger phenomenon (Spiggle, 1994). In their
discussions and using prior literature supplied by the authors, the focus-
group participants articulated possible categories for their units of analysis.
Overall, this procedure generated a total of nine categories for the per-
ceived benefits of playing screen golf (i.e., reduced expense, easier access
to golfing opportunities, convenience, time saving, healthy environment,
environmental protection, social responsibility, engagement in eco-friendly
practices, and availability of F&B while golfing).
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 473

Measures
For each of the nine perceived-benefit categories, two questions were
developed based on examples from published research studies and the
focus-group participants’ initial responses; hence, 18 items were used to
measure perceived benefits in the final survey. For other study variables (i.e.,
attitudes about screen golf, image about screen golf, desire to play screen
golf, and the intentions to play and to recommend screen golf), previously
validated items were adopted and included. Particularly, nine items were
used for attitude about screen golf (1 = extremely undesirable; 7 = desir-
able). Image about screen golf was assessed with three items using a 7-point
Likert type scale (1 = extremely disagree; 7 = extremely agree). To measure
the desire to play screen golf, this study employed three items. Finally, the
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intentions to play and to recommend screen golf were assessed with three
items on a 7-point Likert type scale (1 = extremely disagree; 7 = extremely
agree). The questionnaire was thoroughly reviewed by industry experts and
pretested for insuring content validity (see Appendix).

Sample and Data Collection

The authors partnered with the proprietors of a successful leisure/golf club
in the Republic of Korea to reach the target population of golf enthusiasts
through both field and online surveys. Over the course of a full month, ensur-
ing convenience and reducing inhibitors, the club’s membership was asked
to find time to visit the club website, where they could download, complete,
and return the survey at their own convenience. Another 200 copies of the
survey were made available to golfers at casual meet-ups both in screen-
golf cafés and on field golf courses to extend the range of responses. Upon
starting the questionnaire, survey participants were given comprehensive
information about the purposes and methods of the research, were asked
to complete the instrument only at their own convenience when they could
provide complete and thoughtful answers, and were asked to provide their
most recently visited screen-golf café as a reference frame for the questions
they would be answering. The online and field surveys that were conducted
in April 2012 resulted in nearly identical quotients of returned questionnaires
(134 and 132, respectively) for a response rate of 66.0%. Among this total,
258 forms were found to be appropriate for analysis.

Sample Characteristics
Of the 258 respondents 32.5% were women and 67.5% men, with an
age span of 25 to 61 years and an average age of 40.176. Personal
income information was requested of all participants, which revealed that
most participants (23.5%) had annual household incomes of 40,000,001 to
 474 H. Han et al.

60,000,000 Korean won. That group was followed by 23.1%, who reported a
range of 25,000,001 won to 40,000,000 won, and a mere 3.1% who reported
incomes of 25,000,000 won or less. Most participants (71.1%) reported having
graduated university at the baccalaureate level, with graduate-degree holders
(20.3%) and high-school graduates (6.6%) rounding out the sample.
Survey responders were asked to reflect on their experience with and
usage of screen-golf cafés, at which point 34.9% reported their most recent
visit to a screen-golf café as having occurred during the past week, while
46.2% said they had visited within the past two weeks. When asked if they
had been to a screen-golf café within the last month, 55.4% agreed that they
had, while that figure jumped to 77.9% when the time period was expanded
to the previous two months. Participants were asked to record the name of
the screen-golf café at which they had most recently played; 32.1% reported
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visiting that café more often than once per week, while about 14.7% reported
playing there two or more times per week and 76.2% reported once a month.
More than 54.1% of responders explained that they had taken up screen
golf within the previous two years, and a wide majority—some 72.0%—
reported that they also played traditional golf on an outdoor golf course at
least once per month. About 74.0% reported that they had been playing golf
at traditional golf courses for more than 3 years.

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Data Quality Testing
A measurement model was assessed. Results of a confirmatory factor analy-
sis (CFA) using AMOS 5 showed that the measurement model acceptably fit
the data (goodness-of-fit statistics: 1515.646, df = 608, p < .001, RMSEA =
0.076, CFI = 0.920, NFI = 0.875). With all values falling between .677 and
.982, as visible in Table 1, construct reliability was demonstrated satisfactorily
(Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). In addition, the AVE values showed clear convergent
validity as all the AVE values exceeded Hair et al.’s (1988) recommended
cutoff point of .50. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), discriminant
validity is the squared correlation between two constructs producing a result
less than the AVE of each individual construct. By this reckoning, discrim-
inant validity was clearly evident since, as Table 1 shows, the AVE values
exceeded the squared correlations.

Hypotheses Testing
A series of multiple regression analyses using SPSS were employed to test
the research hypotheses and the mediating impact of desires to play screen
golf. The mediation analysis method was based on Baron and Kenny’s
(1986) guidelines. Mediation analysis through regression was the correct
 Downloaded by [Dalhousie University] at 00:26 31 December 2014

TABLE 1 Results of the measurement quality testing (N = 258).

Correlations among study variables (Squared correlation)

Intention Intention to
Variables PB1 PB2 PB3 PB4 PB5 PB6 PB7 PB8 PB9 Attitudes Image Desires to play recommend

PB1 .874
PB2 .445 .868
(.198)
PB3 .420 .718 .885
(.176) (.516)
PB4 .521 .568 .668 .793
(.271) (.323) (.446)
PB5 .481 .346 .450 .561 .933
(.231) (.120) (.203) (.315)
PB6 .448 .384 .513 .515 .689 .912
(.201) (.147) (.263) (.262) (.475)
PB7 .497 .422 .421 .488 .668 .630 .677
(.247) (.178) (.177) (.238) (.446) (.397)
PB8 .384 .248 .337 .426 .600 .691 .670 .938

475
(.147) (.062) (.114) (.181) (.360) (.477) (.449)
PB9 .228 .395 .425 .349 .307 .421 .410 .483 .862
(.052) (.156) (.181) (.122) (.094) (.177) (.168) (..233)
Attitudes .382 .470 .450 .380 .336 .292 .411 .206 .207 .956
(.146) (.221) (.203) (.144) (.113) (.085) (.169) (.042) (.043)
Image .347 .451 .439 .369 .421 .310 .447 .231 .262 .651 .982
(.120) (.203) (.193) (.136) (.177) (.096) (.120) (.053) (.069) (.424)
Desires .381 .436 .454 .430 .464 .318 .462 .250 .282 .643 .788 .918
(.145) (.190) (.206) (.185) (.215) (.101) (.213) (.063) (.080) (.413) (.621)
Intention to .285 .502 .452 .409 .318 .222 .362 .157 .307 .615 .713 .781 .951
play (.081) (.252) (.204) (.167) (.101) (.049) (.131) (.025) (.094) (.378) (.508) (.610)
Intention to .378 .453 .482 .478 .454 .327 .481 .278 .294 .670 .768 .784 .786 .921
recommend (.143) (.205) (.232) (.228) (.206) (.107) (.231) (.077) (.086) (.449) (.590) (.615) (.618)
Mean 3.890 5.168 4.812 4.459 3.446 4.004 3.692 3.781 4.853 4.603 4.677 4.271 4.715 4.335
AVE .779 .767 .795 .658 .875 .837 .511 .884 .756 .708 .948 .788 .867 .795
Note. Composite reliability is represented on the diagonal. Goodness-of-fit statistics: χ 2 = 1515.646 (df = 608, p < .001), RMSEA = .076, CFI = .920, NFI = .875. PB =
perceived benefits, PB1 = reduced expense, PB2 = easier access to golfing opportunities, PB3 = convenience, PB4 = time saving, PB5 = healthy environment, PB6
= environmental protection, PB7 = social responsibility, PB8 = engagement in eco-friendly practices, and PB9 = availability of F&B while golfing. All correlations
were significant at .01 level.
 476 H. Han et al.

TABLE 2 Regression equations.

Equations

1 Attitudes = β0 + β1 PB1 + β2 PB2 + β3 PB3 + β4 PB4 + β5 PB5 + β6 PB6 +

β7 PB7 + β8 PB8 + β9 PB9 + ε
2 Image = β0 + β1 PB1 + β2 PB2 + β3 PB3 + β4 PB4 + β5 PB5 + β6 PB6 + β7
PB7 + β8 PB8 + β9 PB9 + ε
3 Desires = β0 + β1 Attitudes + β2 Image + ε
4.1 Intention to play = β0 + β1 Attitudes + β2 Image + ε
4.2 Intention to recommend = β0 + β1 Attitudes + β2 Image + ε
5.1 Intention to play = β0 + β1 Attitudes + β2 Image + β3 Desires + ε
5.2 Intention to recommend = β0 + β1 Attitudes + β2 Image + β3 Desires + ε
Note. PB = perceived benefits, PB1 = reduced expense, PB2 = easier access to golfing opportunities,
PB3 = convenience, PB4 = time saving, PB5 = healthy environment, PB6 = environmental protection,
PB7 = Social responsibility, PB8 = engagement in eco-friendly practices, and PB9 = availability of F&B
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while golfing.

approach as the model proposed hypothetical effects of both direct and

indirect natures. According to Oh (2000), Baron and Kenny’s (1986) single-
measure procedure for independent, mediator, and dependent variable can
be expanded to conduct multivariate data analysis without any loss of
information.
In the present study, a total of seven regression models were esti-
mated (i.e., Equation 1, Equation 2, Equation 3, Equation 4.1, Equation 4.2,
Equation 5.1, and Equation 5.2; see Table 2). Equations 1 and 2 were devel-
oped to test H1a–H1i and H2a–H2i. The rest of the regression equations
tested H3–H6, as well as the mediating role of desires. To satisfy Baron
and Kenny’s (1986) three mediation conditions, the direct impact of atti-
tudes and image (independent variables) on desires (mediator) should be
significant (Condition 1); attitudes and image should be significant predic-
tors of intentions to play and recommend screen golf (dependent variables;
Condition 2); and the impact of attitudes and image on intentions to play
and recommend screen golf should not be significant (complete mediation)
or the strengths of the relationships should decrease when regressing the
dependent variables on both independent variables and mediators (partial
mediation; Condition 3).
Table 3 summarizes the results of the regression analyses. In Equation 1,
among the components of the perceived benefits of playing screen golf,
reduced expense, easier access to golfing opportunities, convenience, and
social responsibility were found to be significant predictors of attitudes.
Thus, H1a, H1b, H1c, and H1g were supported. However, time saving,
healthy environment, environmental protection, engagement in eco-friendly
practices, and the availability of F&B while golfing were not significantly
associated with attitudes, thus contradicting H1d, H1e, H1f, H1h, and H1i.
In Equation 2, while easier access to golfing opportunities, convenience,
healthy environment, social responsibility, and engagement in eco-friendly
practices were found to exert a significant influence on image, the other
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 477

TABLE 3 Results of the regression analyses (N = 258).

Equations (R 2 ) Independent variable -> Dependent Coefficient

(Adjusted R 2 ) variable (Hypothesis) (standardized) t-value

Equation 1 PB1 -> Attitudes (H1a) .187 2.001∗

(R 2 = .314) PB2 -> Attitudes (H1b) .207 2.552∗
(Adjusted R 2 = .289) PB3 -> Attitudes (H1c) .195 2.202∗
PB4 -> Attitudes (H1d) .009 .111
PB5 -> Attitudes (H1e) .059 .706
PB6 -> Attitudes (H1f) .056 .464
PB7 -> Attitudes (H1g) .270 3.209∗∗
PB8 -> Attitudes (H1h) .118 1.382
PB9 -> Attitudes (H1i) .032 .489
Equation 2 PB1 -> Image (H2a) .058 .877
(R2 = .334) PB2 -> Image (H2b) .187 2.348∗
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(Adjusted R 2 = .310) PB3 -> Image (H2c) .173 1.985∗

PB4 -> Image (H2d) .053 .665
PB5 -> Image (H2e) .246 2.966∗∗
PB6 -> Image (H2f) .107 1.242
PB7 -> Image (H2g) .281 3.396∗∗
PB8 -> Image (H2h) .182 2.124∗
PB9 -> Image (H2i) .052 .819
Equation 3 Attitudes -> Desires (H3) .168 3.854∗∗
(R 2 = .719) Image -> Desires (H4) .729 16.671∗∗
(Adjusted R 2 = .717)
Equation 4.1 Attitudes -> Intention to play .262 4.716∗∗
(R 2 = .548) Image -> Intention to play .543 9.781∗∗
(Adjusted R 2 = .544)
Equation 4.2 Attitudes -> Intention to recommend .250 5.439∗∗
(R 2 = .689) Image -> Intention to recommend .646 14.045∗∗
(Adjusted R 2 = .687)
Equation 5.1 Attitudes -> Intention to play .167 3.255∗∗
(R 2 = .637) Image -> Intention to play .133 1.841
(Adjusted R 2 = .632) Desires -> Intention to play (H5) .563 7.883∗∗
Equation 5.2 Attitudes -> Intention to recommend .177 4.098∗∗
(R 2 = .742) Image -> Intention to recommend .329 5.425∗∗
(Adjusted R 2 = .739) Desires -> Intention to recommend .435 7.232∗∗
(H6)
Note. PB = perceived benefits, PB1 = reduced expense, PB2 = easier access to golfing opportunities,
PB3 = convenience, PB4 = time saving, PB5 = healthy environment, PB6 = environmental protection,
PB7 = social responsibility, PB8 = engagement in eco-friendly practices, and PB9 = availability of F&B
while golfing. Hypothesis 7 was tested based on the results of the regression Equations 3, 4, and 5.
∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

components of perceived benefits (reduced expense, time saving, envi-

ronmental protection, and the availability of F&B while golfing) were not
significantly related to image. Thus, H2b, H2c, H2e, H2g, and H2h were sup-
ported, but H2a, H2d, H2f, and H2i were not supported. Equations 1 and
2 explained 28.9% and 31.0% of the total variance in attitudes and image,
respectively. In equation 3, the impact of attitudes and image on desires
were positive and significant, thus H3 and H4 were supported. This model
 478 H. Han et al.

accounted for 71.7% of the total variance in desires. In Equations 4.1 and
4.2, attitudes and desires were found to positively and significantly affect
intentions to play and to recommend screen golf. The two regression mod-
els explained 54.4% and 68.7% of the variance in intentions to play and to
recommend, respectively. Lastly, the results of Equations 5.1 and 5.2 showed
that intentions to play and recommend are positive functions of desires.
Thus, H5 and H6 were supported. A total of 63.2% and 73.9% of the vari-
ance in intentions to play and recommend were explained by these two
regression models. As expected, in Equation 5.1, which involved the media-
tor, the magnitude of the relationship between attitudes and intention to play
was weaker than the relationship in Equation 4.1, and the impact of image
on intention to play was not significant. This result indicated that desires
partially mediate the impact of attitudes on intention to play screen golf, and
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act as a complete mediator in the relationship between image and intention

to play. In addition, in Equation 5.2, which also included the mediator, the
strength of the paths from attitudes and image to intention to recommend
was weaker than the links in Equation 4.2. This finding verified the partial
mediating role of desires in the relationship between attitudes/image and
intention to recommend screen golf. Overall, the results of the mediation
test supported H7.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary of the Research
Though screen golf is a fast-growing leisure activity, our understanding about
the benefits and outcomes of playing it, and the decision-making process
that has led so many to take up the game, is lacking. Given this state of
affairs, the present study was designed to achieve three specific research
goals within the screen-golf industry. In particular, in this study the benefits
that golfers possibly perceive or expect were identified through a qualitative
exploratory approach (Objective 1); the role of these identified perceived
benefits and the relative importance among the benefit factors in forming
attitudes and image were tested and verified (Objective 2); and a potential
mediating impact of desires in generating the intention to play and rec-
ommend screen golf was identified through a series of multiple regression
analyses. In sum, our results verified that the variables used in this study
are critical to comprehending golfers’ decision-making processes and their
favorable intention formation toward screen-golf cafés.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

In the present study, it was found that, among the identified expected
benefit factors, reduced expense, easier to access to golfing opportu-
nities, convenience, and social responsibility positively and significantly
affected attitudes about screen golf. In addition, easier to access to golfing
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 479

opportunities, convenience, social responsibility, and engagement in eco-

friendly practices were found to exert a significant influence on image about
screen golf. The proposed model indicated that attitudes and image about
screen golf directly and/or indirectly induce golfers’ intentions to play screen
golf as a leisure activity and recommend it to others through desires. Thus,
effectively dealing with such variables eventually contributes to generating
golfers’ positive intentions toward playing at a screen-golf café. Tourism
researchers should recognize the significance of these variables and con-
sider the inclusion of these variables when developing any theory or model
targeting golfers’ decision-making processes within the screen-golf industry.
For screen-golf industry practitioners, these results give specific insights
into the key factors differentiating their product from field golf in the eyes
of their target-market members. Developing various strategies to strengthen
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such factors (e.g., convenience, easier to access to golfing opportunities,

reduced expense, social responsibility, and engagement in eco-friendly prac-
tices) will be critical to screen-golf entrepreneurs’ becoming and staying
more competitive than traditional field golf courses. For instance, screen-golf
café developers should avoid locating close to existing field golf locations
as this will undercut the convenience and easy-access attractiveness of the
virtual game; locating in city centers and near industrial/business districts
will enhance the competitive advantage those factors provide.
It should be noted that social responsibility has the greatest impact on
both attitudes and image in regard to screen golf. According to some recent
studies, individuals’ concerns about the environment and awareness about
potential ecological problems have been drastically on the increase, and such
growing concerns and awareness often result in their making purchasing
decisions and engaging in consumer behaviors in a socially responsible or
“green” manner (Laroche et al., 2001; Han et al., 2009; Paco & Raposo, 2009).
Our findings about the prominent role of social responsibility are in line with
these studies. That is, like consumers in a wide range of fields, increasing
numbers of golfers also want to be more socially responsible when enjoying
their hobby and, hence, want to engage in leisure activities—such as screen
golf—that do not affect the environment or other people in any negative
way. Thus, for screen-golf practitioners, discovering effective and creative
ways to strengthen this benefit (social responsibility) in customers’ eyes will
be essential to fulfilling those customers’ psychological needs to ensuring
their firms’ success. For instance, as participants in this study clearly per-
ceived the eco-friendly nature of screen golf to be a benefit, café operators
should also make a concerted effort to stress the green nature of their oper-
ations by installing ostentatiously eco-friendly elements like recycling bins
in each simulator room, high-efficiency lighting and bulbs, and advanced
restroom fixtures (e.g., waterless urinals, auto-flush, air dryers). In the longer
term, screen-golf entrepreneurs should sharply differentiate their product
from field golf by stressing its much lower impact on the environment and
 480 H. Han et al.

natural resources in coordinating advertising. For example, advertisements

could feature side-by-side comparisons of real golf courses and the same
courses portrayed on café simulators with details provided about the land,
water, and chemical fertilizer usage of each. Screen-golf cafés can further
cement their role as socially responsible community members by hosting
charity events, making highly public donations to support worthy causes,
and offering their facilities as free or discounted practice space for high-
school or university golf teams. In this way, an effort could be made to show
that the country club benefits the few elites who are able to use it, while the
screen-golf café benefits society generally.
Following Baron and Kenny’s (1986) suggested steps using a series of
regression analyses, the mediating role of desires was identified in this study.
Particularly, it was found that desires partially and completely mediated the
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effect of attitudes and images on the intention to play screen golf. In addi-
tion, desires were found to be a partial mediator in the relationships between
attitudes/image and the intention to recommend screen golf. This result is
consistent with recent studies that give emphasis to the significance of desires
as a complete/partial mediator and direct antecedent of behavioral intention
(e.g., Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001, 2004; Lee et al.,
2012). Recognizing the criticality of desires, researchers should fully consider
the utilization or integration of this variable as a mediator for the develop-
ment and/or extension of theories and models that explicate golfers’ decision
formation. In addition, to make excellent use of customers’ attitudes and
image about screen golf, it is necessary for practitioners to actively enhance
attitudes and image, as well as to effectively build up customers’ levels of
desire to play screen golf.

LIMITATIONS AND AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Like many other studies, the present study is not free from limitations. First,
although none of the several correlations among the study variables reached
Hair et al.’s (1998) problematic level of .80, these values are relatively high.
To completely avoid a multicollinearity issue, a more thorough research
design is needed for future investigations. Second, the survey participants
were not randomly approached in this study. Accordingly, the study find-
ings should be generalized with caution. Third, in the present research, the
perceived benefits of playing screen golf were identified through a focus-
group discussion. It would be true that certain potentially influential benefits
may not come up during the focus group. Further identification of more
benefits/outcomes that golfers possibly perceive when playing screen golf is
necessary for future research. Lastly, the present study in its proposed model
did identify the pivotal roles of perceived benefits, attitudes, and image
about screen golf in forming behavioral intentions. This work can be further
strengthened by integrating other critical variables into the proposed model
 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 481

(e.g., satisfaction, quality, value, etc.). Thus, future studies should identify
other meaningful variables in the screen-golf industry through a variety of
efforts (open-ended surveys, focus groups, or literature reviews) and provide
a more comprehensive model involving such important variables in golfers’
decision-making processes for better prediction of their intentions to play
and recommend screen golf.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their gratitude to David Paul Woods at the
University of Connecticut School of Law for his valuable input and enormous
help.
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 Benefits Accruing to Screen Golfers 485

APPENDIX
Variables Measurement items Sources

Perceived benefits Playing screen golf enables me to: Han et al., 2010; Moon,
of playing screen Reduce my expenses (PB1a). 2008; Owen, 2010;
golf Stretch my golfing budget (PB1b). Shin & Yoon, 2010;
Have easier access to golf because of the Yi, 2009
wide availability of screen-golf cafés
(PB2a).
Find golfing opportunities more often
and more easily (PB2b).
Enjoy convenience (e.g., no walking, no
need to bring golf equipment, no
reservations required; PB3a).
Avoid unnecessary hassles (PB3b).
Save time (PB4a).
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Reduce the time I spend for golf during a

day (PB4b).
Enjoy golfing in a healthy environment
(free from chemicals and fertilizers used
on field golf courses; PB5a).
Experience a beneficial/hazard-free
setting for leisure (PB5b).
Protect our environment (PB6a).
Reduce my impact on the natural
resources of my local area (PB6b).
Be more socially responsible (PB7a).
Engage in hobby that does not affect
others in any negative way (PB7b).
Engage in environmentally friendly
practices (such as lower water and
energy usage and reductions of solid
waste; PB8a).
Live a “greener” life (PB8b).
Easily get food and beverages while
golfing (PB9a).
Enjoy amenities (such as food and
beverages) that are not easily available
on a traditional golf course (PB9b).
1 = extremely disagree to 7 = extremely
agree
Attitudes about For me, playing screen golf is: Mathieson, 1991; Lam
screen golf 1 = extremely bad to 7 = extremely & Hsu, 2004; Cheng
good et al., 2006
1 = extremely undesirable to 7 =
extremely desirable
1 = extremely harmful to 7 =
extremely beneficial
1 = extremely unpleasant to 7 =
extremely pleasant
1 = extremely foolish to 7 = extremely
wise
1 = extremely boring to 7 = extremely
interesting
(Continued)
 486 H. Han et al.

TABLE A1 (Continued)

Variables Measurement items Sources

1 = extremely unfavorable to 7 =
extremely favorable
1 = extremely unenjoyable to 7 =
extremely enjoyable
1 = extremely negative to 7 =
extremely positive
Image about screen The overall image I have of playing Baloglu & McCleary,
golf screen golf is positive. 1999; Han et al.,
2009
The overall image I have about screen
golf is favorable.
Overall, I have a good image about
screen golf.
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1 = extremely disagree to 7 = extremely

agree
Desires to play I desire to play screen golf in the near Perugini & Bagozzi,
screen golf future. 2001
1 = false to 7 = true
My desire for playing screen golf in the
near future is:
1 = very weak to 7 = very strong
I want to play screen golf in the near
future.
1 = false to 7 = true
Intention to play I am willing to play screen golf in the Cheng et al., 2006;
screen golf near future. Kim & Han, 2010;
I plan to play screen golf in the near Mathieson, 1991
future.
I will make an effort to play screen golf in
the near future.
1 = extremely disagree to 7 = extremely
agree
Intention to I will say positive things about screen golf. Cheng et al., 2006;
recommend I will encourage other people to play Kim & Han, 2010;
screen golf screen golf. Mathieson, 1991
If someone wants to play golf, I will
suggest that he or she play screen golf.
1 = extremely disagree to 7 = extremely
agree
Note. PB = perceived benefits, PB1 = reduced expense, PB2 = easier access to golfing opportunities,
PB3 = convenience, PB4 = time saving, PB5 = healthy environment, PB6 = environmental protection,
PB7 = social responsibility, PB8 = engagement in eco-friendly practices, and PB9 = availability of F&B
while golfing.