EFFECT OF AEROBIC EXERCISES AND YOGIC

PRACTICES ON SELECTED PHYSIOLOGICAL,

HAEMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL
PARAMETERS AMONG THE
MIDDLE AGED MEN
A Thesis Submitted to the Pondicherry University in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION

By
B.SIVAKUMAR

Research supervisor
Dr.D.SULTANA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
PUDUCHERRY
INDIA

May 2010
Dr. D. SULTANA,
Reader,
Department of Physical Education and Sports,
Pondicherry University,
Pondicherry- 605 014
India.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “EFFECT OF AEROBIC

EXERCISES AND YOGIC PRACTICES ON SELECTED

PHYSIOLOGICAL, HAEMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL

PARAMETERS AMONG THE MIDDLE AGED MEN” is a record of

research work done by Mr. B.SIVAKUMAR, during the period of his study

under my guidance and that the thesis has not previously been formed on the

basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or any

other similar title.

This is also to certify that the thesis represents the independent work of

the candidate.

Place: Pondicherry (Dr. D. SULTANA)

Date: Research supervisor
B. SIVAKUMAR
Physical Education Teacher
T.P.G.G.H.S.S, Ariyankuppam,
Puducherry - 605 004.
India.

DECLARATION

I here by declare that the research works entitled, “EFFECT OF

AEROBIC EXERCISES AND YOGIC PRACTICES ON SELECTED
PHYSIOLOGICAL, HAEMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL
PARAMETERS AMONG THE MIDDLE AGED MEN” being submitted
through the Department of Physical Education and Sports , Pondicherry
University , Puducherry, India in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Physical Education under the guidance and
supervision of Dr. D.Sultana, Reader, Department of Physical Education and
Sports, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India is an original piece of
research work done by me and that the thesis has not previously been formed
the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or
any other similar title.

(B.SIVAKUMAR)

Place: Puducherry
Date:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I thank God Almighty for giving me the knowledge and
wisdom for taking up this study.
I express my profound gratitude and sincere thanks to my inspiring
guide Dr.D.Sultana, Reader, Pondicherry University, Puducherry for her
scholarly guidance and advice, valuable suggestions and supervision, needed
encouragement and above all for being patient with me throughout the study.
I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr.N.Govindarajulu, Head of
the Department, and Dr. P.K. Subramaniam, Reader, Department of Physical
Education and Sports, Pondicherry University, Puducherry for his support and
encouragement for the completion of the thesis.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr.S. Pannirselvame,
Professor, Department of French, Pondicherry University, Puducherry for his
help rendered towards the successful completion of the study.
I acknowledge with thanks the help rendered by Dr.G.Ravindran,
Professor, Annamalai University, Dr.M.Elango, Head of the Department,
Department of Physical Education, MDT Hindu College, Tirunelveli and
Thiru. B. Selvam, Sr. Lecturer Department of Mathematics, Bharathidassan
College for Women, Puducherry, in computing the statistics.
I extend my gratitude to Thiru. V. Meibalan, Deputy Librarian,
Pondicherry University, Puducherry for his valuable suggestions and
references from the Library for the Completion of the thesis.
I extend my sincere thanks to Thiru. B. Ramesh, Sr. Lecturer, Rajiv
Gandhi College of Engineering and technology for help and support rendered
for the whole study.
This thesis would not have been a success if my better half
Mrs. Sivashanthi,TGT, had not shown love and affection all through these
years.
I must acknowledge the help and guidance of Dr.T. Santhamoorthy,
Senior Resident, JIPMER, Puducherry.
 I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. Ram Mohan Singh, Physical

Director, Rajiv Gandhi Government Arts College, Thavalakuppam,

Puducherry, for his help and support rendered for the whole study.

I extend my sincere thanks to Mr. R.Muthuselvam, Physical

Education Teacher, Calve College Government French High School,

Puducherry, and Mr.V. Rajendiran, Physical Education Teacher,

Government High School, Thengaithittu, Puducherry for their help in the

collection of data.

I am pleased to acknowledge Mr.T.Chandrasekar a Trained Graduate

Teacher (English), and Mr. Richard A. Perthus, Trained Graduate Teacher

(English) of TPGGHSS, Ariyankuppam, and Puducherry in perfecting the

language aspect of this thesis.

I extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr. R. Ronald Mahimai Doss,

Computer Instructor, of Thanthai Periyar Government Girls Higher Secondary

School, Ariyankuppam, Puducherry, for his Data entry work and the Staff

members of Thanthai Periyar Government Girls Higher Secondary School,

Ariyankuppam, Puducherry their support and encouragement for the successful

completion of the thesis.

Last but not the least; the researcher sincerely extends his profound

gratefulness to the teachers who acted as subjects in the test and training with

enthusiasm.

B.Sivakumar
 VITAE

Name of the Investigator : B.SIVAKUMAR

Place of Birth : Pondicherry.

Date of Birth : 12.04. 1971

Schools and colleges attended

 Petit Seminaire Higher Secondary school, Puducherry.

 Government Higher Secondary School, Thavalakuppam , Puducherry.
 Pondicherry University, Puducherry.
 Annamalai University,Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu.

Degrees Awarded

 Bachelor of Science (1993), Pondicherry University, Puducherry.

 Master of Physical Education and Sports (1995), Pondicherry
University, Puducherry.
 Master of Philosophy (2004), Annamalai University, Chdiambaram,
Tamil Nadu.

Professional Experience

 Physical Training Instructor, The Laidlaw Memorial School and Junior

college, Ketti, Nilgris.
 Physical Education Teacher, Government High School,
Arumbarthapuram, Puducherry.
 Physical Education Teacher, TPGGHSS, Ariyankuppam, Puducherry.

Achievements in Games and Sports

 Represented the Pondicherry University Cricket Men Team in inter

university from the year 1991- 1995.
 Represented the Pondicherry University Cricket Men Team as a
CAPTAIN during the year 1994-1995.
 Represented the Pondicherry University Team ones in Badminton in
inter university competitions, Chennai, 1992-1993.
  Represented Pondicherry University for Youth Festival held at Calicut
in the year 1993 -1994.
 Represented as a cricket coach for Puducherry state schools team for
National School Games Championships -2000 and 2006.

Awards

 Best Batsman Award in the Rajiv Gandhi Memorial Cup conducted by

Nehru Yua Kendra, Pondicherry in the year 1994.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES i

LIST OF FIGURES iii

Chapter

I INTRODUCTION 1

Fitness
Physical fitness
Meaning of yoga
Physiological views of yoga
Benefits of yoga
Recent Development in yoga
Aerobic exercises
Meaning of aerobic exercises
Aerobic is an excellent physical activity
Benefits of aerobics
Physiological changes on aerobics
Recent development in aerobics
Yoga and aerobic exercises
Importance of dependent variables
Statement of the problem
Hypothesis
Delimitations
Limitations
Definition of the terms
Significance of the study

II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 22

III METHODOLOGY 56

Selection of subjects
Experimental design
 Selection of criterion variables
Criterion measures
Reliability of instruments
Reliability of data and tester competency
Orientation to the subjects
Pilot study
Training programme
Aerobic exercise training programme
Details of yogic practices
Method of data collection
Administration of Tests
Experimental Design and statistical procedure

IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND

INTERPRETATION OF THE STUDY 92

Analysis of Data
Level of significance
Discussion on the Findings
Discussion on Hypothesis

V SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND 137

RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books 141
Journals
Unpublished Thesis

APPENDICES 153
 LIST OF TABLES

List of Tables (Cont…)

T Table No. Content Page No.

I Variables and Criterion Measures 58

XIII Scheffe's test for the differences between the adjusted post test 106
II paired means
Intra class on breath
reliability holding time
coefficients of selected dependent variables 59
XIV
III Analysis of Covariance
General structure of twofor the pre training
different and post programme
test on haemoglobin 109
61
of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
IV group
Aerobic exercises training programme 62
XV
V Scheffe's test fortraining
Yogic practices the differences
programmebetween the adjusted post test 110
68
paired means on haemoglobin
VI Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test on systolic 93
XVI Analysis of Covariance
blood pressure for exercises
of aerobic the pre and post yogic
group, test on practices
packed cell 113
volume of control
group and aerobic group
exercises group, yogic practices group and
control group
VII Scheffe's test for the differences between the adjusted post test 94
XVII Scheffe's test on
paired means forsystolic
the differences between the adjusted post test
blood pressure 114
paired means on packed cell volume
VIII Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test on diastolic 97
XVIII Analysis of Covariance
blood pressure forexercises
of aerobic the pre and postyogic
group, test onpractices
total 117
cholesterol volumegroup
group and control of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices
group and control group
IX Scheffe's test for the differences between the adjusted post test 98
XIX Scheffe's test on
paired means fordiastolic
the differences between the adjusted post test
blood pressure 118
paired means on total cholesterol
X Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test on resting heart 101
XX Analysis of Covariance
rate of aerobic exercisesfor the pre
group, and post
yogic test on
practices high and
group density 121
lipoprotein of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
control group
and control group
XI Scheffe's test for the differences between the adjusted post test 102
XXI Scheffe's test on
paired means forresting
the differences
heart ratebetween the adjusted post test 122
paired means on high density lipoprotein
XII Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test on breath 105
XXII Analysis of Covariance
holding time of aerobicfor the pregroup,
exercises and post test on
yogic triglycerides
practices group 125
of aerobic exercises,
and control group group yogic practices group and control
group

XXIII Scheffe's test for the differences between the adjusted post test 126
paired means on triglycerides
 ii

List of Tables (Cont…)

XXIV Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test on low density 129
lipoprotein of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group

XXV Scheffe's test for the differences between the adjusted post test 130
paired means on low density lipoprotein
iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Content Page No.

I Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices 95

group control group on systolic pressure

II Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group 96

yogic practices group and control group on systolic pressure
III Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices 99
group and control group on diastolic pressure
IV Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group
yogic practices group and control group on diastolic
100
pressure

V Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 103

and control group on resting heart rate

VI Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 104

yogic practices group and control group on resting heart rate

VII Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices 107

group and control group on breath holding time

VIII Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 108
yogic practices group and control group on breath holding
time

IX Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 111

and control group on haemoglobin

X Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 112

yogic practices group and control group on haemoglobin

XI Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 115

and control group on packed cell volume

XII Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 116
yogic practices group and control group on packed cell
volume

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES (Cont…)

XIII Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 119
and control group on total cholesterol

XIV Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 120
yogic practices group and control group on total cholesterol

XV Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 123

and control group on tot high density lipoprotein

XVI Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 124
yogic practices group and control group on high density
lipoprotein

XVII Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 127
and control group on triglycerides

XVIII Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 128
and yogic practices and control group on triglycerides

XIX Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group 131
and control group on low density lipoprotein

XX Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercises group, 132

yogic practices group and control group on low density
lipoprotein

v
 Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

“Lack of activity destroys the good condition of every human being, while
movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it”.
~Plato~
The body is the temple of soul and to reach a harmony of the mind, body
and spirit, the body must be physically fit (Charles A. Bucher). Throughout
the ages, man has had to be physically active in order to procure his daily food
to succeed in the battle of survival. For every individual physical activity is
essential for harmonious physical and mental development.

In today’s society, with computers, televisions and cars most people do

not have sufficient physical exercise to maintain adequate health. In fact, many
people have become so sedentary; that their life style has become a serious
threat to their health and their lack of physical exercise has began to lead to an
increased deterioration of the human health and often to a premature illness and
death.

Many technological advances are intended to alienate physical exertion

from everyday activities. The automobile and television are the contributors to
our sedentary lifestyle.

It is universally recognized that Physical Education is one of the most

important factors in promoting health and longevity. Physical Education and
sports increase the scope of human abilities and enrich the life of the individual
and that of the society as a whole. Sports and physical activities are an
essential part of the human resource development.

The primary aim of Physical Education is not simply to develop star

athlete, winning team or expert performances, but a natural vitality with
character values and physical fitness.
 Sports have now become an integral part of life for large sectors of the
population. Sports are an important ingredient of Physical Education and are
worldwide phenomenon today.

Life is characterized by movement and it is imperative that all parts of

the body should be exercised daily. Predominance of the scientific evidence
indicates that exercise stimulates the process of growth and development.

Physical inactivity is considerably more dangerous than physical

activity. Individuals who are not physically active and who do not exercise
their muscles show decrease bone mineral content (or) low calcium in the
skeleton, which may develop into osteoporosis. This condition increases the
risk of fractures. Inactivity reduces the strength in muscles, joints, tendons and
ligaments. Inactive people are more likely to gain weight, become obese and
develop impaired cardiac function. Moreover inactive people have a poorer
tolerance of physical and mental stress and are less able to cope with illness
and injury. Inactivity accelerates the process of ageing.

Exercise plays a major role in improving the quality and most likely the
longevity of our lives. Most people who exercise regularly will agree that one
of the main reasons for their exercise is that it makes them feel good, and help
them to attain or maintain good health and physical fitness. The effect of
regular physical activity significantly improves health, physical fitness and
work capacity and enables people to use their leisure time more beneficially
and thereby assists in adding life to years and also years to lives.

Ageing and ultimate death seem characteristic of all living organisms.

Atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis progressively decrease the tissue oxygen
supply, and in some organs such as the brain, cells that die are not replaced. In
other tissues, the cell constituents change with ageing; for example, cross-
linkages develop between adjacent collagen fibrils, decreasing their elasticity
and facilitating mechanical injury. In consequence, most biological functions
show a progressive, age-related deterioration.

2
 Young adulthood typically covers the period from 20-35 years of age,
when both biological function and physical performance reach their peak.
During young middle-age (35-45 years), physical activity usually wanes, with a
5-10 kg accumulation of body fat. Active pursuits may be shared with a
growing family, but it becomes less important to impress either an employer or
persons of the opposite sex with physical appearance and performance. During
later middle-age (45-65 years), women reach the menopause, and men also
substantially reduce their output of sex hormones. Career opportunities have
commonly peaked, and a larger disposable income often allows energy
demanding domestic tasks to be deputed to service contractors. The decline in
physical condition thus continues and may accelerate.

Ageing is associated with a continual change in all body systems.

Research over the last 20 years has shown that some of these decline, such as
that in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), can be acted on and slowed
down by endurance training.

FITNESS

Fit people make a fit nation. Fitness is that State which characterizes the
degree to which a person is able to function more efficiently. Fitness is an
individual matter. It implies the ability of each person to live most effectively
within his potentialities (HockeyEd.’1985)

Fitness is that state which characterizes the degree to which a person is

able to function efficiently. To lead a happy and successful life, people have to
develop physical fitness, because it is necessary for the proper functioning of
the body and the system. While fitness is important and functional according
to the activity or the game that one undertakes, health becomes a basic
necessity to every human being to live best and serve best.

3
PHYSICAL FITNESS

Physical fitness as defined by the World Health Organizations is “the

ability to perform muscular work satisfactorily”

The purpose of physical fitness is to create a consciousness and

enthusiasm amongst the people and to stimulate their interest for physical
welfare, which will in turn help them to lead a more healthy living. The
physical fitness is also expected to assess factors such as speed, strength,
endurance and agility which makes a person physically efficient (Rober
V.Hockey, 1993)

A physically fit person will have the efficient body movement or

neuromuscular co-ordination as it is often called and is also bestowed with the
ability to perform a given task with high degree of proficiency.

The term fitness includes physical fitness, physiological fitness, and

mental fitness, and cardiovascular fitness, social and spiritual fitness.
Physically fit people are able to withstand fatigue for longer periods and are
better equipped to tolerate physical stress.

Many researchers strongly support the view that regular exercise helps
to keep a strong and healthy heart and prevents cardiovascular diseases. A
physically fit heart beats at a lower rate and pumps more blood per beat at rest.
As a result of regular exercise, an individual’s capacity to use oxygen is
increased substantially. To develop and maintain physical fitness, vigorous
effort by the individual is required. Cardio-respiratory endurance, strength,
muscular endurance, flexibility, power and agility are the basic compounds of
physical fitness. Physical fitness is considered as one of the most valuable
assets and it has received a high priority in all thoughts and actions. Modern
coaches denote their time in coaching during pre season mainly for ensuring
endurance, strength and flexibility. These are improved by training.

4
 Powell (1972) explains that fitness is not an end, it is the beginning. A
person must get fit to perform and will not necessarily get fit by performing.
Fitness is not a matter of physical capacity alone. To develop and maintain a
person’s physical fitness, vigorous effort by the individual is required. Body
fitness and weight control greatly reduce cardiovascular diseases. This results
from (a) maintenance of moderately lower blood pressure, (b) reduced blood
cholesterol and (c) low density lipoprotein along with increased high-density
lipoprotein. As pointed out earlier, these change all a work together to reduce
the number of heart attacks and brain strokes.

Therefore it is the responsibility of every country to promote physical

fitness for its citizens, because physical fitness is the basic requirement for
most of the tasks to be undertaken by an individual in his/her daily life.

To develop certain physical fitness and physiological fitness several

methods of training are used namely circuit training, weight training, fartlek
training, yoga training, aerobic training, etc.

From the above, it is inferred that yoga and Aerobic exercises are very
much needed to maintain a general level of physical fitness, particularly as it
enhances the physical stamina and the cardio respiratory endurance.

Accordingly the investigator makes an attempt to study the effect of

yogasana and Aerobic exercises on the influence of physiological,
hematological and bio-chemical variables on middle aged men subjects.

YOGA

Yoga is the “Union of the individual self with the universal self”
(Iyengar, 2001)

Yoga means the union or communication or unity with our inner being.
’Asana’ means a state of being in which we can remain steady, calm, quiet and
comfortable with our physical body and mind.

5
MEANING OF YOGA

The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root “yug” meaning “to
unite” or “union” or “ to combine” or “to join” development of the personality
of a human being physical, mental, moral, intellectual and spiritual. Yoga is a
science by which the individual approaches the truth of disease and of age.

Yoga advocates unselfishness and cosmic love. Yoga advocates purity

and self-restraint. Yoga also provides cheerfulness, powerful tonic for the
mind, manliness, mannerliness with the capacity for interception and self
analysis.

Asanas are an integral part of yoga. Yoga uses the body to exercise and
controls the mind so that at a later stage the body and the mind together may
harmonize with the soul. The yogasanas affect and penetrate every single cell
and tissues making them come to life.

PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS OF YOGASANAS

Yoga helps to tone up the entire body to regularize blood compositions

and improve blood circulations, tones up glands and visceral muscles.

Robson states that “yoga develops flexibility and vital capacity”.

Regular practice of yoga helps to keep our body fit, controls cholesterol
level, reduces weight, normalizes blood pressure and improves heart
performances.

Further, preliminary studies in the United States and India suggest that
yoga may be helpful for specific conditions, such as asthma, epilepsy, anxiety,
stress and others.

Regular exercise results in an increase in the blood flow and improves

oxygen carrying and waste removal capacity and further increases work load
capacity (Frank Vitale, 1973).

6
 Exercise increases the volume of hemoglobin and erythrocyte of the
blood. Also blood vessels are seen to maintain elasticity and suppleness when
stressed systematically probably by the beneficial effect of the heart.

BENEFITS OF YOGA

Today, the focus is more on yoga’s practical benefits. There is a definite

difference between yoga and stretching and normal exercise. Yoga teaches the
concept of focusing awareness while performing specific postures.

The benefits of yoga are numerous, including improved physical fitness,

stress control, general well-being, mental clarity and greater self-
understanding. The poses enhance muscle strength, coordination, flexibility
and agility and can help hack feel better.

According to the Natural Institutes of Health, when people actively seek

to reduce the stress in their lives by quieting the mind, the body often works to
heal itself. In this sense, yoga can be seen not only as a way to get into shape
on several levels, but also a tool for self healing.

As for athletes, yoga can be a powerful enhancement in regular training

exercises. Adding yoga in a routine training programme helps to develop
strength, flexibility, range of motion, concentration, and cardiovascular health
and reduces stress, tension and tightness. The most significant benefit of
adding yoga to a training programme is its effect on performance. Yoga allows
an athlete to train harder and at a higher level because the range of motion is
greater and the fear of injury is lessened.

RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN YOGA

Nowadays yoga is becoming more and more popular. It attracts the

attention of the whole world. Thousands of people both men and women who
are aware of the importance of personal growth has adopted yoga as a part of
their life. Gradually, yoga is becoming a life style, almost a fashion of the
modern world. People adopt yoga as a tool to keep the body and mind fit, to

7
cure diseases by improving functions of the vital organs of the body. Yoga and
yogic practices awaken the inner strength of the body. The health of our body
and mind depends upon the soundness of the health of internal organs.

Yoga is universal and benefits people of all ages. Yogic research has
proven its efficiency in effectively maintaining and for bringing about the
psycho physiological equilibrium and emotional stability and so far as the
functional development is concerned, the yogic system is perhaps the best.

In good olden days, the citizen of Rome had recognized that regular
exercise and temperature would ensure ‘positive’ life-style.

New researches help people to understand yoga is its modern aspects.

Yoga in general, meditation and pranayama in particular, have provided men a
means to reach the subtler layers of the mind. It has been shown through
experimental results on the pranayama and meditation that knowledge and
creativity are structured in the subtler layer of the mind or the deeper state of
consciousness (transcendental state). These creative and critical faculties of
mind lay hidden in this higher state of consciousness (transcendental state).

AEROBIC EXERCISES

Aerobics refers to a “variety of exercises that stimulate heart and lungs

activity for a time period sufficiently long to produce beneficial changes in the
body”.

MEANING OF AEROBICS

“Aerobic” basically means living or working with oxygen. Aerobics or

endurance exercises are those in which large muscle groups are used in
rhythmic repetitive fashion for prolonged periods of time.

Aerobics refers to a variety of exercises that stimulates heart and lungs

activity for a time period sufficiently long to produce beneficial changes in the
body. Running, swimming, cycling and jogging are typical aerobic exercises.

8
AEROBICS IS AN EXCELLENT FITNESS ACTIVITY

Aerobic exercise means the exercise where all body parts/muscles are
supplied with enough oxygen with the increased heart rate.

Aerobic exercises include brisk walking, jogging, swimming, cross-

country, skiing, hopping, and skipping. By doing aerobics, the whole body is
used and major muscle groups including legs, trunk and arms get involved.

In aerobic exercise the heart rate increases substantially, but never

reaches its maximum level. The heart is always able to deliver sufficient
oxygen-rich blood to muscles so that they can derive energy from fat and
glycogen aerobically. Aerobic exercises builds stamina for sports and it also is
the most important form of exercise for health, since it increases the efficiency
of heart, circulation and muscles. Aerobic exercise is the keystone of fitness by
doing aerobics it increases the capillary network in the body.

BENEFITS OF AEROBICS

Aerobics is a good way to decrease our percentage of body fat and to

attain the other metabolic benefits of fitness. Aerobics is also a very good way
to develop musculo skeletal fitness while building strength, flexibility, co-
ordination.

Aerobics is a progressive physical conditioning programme that

stimulates cardio respiratory activity for a time period sufficiently long to
produce beneficial changes in the body. To do any work we need energy and
even while at rest some physiological functions have to be carried within our
body and for that purpose some calories of energy will be burnt. As the
intensity and duration of work increases the demand for the fuel in the working
muscles also increases. The organs which supply the needful should cope with
the demand.

9
 Aerobics and calisthenics are performed to the rhythmic pulse of disco
music and strength together in what amounts to a modern dance form, so as to
make the exercise more enjoyable and encouraging without extra effort.

By doing exercise, the whole system of our body carries oxygen-rich air
enters the organs and tissues of the muscles has been called “the aerobic
system” and for this reason training the system for stamina is called aerobic
training.

Mitchell and Daka (1980) aerobics refers to a variety of activities like

walking, jogging and running for a measured time. This is sufficient for a short
distance runner and yet in short time helps to produce beneficial changes in the
body, especially in the action of the lungs, heart and blood circulation.

Training to improve aerobic endurance capacity involves four basic

elements. Mode, intensity, duration, and frequency of exercise, a training
program which does not contain all four to an adequate degree is not likely to
be effective.

A typical aerobic exercise work out consists of 8 to 10 minutes of

stretching, calisthenics and low intensity exercise. This is followed by 15 to 45
minutes of either high or low impact aerobic dancing according to the target
training intensity. The heart rate should be monitored at least 6 times during
the exercise to ensure that the heart rate stays within the target zone. The 10
minutes cool down period usually includes more stretching and callisthenic
type exercise (Hayward, 1989).

Improved cardio respiratory endurance is often one of the most

important benefits of aerobic training programs.

An aerobic exercise work out is divided into four phases: warm up, skill
review, aerobic and cool down. Each phase has its own purposes, without
which the work out is incomplete. Each phase of the program is necessary is
aerobic dance is to provide the desires benefits.

10
 According to Bucher (1983) aerobic exercise is any physical activity
that requires the heart rate to reach at least 60% of the maximal heart rate for an
extended period of time. Also it is an activity that can be sustained for an
extended period of time without developing an oxygen deficit.

The main objective of an aerobic exercise program is to increase the

maximum amount of oxygen that the body can process within a given time.
This is called “Aerobic capacity”. It is dependent upon an ability to (1) rapidly
breathe a large amount of air, (2) forcefully deliver large volumes of blood and
(3) effectively deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. In short, it depends upon
efficient lungs, a powerful heart, and a good vascular system. Because it
reflects the conditions of these vital organs, the aerobics capacity is the best
index of overall physical fitness.
The aerobic dance is a good way to decrease percentage of body fat and
to attain the other metabolic benefits of fitness.
According to Payne and Halus (1986) aerobic fitness helps to(1)
complete the daily activities with enjoyment, (2) strengthen the heart muscles
and make it more efficient , (3) increase the proportion of high density
lipoproteins, (4)increase the capillary network in the body (5) improved
collateral circulation (6) control the weight, (7) cope stress, (8) improve the
efficiency of the body system (9) achieve self directed fitness goals (10) reduce
negative dependency behaviours, (11) sleep better, (12) recover more quickly
from common illness.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES ON AEROBICS

There is normally an increase in the number of red blood cells, but not in
the concentration of haemoglobin in the blood. Some of the benefits of
aerobic exercises include the productivity of less lactic acid and greater
endurance. Physiologists have found that it reduces blood pressure and change
blood chemistry. It also improves the efficiency of the heart.

11
 Also in the increased number and size of mitochondria, increased
muscle glycogen, reduction in triglycerides, increased activity of enzymes of
involved in fatty acid activation, transport and oxidation.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN AEROBICS

Aerobics boasts millions of followers in numerous countries throughout
the world. It is well accepted that aerobics confers health and fitness benefits
upon those who practice it regularly.
Millions of people who eagerly enroll in aerobic classes, swim or jog
regularly and participate in a multitude of other activities such as already
determined and that these activities are not only fun but they contribute to their
mental, physical and social development.

YOGA AND AEROBIC EXERCISES

Physical exercises are repetitive movements whereas yoga exercise
involves very little movement and only postures maintained for a period of
time. Physical exercises lay emphasis on strong movements of muscles
whereas yoga opposes violent movements.
Yogic postures tone up the body and the mind whereas physical exercise
affects mainly the body. The caloric requirement in yogic asanas varies from
0.8 to 3calories per minute while the caloric requirement of a physical exercise
varies from 3 to 20 calories per minute. The main purpose of physical exercise
is to increase the circulation of the blood and the intake of oxygen. This can be
done by yoga’s simple movements of the spine and various joints of the body
with deep breathing, but without violent movements and asanas, the various
blood vessels are pulled and stretched and blood is equally distributed to every
part of the body. The stretched and blood is equally distributed to every part
of the body. The stretched muscles and ligaments during yoga practices are
immediately relaxed muscles. Fatigue appears after doing physical exercises.
Fatigue disappears if yoga and pranayama is practiced. Tension increases and

12
nerves are more tightened through physical exercise. Nerves and body muscles
are relaxed by yoga.
Yogic exercise aims at both prevention and treatment of various
diseases. Breathing exercise aims at both prevention and treatment of various
diseases. Breathing exercises like pranayama including Kapalabhati is very
effective for keeping the lungs healthy and prevent lung infections. With
deep breathing air circulates to every part of the lungs whereas with most other
physical exercises, there is mainly an increase in the respiratory rate. However,
physical exercise wastes more energy due to quick movements and more lactic
acids are formed in the muscle fibres. But energy is not wasted in yoga
practices. Yoga postures and breathing exercises unlike physical exercises do
not strain the cardio vascular system, and they improve one’s physical fitness
and endurance.

IMPORTANCE OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Muscular exercises and certain emotional states cause a temporary
increase in the number of red cells as a result of an outpouring of concentrated
blood from spleen. This may be looked upon as an emergency measure and
like that which occurs at high attitudes, is the response of the body to the
tissues call for oxygen.
The Major function of the red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, is
to transport haemoglobin which in turn carries oxygen from the lungs to the
tissues.
In a normal man, the average number of red blood cells per cubic
millimeter is 5,2,00,000 (+3, 00,000) and in normal women 4,700,000 + 300,
0000).
The total mass of red blood cells in the circulatory system is regulated
within narrow limits, so that an adequate number of red cells is always
available to provide sufficient tissue oxygenation and yet so that the cells do
not become so concentrated that they impede blood flow.

13
 Tissue oxygenation is the basic regulator of Red Blood Cell production.
Any condition, that causes the quantity of oxygen transported to the tissues to
decrease ordinarily increase the rate of red blood cell production. When a
person, become extremely anemic as a result of hemorrhage or another
condition, the bone marrow immediately begins to produce large quantities of
red blood cells. At very high altitudes, where the quantity of oxygen in the air
is greatly decreased insufficient oxygen is transported to the tissues and red cell
production is considerably increased. It is not the concentration of red blood
cells in the blood that controls the rate of red cell production but the functional
ability of the cells to transport oxygen to the tissues in relation to the tissue
demand for oxygen.
Haemoglobin is a coloured pigment. It is present in the blood and binds
with the red blood cells. It gives red colour to the blood. It is very important
in carrying oxygen to various tissues for energy production.
Blood contains plasma and formed elements which form about forty five
percent of the blood. When the blood was centrifuged the total volume of
formed elements that has been packed in a tube is called packed cell volume.
Heart Rate (HR) is one of the simplest and most informative of the
cardiovascular parameters. Measuring it involves simply taking the subject’s
pulse, usually at the radical oar carotid site. Heart rate reflects the amount of
work the hear must do to meet the increased demands of the body when
engaged in activity. To understand this, we must compare the heart rate at rest
and during exercise.
Resting heart rate averages from 60 to 80 beats/ min. In middle aged,
unconditioned, sedentary individuals, the resting rate can exceed 100beats/min.
In highly conditioned, endurance trained athletes, resting rates is in the range of
28 to 40 beats / min have been reported. Your resting heart rate typically
decreases with age. It is important to understand that, alternatively slow heart
rate, coupled with a relatively large stroke volume, signifies an efficient
circulatory system. During exercise the heart rates of the athletes increased at

14
a lesser rate to a lower level. Hence it is possible for the athlete to do more and
achieve high oxygen consumption before reaching the maximal heart rate.
Cholesterol is an odourless, tasteless, white fatty alcohol found in all cell
membranes and is vital to cell survival and growth. Cholesterol is also a key
precursor or intermediate compound in the production of numerous
biologically important substance collectively called as steroids.
Cholesterol is present in certain foods mainly though not exclusively in
fatty foods. If cholesterol rich food is limited from the diet, it will lower the
cholesterol content of the blood only by about 15 % which however makes all
the differences between the healthy functioning of the system and the
development of life threatening disorders. High cholesterol levels in blood
almost lead to narrowing of the arteries as a result of the formation of large
deposits of atheroma in the arteries.
Cholesterol has been linked statistically with atherosclerosis (the
building of fatty deposits in arteries) whether this build ups eventual clog of the
arteries and cause heart diseases may depend upon the type and quantity of the
lipoproteins in an individual’s blood stream. Lipoproteins are molecules of fat
and protein that serve as a two day delivery system of cholesterol.
Low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) digests cholesterol from
the live and distributes it throughout the body. High density lipoprotein
cholesterol (HDL-C) gathers excess cholesterol and returns it to the liver for
excretion. Studies indicate that high level of cholesterol and LDL-C lead to
heart diseases, but high level of HDL-C prevents harmful cholesterol buildups
and offers a measure of protection from heart disease.
Like every other fatty substance, cholesterol is insoluble in plasma
unless combined with carrier molecules, the lipoproteins. There are four
classes lipoproteins namely, a)chyclomicrons carry absorbed dietary fat chiefly
triglycerides, b) very low density lipoprotein(VLDL) that carry mainly
triglycerides produced within the body, c)low density lipoproteins(LDL)carry
about 175-80% of cholesterol in blood plasma, d)high density

15
lipoproteins(HDL) that carry mainly phospholipids and the remaining 20-25%
of blood cholesterol.
Increased physical activity induces a number of positive changes in the
metabolism of lipoproteins. Serum triglycerides are lowered by the increased
lipolytic activity and the production of native high density lipoprotein is
increased. The increased lecithin cholesterol acetyltranserase activity leads to
an increased production of HDL, which in addition is catabolished more slowly
due to a decreased activity of hepatic lipase.
The effects have been demonstrated in cross sectional studies as well as
longitudinal studies and induced by training independent of changes in body
weight. It has been shown that small dense LDL particles represent a particular
risk for atherosclerosis, and there is strong evidence for the claim that LDL
level and composition can be influenced favorably by physical activity.
One of the biological mechanisms underlying the preventive effects of
physical exercise seems to be the beneficial modification of plasma lipoprotein
concentration in particular, the reduction of atherogenic lipoprotein (LDL,
VLDL) and the increase of protective lipoprotein (HDL). The exact process by
which exercise affects cholesterol levels has not yet been determined.
However, factors resulting from endurance training viz. body weight loss and
changes in body composition, plasma volume and hormone and enzyme
activities alter the rates of synthesis, transport and clearance of lipids synthesis,
transport and clearance of lipids and lipoproteins from the blood. Exercise also
influences triglyceride synthesis, lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity, lecithin
cholesterol acetyltransferase (LACT) ratio and cholesterol ester transfer protein
(CETP) regulation, resulting in enhanced cholesterol transport. The average
exercising subjects were found to have a reduction in total cholesterol,
triglycerides and LDL cholesterol and increase HDL cholesterol and it has been
proved that mild intensity exercise training is capable of reducing serum TG
levels.
Lipids and sterols circulate as a part of macromolecular complexes
known as lipoproteins. These are the means by which insoluble lipids are able

16
to circulate in an aqueous medium. Lipoproteins consist of various
combinations of cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipids which are
specifically known as apoproteins. Lipoproteins are divided by their ultra
centrifugal properties into chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins
(VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density lipoproteins (HDL).
Lipoproteins are the organic compounds formed from lipids and proteins that
transport fat and cholesterol through the blood stream and lymph.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Number of studies has been conducted in different fields of Physical
Education .But there was lacking a complete treatise on the subjects especially
on the Effect of aerobic Exercises and Yogic practices on Selected
Physiological, Hematological and Bio-Chemical Parameters related to the
Middle aged Men. Aging and ultimate death seem characteristics of all living
organism .During middle age, physical activity usually wanes, with an
accumulation of body fat. Physical inactivity is more dangerous for middle
aged people.

The main objective of this study is, to make awareness of physical

activity and significantly improves health, physical fitness and work capacity.
Enable people to use their leisure time more beneficially there by assist in
adding life to years and also years to live.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Middle aged people are very prone to metabolic disorders because they
are not involving any physical activity. They are living sedentary life .To give
more awareness for healthy living, for that purpose the scholar selected this
topic for his research work.

The purpose of the study was to find out the effect of aerobic exercises
and yogic practices on selected physiological, haematological and bio-chemical
parameters among the middle aged men.

17
HYPOTHESES
1. It is hypothesized that there will be a significant improvement as a
result of aerobic exercise and yogic practices on physiological,
haematological and bio-chemical parameters when compared to the
control group.
2. It is hypothesized that there will not be significant differences in
the changes in physiological, haematological and bio-chemical
parameters between yogic practices and aerobic exercise groups.

DELIMITATIONS

The purpose of the study was restricted to the following aspects:

1. The study was confined to sixty middle aged men teachers from
various schools of Pondicherry region, and their age ranging from
35 to 40 years.
2. The selected training methods were yogic practices and aerobic
exercises.
3. The experimental period was limited to 16 weeks only.
4. The study was restricted to physiological variables of blood
pressure, breath holding time and resting heart rate.
5. The study was limited to haematological variables of haemoglobin
and packed cell volume.
6. The selected biochemical variables were total cholesterol, high
density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides and low density
lipoprotein cholesterol

LIMITATIONS

1. The subjects taken for the study were healthy men teachers, who had
no primary or secondary complications and did not have the same
characteristics as far as the selected variables were concerned, i.e.,
lipid and lipoproteins and blood pressure level may vary from person
to person.
18
 2. Psychological and sociological aspects of their day–to-day life
interactions to their environment could not be controlled.
3. The food habits, hereditary aspects life styles of the subjects were
not ascertained and this may influence the study.
4. The race, smoking habits, and emotional states were not ascertained
and this may influence the study.

DEFINITION OF THE TERMS

Yoga

The word ‘Yoga’ is derived from the Sanskrit ‘yug’ which means ‘to
join’ or ‘to yoke’ the related meaning is to focus attention or ‘to use’. ‘Asanas’
one of yoga’s most significant ‘tools’ helps in the positioning of the body in
various postures with the total involvement of the mind and self in order to
establish communication between our external and internal
selves(Iyengar,2001).

Aerobic Exercise

This exercise is designed to produce a sustained increase in heart rate

and whose energy cost can be met by the body from aerobic sources i.e. from
increased oxygen consumption (Yadav and Rachna, 1998).

Breath Holding Time

Breathe Holding time is defined as “ the duration of time through which

one can hold his breath without inhaling or exhaling after a deep inhalation”.
(Chatterjee, 1980).

Blood pressure

Blood pressure is the lateral pressure exerted by the blood on the vessel
walls flowing throwing it (Chatterjee, 1980).

19
Heart Rate

Pulse rate or heart rate is the rate of beats of the heart per minute
(Morehouse and Miller, 1976)

Haemoglobin

Haemoglobin is a complex protein present in the blood cell which gives

the red colour to the blood. Haemoglobin is a complex protein rich in Iron.
The amount of haemoglobin in normal blood is about 15 gm/100 ml blood and
this ammunition is called “100 per cent” Anything over 90% is considered as
normal (Evelyn c. Pearce, 1985).

Packed Cell Volume

The total volume of blood cells packed in a tube by centrifugal force is

called packed cell volume (Benjamin, 1976).

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is the fatty substance formed in the blood. Cholesterol is a

white fatty alcohol of steroid group, found in body tissue, blood and bile,
assists in synthesis of Vitamin D and various hormones. Excessive deposits of
cholesterol inside arteries are associated with arteriosclerosis and coronary
heart disease.

High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

High density lipoprotein comprises the smallest portion of lipoproteins

and the largest quantity of protein. These high density lipoprotein may be
associated a lower risk of heart disease

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are the most common lipids. These fats do not circulate
freely in the blood but are carried on a protein called lipoprotein

20
Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

Low density lipoprotein is the major cholesterol carrying lipoprotein.

Elevated LDL levels herald a stronger predisposition to coronary heart disease,
stroke and peripheral vascular disease..

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1. The study will assist many to avoid medicines to make themselves

fit but to make use of one’s own physique to feel healthy.
2. The findings of the study may help the individuals to compare and
contrast the changes that occur in selected physiological,
haematological and biochemical variables before and after the
training programs.
3. The study as such will create significant health awareness among
people, especially among the middle aged men.
4. The study will promote research and growth in applying
choreography in the field of Aerobics and yoga training.
5. The study will serve as reference to researchers and statisticians to
explore new areas in the field of physical fitness

21
 Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

It is an accepted fact that a thorough review of related literature is an

important step in any successful research. The review of related literature is
meant for better understanding of the study and to interpret the results that have
been resented in this chapter. All good research includes a literature review.
Research begins with ideas and concepts that are related to one another through
questions or hypotheses anticipated relationships. Although these ideas and
concepts may simply ‘pop into the researcher’s head.’ Quite often they are
deriving from a careful exploration of the collective body of prior related
literature.

In this chapter, the available research papers related to this particular

study are presented. A serious and scholarly attempt has been made by the
scholar to go through the related literature from the libraries of Pondicherry
University, Pondicherry, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Annamalai
University, Chidambaram, Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education, Chennai,
Tamilnadu Physical Education University, Chennai, Sports Authority of India
and some was also collected from software Library. A study of relevant
literature is an essential step to get a full picture of what has been done and said
on the problem of the topic in one’s own country and abroad.

2.1 STUDIES RELATED TO AEROBICS

Cornelissen and Fagard (2005) examined the previous meta-analyses

of randomized controlled trials on the effects of chronic dynamic aerobic
endurance training on blood pressure reported on resting blood pressure only.
Our aim was to perform a comprehensive meta-analysis including resting and
ambulatory blood pressure, blood pressure- regulating mechanisms, and
concomitant cardiovascular risk factors. Inclusion criteria of studies were:
random allocation to intervention and control; endurance training as the sole
intervention; inclusion of healthy sedentary normotensive or hypertensive
adults; intervention duration of > 4 weeks; availability of systolic or diastolic
blood pressure; and publication in a pre-reviewed journal up to December
2003. The meta-analysis involved 72 trials, 105 study groups, and 3936
participants. After waiting for the number of trained participants and using a
random- effects model, training induced significant net reductions of resting
and daytime ambulatory blood pressure of, respectively, 3.0/2.4mm Hg
(P<0.001) and 3.3/3.5mm/Hg (P<0.001). The reduction of resting blood
pressure was more pronounced in the 30 hypertensive study groups (-6.9)/-4.9)
than in the others(-1.9/-P<0.001 for all). Systemic vascular resistance
decreased by 7.1% (P<0.05), neither plasma nor epinephrine by 29%
(P<0.001), and plasma rennin activity by 20% P<0.05). Body weight
decreased by 1.2 Kg (P<0.001), waist circumference by 2.8cm (P<0.001),
percent body fat by 1.4(P<0.001), and the homeostasis model assessment index
of insulin resistance by 0.31 U (P<0.001); HDL cholesterol increased by 0.032
mmol/L (P<0.05). In conclusion, aerobic endurance training decreases blood
pressure through a reduction of vascular resistance, in which the sympathetic
nervous system and the rennin- angiotensin system appear to be involved, and
favorably affects concomitant cardiovascular risk factors.

Cox and others (2001) evaluated the long term effects of regular to
moderate intensity exercise on blood pressure and blood lipids in previously
sedentary older women. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a
supervised center based (CB) or a minimally supervised home based (HB)
exercise programme, initially for 6 months. Within each programme, subjects
were further randomized to exercise either at a moderate (40-55%) heart rate
reserve, Hrres) or vigorous intensity (65-80% Hrres). After 6 months, all
groups continued a HB moderate or vigorous exercise programme for another
twelve months. Methods: Healthy, sedentary women ( aged 40—65 years)
(n=126) were recruited from the community. The subjects exercised thrall of
2.81 mmHg in systolic blood pressure (P=0.049) and 2.70 mmHg in a diastolic

23
blood pressure (P=0.004) after correction for age and baseline values with
moderate exercise, but not with vigorous intensity exercise. When this
analysis was repeated with the change in the body mass included, the results
were unchanged. After correction for potential confounding factors, there was
a significant fall in total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol
with vigorous but not moderate exercise at a6 months (P<0.05) but 18 months.
In this largely normotenisve population of older women, a moderate, but not
vigorous exercise programme, achieved sustained falls in resting systolic and
diastolic blood pressure over 18 months. The study demonstrated that in older
women, moderate intensity exercise is well accepted, in a sustainable long term
and has the health benefit of reduced blood pressure.

Rigla and others (2000) evaluated the effect of physical on blood

pressure, the Lipid profile, lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a) ] and low density lipoprotein
(LDL) modification in untrained diabetics, 27 diabetic patients (14 type 1 and
13 type 2) under acceptable and stable glycemic control were studies before
and after a supervised 3 month physical exercise programme. Anthropometric
parameters, insulin requirements, blood pressure, the lipid profile, Lp(a), LDL
Composition size and susceptibility to oxidation, and susceptibility to
oxidation, and the proportion of electronegative [LDL(LDL(-)] were measured.
After 3 months of physical exercise, physical fitness improved. The body
mass index (BMI) did not change, but the waist circumference decreased
significantly. An increase in the sub scapular to triceps skin fold ratio and mid
arm muscle circumference (MMC), 23.1+/-3.4 v 2.44+/-3.7 cm, P< 0.01) were
observed after exercise. Insulin requirements and diastolic blood pressure
decreased in type 2 diabetic patients while LDL Cholesterol (LDL-C)
decreased in type 2 diabetic patients. High density lipoprotein cholesterol
(HDL-C) increased in type 1 patient while LDL Cholesterol (LDL-C)
decreased in type 2 patients. Although Lp (a) levels did not vary in the whole
group, a significant decrease was noted in patients with baseline (Lp(a0 above

24
300 mg/L(mean decrease, -13%). A relationship between baseline Lp(a) and
the change in Lp (a) was also observed. After the exercise programme 3, of 4
patients with LDL phenotype B changed to LDL phenotype A, and the
proportion of LDL (-) tended to decrease. No changes were observed for LDL
composition or susceptibility to oxidation. In addition to its known beneficial
effects on the classic cardiovascular risk factors, regular physical exercise may
reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in diabetic patients by reducing Lp (a)
levels in those with elevated Lp (a) and producing favourable qualitative LDL
modifications.

Wool May and others (1998) conducted a study on forty nine

previously sedentary or low active individuals aged 40-71 years were allocated
to three groups. The long walking groups participated in an 18 week walking
programme which consisted of walks lasting 20-40 minutes, the repetitive
short walking group completed walks of between 10 15 min., up to three times
a day, with not less of activity. Both walking programmes began at a
prescribed 60min x week (-1), expending an estimated 67.5MJ (3.72 MJ x
week (-1) at an estimated 73% of their age predicted maximum heart rate and
68% of their estimated V02 Max. The repetitive short walking group walked
for an estimated 2476 min (135 minx week (-1), expending an estimated
58.5MJ (3.17 MJ x week (-1) at an estimated VO2 Max, results showed a
statistically significant reduction in heart rate during a standardized step test
(pre vs. Post- intervention)in both walking groups, indicating an improvement
in aerobic fitness, although the control group showed a higher average heart
rate during the post-intervention test, indicating reduced fitness. When
compared with male subjects pre-intervention, the females possessed more
favourable levels of high- density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (P < 0.001),
apolipoprotein (apo) a 1 (P < 0.001) and ratios of total cholesterol: HDL
cholesterol (P < 0.02) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. HDL
cholesterol (P<0.02). Compared with the control of post-intervention, the

25
walking groups showed statistically no significant changes in total cholesterol,
LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, apo, A 1, apo A11, apo B, or the ratios of
total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, apo, A 1, apo A 11, apo A11, apo B, or the
ratios of total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL, cholesterol; HDL
cholesterol, apo A 1: apo B or apo A 1: apo A 11 (P < 0.05). We conclude that
although both walking programmes appeared to improve aerobic fitness, there
was no evidence of improvements in the blood lipids or associated
apolioproteins of the walking groups. Further analysis indicated that this
apparent lack of change may have been related to the subjects’ relatively well
pre-intervention blood lipid profiles, which restricted the potential for change.
The implications of the observed changes in the coagulation /fibrinolytic
factors remain unclear.

Dengel and others ( 1998) examined the clustering of metabolic

abnormalities often associated with hypertension, including insulin resistance,
glucose intolerance, and Dyslipidemic, in middle aged men may be the result of
a decrease in cardiovascular fitness (VO2 Max ) and the accumulation of body
fat with aging. This study examines the effect of a six month programme of
aerobic exercise training plus weight loss (AEX + WL) on VO2 Max, body
composition, blood pressure (BP), glucose and insulin responses during an oral
glucose tolerance test (OGIT), glucose infusion rates (GIR) during 3-dose
hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps at insulin infusion rates of 120, 600, and
3,000 pmol x m (-2) x min (1) and plasma lipoprotein levels. Compared with
eight non-obese, hypersensitive, sedentary men studied (age, 56+/-1 year,
32%+/-1% body fat, BP, 147+/-3/93+1.2mm Hg) initially had a larger waist
girth and waist to – hip ratio (WHR) and were more hyperinsulinemic and
insulin resistant with lower GIR at the two lower insulin infusion rates of the
clamp and had a2.9 fold higher EC 50 the insulin concentration producing a
half –maximal increase in GIR . They had higher triglyceride (TG) and lower
high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. The 1 AEX + WL

26
intervention reduced body weight by 9% body fat by 21% waist girth by 9%
and WHR by 3% and increased VO2 Max by 16% (P <).01 for all). This was
associated with decrease of 14 +3mm Hg in systolic and 10+2 mm Hg in
diastolic BP, significant changes in GIR at the low (+42%) and responses
during OGIT (P< 0.02 for all). AEX + WL also lowered total cholesterol by
14% and TG by 34% and raised HDL2-C levels twofold (P < .01 for all) <
Thus a 6 month AEX + WL intervention Substantially lower BP and improves
glucose and lipid metabolism in obese, sedentary, hypertensive men. This
suggests that hypertension and the metabolic risk factors for cardiovascular
disease associated with it can be ameliorated by AEX + WL in obese,
sedentary, middle –aged men.

Saldanha and others (1997) conducted a study to examine the

maximum heart rate response to intense training. Subjects were 9 male cyclists
who trained on average of 20km per week in the past year. During the active
rest phase of their training programme, only recreational activities were
performed. Prior to and following a 7 week intensive cycling programme on a
computerized, graded cycling test to volitional exhaustion. Coaches who use
heart rate to prescribe training intensities for endurance athletes need to take
cognizance of the rapid changes in maximum heart rate the develop during de-
training and with resumption of intense training.

Kelly and Johnson (1994) conducted a study on the effects of aerobic

exercise on resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure among normotensive
adults. Four hundred and thirty eight subjects (289 exercise, 149 control) were
statistically aggregated using the meta-analytic technique small treatment effect
(TE) reductions were noted for both resting systolic and diastolic blood
pressure. The results of this study suggest that aerobic exercise resulted in
small reductions on resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure among
normotensive adults.

27
 Angelopoulos and others (1993) determined the effect of repeated
exercise bouts on High Density Lipoprotein – Cholesterol and its sub fraction
HDL2-C and HDL3-C. Nine sedentary men [ mean age, 22.8 yrs] were
studied during and after treadmill exercise at 65% VO2 Max to determine the
number of repeated exercise bouts required to bring about a sustained elevation
in HDL- Cholesterol and its sub fraction HDL2-C and HDL3-C. A Latin
square counter balanced design was used. Thirty-minute exercise sessions
were undertaken in by 365ml or 11.8%. The increase in PCV was
accompanied by reductions in haematocrit, hemoglobin concentration (g.100
ml 01) and RBC s [10(6) mm-3].

Park and others conducted a study of the effects of Aerobic Dance on

Respiratory - Circulatory Function, Blood components of six women college
students, chosen for this study did aerobic dance for four weeks four times a
week. The study aimed at developing a basic data for enhancing physical
fitness by revealing the effects of aerobic dance on both the respire –lisulatory
function and blood components. Treadmill was used for exercise load, while
ventilation counting and gas analysis were made possible through the Douglas
bag method and the Respilyzer (BM-10) respectively. Also, the polygraphy
system measured heart rate and respiratory rate, and the spectrophometer
analyzed blood components.

The results obtained from the study after the four week dances were as
follows:

a. Body weight of the subjects decreased by 0.8 kg.

b. Maximum oxygen uptake averaged an increase of 0.131/min.
c. Oxygen intake in anaerobic threshold recorded a growth of 0.221/min.
d. As for blood components, t-cho showed a significant deduction, whereas
HDL-C marked a meaningful enlargement.

28
The composition and concentration of plasma lipoproteins were studied in five
young men [mean BMI = 27.5+ 2.9 (s.d)] before, during (after 25 and 50 days
of training), and after the completion of a 100 day exercise training programme
that included daily 4.2M] calorie deficit. Along with reductions in body
weight (from 86.7+ 20.0 to 78.7 + 17.1 Kg, P <0.01) and in fat mass (from 17.0
+ 9.7 to 10.4 + 7.4 kg, P < 0.01), the exercise training programme induced
numerous changes in plasma lipoprotein levels. Plasma total cholesterol level
fell significantly after 25 days of training (P < 0.05) and remained significant;
reduced at the end of the training experiment (P ,0.05). This reduction in total
plasma cholesterol was accompanied by reductions in plasma apoprotin (apo)
B, LDL- cholesterol and LDL – apo B levels (P < 0.05). There were trends for
reductions in plasma triglycerides and VLDL components that were significant
only VLDL-triglycerides (P < 0.05). Plasma HDL – Cholesterol level
increased significantly only at the end of the training programmed (P < 0.01).
This increase in plasma HDL- Cholesterol was not accompanied by an increase
in HDL – Cholesterol content rather than an increase in HDL, particle number.
Ratios of HDL- Cholesterol /Cholesterol (P < 0.01) and apo A- 1 apo B (P <
0.05) were significantly increased by exercise training, suggesting a decreased
risk of cardiovascular disease. These results indicate the reduction in a fat
man solely induced by aerobic exercise has substantial beneficial effects on
plasma lipoprotein levels.

Scholl and Others (1994) conducted a study on physiological and

psychological effects of Hatha yoga exercise in healthy woman. They
measured heart rate, blood pressure, the Hormones cortisol, prolactin and
growth hormone and certain psychological parameters. There were no
substantial differences between the yoga practicing group and a control group
concerning endocrine parameters and blood pressure. The course of heart rate
was significantly different from the Hatha yoga group that had a decrease
during the yoga practice.

29
 Kin Jsier and Others (2001) examined the effect of 8 weeks of step
aerobics and aerobic dancing on blood lipids and lipoproteins. Methods:
Experimental Design: Comparative Training. Setting: Two months of physical
fitness programme. Participants: Forty –five sedentary female college student
volunteers randomly assigned to one of the three groups as step aerobics
(n=15), aerobic dancing (n=15 (and the control group (n=15). The step
aerobics and aerobic dancing groups participate in sessions of 45 min per day,
3 days per week for 8 weeks with 50-70% of their heart rate reserve. Total
cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low- density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-
C), the ratio of total cholesterol to high density lipoprotein cholesterol (TC-
HDL -C). RESULTS: At the end of the 8 weeks period, a significant difference
has been found between the step aerobics group and the control group and
between the aerobic dancing group and the control group in TC levels (F [2,
44] =8.33; P < 0.01). A significant difference in HDL-C levels (F [2, 44]
=3.65, P < 0.05) and TC: HDL-C ratio (F [2, 44] =11,56, P < 0.01) has been
found only between the step aerobics group and the control group. These
results indicate that step aerobics training is an effective training is an effective
training mode for modifying lipid and lipoprotein profiles of female college –
aged students.

Leon and Sanchez (2001) determined the effects of aerobics exercise

training (AET) on blood lipids and assess dose-response relationships and diet
interactions. We reviewed papers published over the past three decades
pertaining to intervention trials on the effects of > or = 12 weeks of AET on
blood lipids and lipoprotein outcomes in adult men and women. Included were
studies with simultaneous dietary and AET interventions, if they had
appropriate comparison groups. Studies were classified by the participants’
relative weights expressed as mean BMIs. Information was extracted on
baseline characteristics of study subjects, including age, sex, and relative
baseline cholesterol levels; details on the training programmes; and the

30
responses to training body weight , VO2 (Max), and blood total cholesterol (Tc)
and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein-
cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglyceride (TG) of the identified 51 studies, 28 were
randomized controlled trials and AET was generally performed as a moderate
to hard intensity, with weekly energy expenditures ranging from 2090 to
>20,000 kj. A marked inconsistency was observed in the responsiveness of
blood lipids. The most commonly observed change was an increase in HDL-C
(with reductions in TC, LDL-C, and TG less frequently observed). Insufficient
date are failed to establish dose- response relationships between exercise
intensity and volume with lipid changes. The increase in HDL-C with AET
was inversely associated with its baseline level (r= 0.462, but no significant
associations were found with age, sex, weekly volume of exercise, or with
exercise-induced changes in body weight or VO2 (Max). Conclusions:
Moderate too hard – intensity AET inconsistently results in an improvement in
the blood lipid profile, with the data insufficient to establish dose-response
relationships.

Leaksonen and Others (2000) conducted a study on the potential

importance of favourable changes in the lipid profile produced by aerobic
exercise; training- induced lipid profile changes in aretherosclerosis – prone
type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) have not therefore been adequately addressed.
We assessed the effect of a 12 to 16 week-aerobic (Untrained, N=29) groups
after baseline measurements. Training consisted of 30-60 min. moderate
intensity running 3-5 times a week for 12 -16 weeks. For the 42 men finishing
the study, peak oxygen consumption (VO2 peak) increased significantly only
in the trained group. Total and low density lipoprotein (LDL)/apo A-1 ratio
increased in the trained group. HDL and apo A-1 increased in both the groups.
The exercise programme brought about improvements in the HDL/LDL and
apo A-1/apo B ratio and apo B and triglyceride levels when comparing the
relative (%) changes in the trained versus control group. In the trained group,

31
men with HDL/LDL ratios below the group median at baseline showed even
more favourable changes in their lipid profile than those with higher initial
HDL /LDL ratios. Body mass index, % body fat and haemoglobin A 1 c did
not change during the training period in either group. Endurance training
improved the lipid profile in already physically active type 1 diabetic men,
indepenedently of effects on body composition or glycemic control. The most
favourable changes were in patients with low baseline HDFL/ LDL ratios, like
the group with the greatest benefit to be gained by such changes.

LeMura and others (2000) evaluated the effects of various modes of

training on the time-course of changes in lipoprotein-lipids profiles in the
blood, cardiovascular fitness, and body composition after 16 weeks of training
and 6 weeks of detraining in young women. A group of 48 sedentary but
healthy women [(mean age 20.4(SD 1) years] were matched and randomly
placed into a control group (CG, n=12), an aerobic training group (ATG,
n=12), a resistance training group (RTG, n=12), or a cross-training group that
combined both aerobic and resistance training (XTG, n=12). The ATG, RTG
and XTG trained for 16 weeks and were monitored for changes in blood
concentrations of lipoprotein-lipids, cardiovascular fitness, body composition,
and dietary composition throughout a 16 week period of training and 6 weeks
of detraining. The ATG significantly reduced blood concentrations of
triglycerides (TR 1) (P < 0.05) and significantly increased blood concentrations
of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) after 16 weeks of training.
The correlation between percentage fat and HDL-C was 0.63 (P < 0.05), which
explained 40% of the variation in HDL- C; while the correlation between
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 Max) and HDL-C was 0.48 (P <0.05), which
explained 23% of the variation in HDL-C. The ATGA increased VO2 Max by
25% (P< 0.001) and decreased percentage body fat by 13% (P<0.05) after 16
weeks. Each of the alterations in the ATG had disappeared after the 6 week
detraining period. The concentration of total (TC), TR 1, HDL-C and low

32
density lipoprotein – cholesterol in the blood did not change during the study in
RTG, XTG and CG. The RTG increased upper and lower body strength by
29% (P < 0.01) and 38% respectively. The 6 week detraining strength values
obtained in RTG were significantly greater than those obtained at baseline.
The LXTG increased upper and lower body strength by 19% (P < 0.01) and
25% (P <L 0.001), respectively. The 6 week detraining strength values
obtained in XTG were significantly greater than those obtains at baseline. The
RTG, XTG and CG did not demonstrate any significant changes in either VO2
Max, or body composition during the training and detraining periods. The
results of this study suggest that aerobic-type exercise improves lipoprotein-
lipid profiles, cardio-respiratory fitness and body compositions in healthy,
young woman, while resistance training significantly improved upper and
lower body strength only.

Kayatekin and others (1998) in their study assessed that total

cholesterol TC, triglyceride (TG, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C),
low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and HDL-C/TC levels are
important in determining the risk of coronary heart disease. The serum lipids
and lipoprotein levels of regularly training sports persons and non-sporting
controls were determined and compared with each other to investigate the
effects of exercise and sex on these factors. HDL-C levels of male and female
training groups were higher than those of corresponding non-sporting groups
respectively (P<0.01, P<0.001). The sportswomen’s HDL-C levels were
higher (P<0.05), and TC, TG and LDL-C levels were lower (P than those non-
sporting men’s levels (P<0.001). HDL- C/TC ratio of active females (P<0.01).
The corresponding difference in males also significant. We conclude that
physical activity and sex have effects on risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

Hardman and Hudson (1994) examined the effectiveness of brisk

walking as a means of improving endurance fitness and influencing serum lipid

33
and lipoprotein variables in previously sedentary women. Walkers [n=10,
mean (s.e.m.) age 47.3 (2.0 years)] maintained their habitual sedentary lifestyle
throughout. Endurance fitness was determined using laboratory measures of
responses to treadmill walking. Serum lipid and lipoprotein variables were
determined in venous blood (12 h fasted). Body fatness was assessed by
anthropometry and dietary practice using the 7 days weighed food intake
technique functional activity of platelets that included lower levels of
cholesterol, thrombin, lower blood oxidative activity and higher contraction of
prostaglandin 12 and high density lipoprotein.

Sayed (1996) evaluated the effect of high and low intensity exercise
conditioning programmes on components pertinent of blood fibrinolysis and
selected lipid profile variables in sedentary, but healthy individuals. Eighteen
normal subjects were divided into two equal groups; High intensity and low
intensity exercise groups. Each subject in the high and low intensity groups
exercised on a bicycle ergo meter for 20 min, three times a week for 12 weeks
at an intensity corresponding to 80% and 30 % VO2 Max, respectively. One
week before and one week after the conditioning programmes data were
collected for body weight, percentage body fat, VO2 Max and 12 h fasting
blood levels of total tissue type plasminogen activator It-Pa), tissue type
plasminogen activator activity (t –PA), total plasminogen activator inhibitor
(PA 1-T), plaminogen activator inhibitor activity (Pa 1 sterol (CHOL),
triglycerides (1G) and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL –C). In the
post-conditioning, maximum oxygen consumption increased significantly (P <
0.05) only in high intensity exercise group while body weight and percentage
body fat did not change (P>0.05) in either of the groups. Physical
conditioning induced no statistically significant (P>0.5) between two groups.
Similarly after training there was no significant change in t-PA, t-PAa or
PA1-1. However PA1-1 decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in the high
intensity group, but not in the low intensity (P >0.05). It is concluded that

34
high, but not low, intensity physical conditioning significantly enhances the
cardio respiratory fitness and reduces the resting level of plasminogen activator
inhibitor activity which may be linked with the favourable effects of exercise
conditioning.

Ades and Poehiman (1996) who studied the effects of numerous

intervention trials in young subjects, suggest that aerobic exercise training
exerts favourable effects on specific lipid sub fractions, in particular serum
triglycerides and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Cross sectional
studies in older individuals suggest that active individuals have more
favourable lipid profiles than inactive individuals. However, it remains
controversial as to whether leisure time activity or fitness levels are
independent predictors of lipid measures in the elderly versus their intermediate
effects on body composition and body fat distribution. That is greater
deposition of abdominal fat in the least fit individuals is associated with
adverse lipid profiles. Short term (8 weeks ) aerobic exercise in elders is not
associated with any significant changes in lipid profiles, however, longer term
programmes, particularly if associated with improvements in body fat
distribution and / or weight loss, have been demonstrated to yield significant
improvements in lipid sub fractions, in particular triglycerides and HDL
cholesterol.

` Bonettle and others (1995) studied plasma levels of lipoprotein (a),

total cholesterol, triglycerides HDL-cholesterol, apoprotein AL and apoprotein
B in 10 healthy, untrained volunteers subjected to a bicycle ergo metric
exercise. Blood samples were taken before the exercise, immediately
afterwards and then at 12 hourly intervals for a period of 72 hours. After the
exercise, lipoprotein (a) in untrained subjects began to decrease significantly
from the 24 hour and remained lower than baseline levels up till the 72nd hour.

35
These results suggest that exercise induces changes in the lipoprotein (a) in an
untrained healthy individual.

Aellen and others (1993) studied the effects of aerobic and anaerobic
training on lipoprotein concentrations in 45 healthy untrained men. Thirty
three subjects exercised four times per week during nine weeks on a bicycle
ergo meter. Sixteen trained with an intensity above the anaerobic threshold
(blood lactate concentration > 4 mmol. 1-1) and 17 trained with an intensity
below the anaerobic threshold. In addition, twelve subjects served as controls.
The calculated caloric expenditure of the two training groups was smiliar. In
all three groups, total cholesterol, total high density lipoprotein (HDL), HDL
subtractions (HDL2, HDL3), and low density lipoprotein (LDL) were measure.
Training had a significant influence on HDL, HDL2, LDL/HDL, HDL2/HDL3,
and chol/ HDL with anaerobic training, these variables changed in the opposite
direction composed with aerobic training which influenced the lipoprotein
profile on the desired direction. Cholesterol, HDL3 and LDL did not alter
during the nine weeks of training. After nine weeks of training the higher
blood lactate concentration during exercise( representing training intensity), the
higher resting LDL/HDL ratio was found. The correlation between these two
variables was highly significant. They concluded that training above the
anaerobic threshold had no negative effects of blood profile. Therefore,
beneficial adaptations in lipoprotein profile. Therefore, beneficial adaptations
in lipoprotein profile must be achieved with moderate training intensities below
the anaerobic threshold.

Eckerson, and Anderson (1992) conducted a study to determine the

heart rate (HR) and oxygen uptake (VO2 Max.) measured during water aerobics
(WA) and were compared to maximal values obtained during an incremental
treadmill test to assess the energy demand and potential cardio respiratory (CR)
training effects of WA. Sixteen college females served as subjects (mean + SD

36
=20.4 + 1.6 years). WA elicited a mean HR of 162b.min-1 and a mean VO2 of
18.4 ml.kg-1 min-1 which represented 74% of HR reserve, 82 % of maximal
HR, and 48% of VO2 Max. Average caloric expenditure was 5.7 kcal.min-1,
HR values for WA were consistent with guidelines established by the
established by the American College of Sports Medicine for developing and
maintaining CR fitness in healthy adults. However, the VO2 Max fell just
below the recommended minimum threshold level. It was concluded that WA
may provide an attractive alternative to traditional models of exercise for
improving CR fitness; however, HR measures may over estimate the metabolic
intensity of the exercise.

Garber and others (1992) evaluated the physiological effects of an 8

weeks aerobic dance programme to those of a walk jog exercise training
programme. Sixty male and female University employees ages 24-48 were
randomly assigned to an aerobic dance programme (N=22), a walk-jog
programme (N=24), or a sedentary control group (N=15). Subjects who had an
exercise compliance rate less than or equal to 85 % were dropped from the
study, as were control subjects who had scheduling conflict or illness
precluding post treatment testing. Thirty five subjects completed the 8 weeks
period with a compliance rate greater than or equal to 85 % leaving 14 in the
aerobics group, 11 in the walk-jog group and 10 in the control group. A
significant increase (P less than 0.001) in maximal oxygen uptake occurred in
the aerobics (+3.9 ml/kg/min) and walk-jog group (+3.4 ml /kg/min) while no
significant change was observed in the control group. Peak heart rate
decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in the aerobics (-4h/min) period. Body
weight, peak respiratory exchange ratio and peak minute ventilation remained
the same in the aerobics walk-jog and control groups throughout the treatment
period. It is concluded that aerobic dance programme can result in similar
improvements in aerobic power as a walk-jog programme. Thus, an aerobic

37
dance programme is an effective alternative to a traditional walk-jog training
regime.

Stucchi and others (1991) studied the effects of exercise on plasma

lipids and lipoproteins (HDL) subclass composition and metabolism in Yucatav
miniature swim following two years of training. The exercise protocol
produced significant training effects. Post-heparian lipolytic activity wasa also
significantly increased. Although plasma cholesterol and triglyceride did not
differ significantly increased (P=0.08) between the exercise and control groups,
multivariate analysis indicated a strong association between lipoprotein lipase
(LPL) and HDL2-C (P<0.01). Although HDL-CL levels rose only slightly
(P<0.09) with exercise, a significant shift was noted in the distribution pf
cholesterol from the HDL3 to the HDL2 fractions, perhaps mediated by the
substantial increase in LPL activity. Exercise had very little effect on the
chemical composition of the major lipoprotein classes; however the
triglycerides content of the higher LDL1 subclass was significantly reduced.
In the more dense LDL subclass exercise resulted in a significant decrease in
triglycerides concomitant with a significant increase in free cholesterol levels.
In contrast with the small reduction in fractional catabolic rates (FCR) in either
subclass, production rates of the exercised group were reduced, which
accounted for the reduction in LDL subclass pool size. The data indicated that
exercise products were subtle but significant changes in lipoprotein metabolism
that had been associated with reduced risk of atherosclerosis.

Nieman and others (1993) studied the relationship between

cardiorespiratory exercise and serum lipid and lipoprotein levels that was
studied in elderly women. Randomized controlled experimental design with a
follow up of 12 weeks: cross-sectional comparison at baseline. Community
living elders in University exercise facilities. Thirty-two apparently healthy,
sedentary elderly Caucasian women, 67 to 85 years of age. Ten highly

38
conditioned elderly women, 65 to 84 years of age, who were active in
endurance competitions and has been training for 11.2 +1.2 years were
recruited at baseline for cross-sectional comparisons. Sedentary subjects were
randomized to either a walking or calisthenics group. Intervention groups
exercised 30 to 40 minutes, 5 days a week for 12 weeks, with the walking
group training at 60% heart rate reserve and the calisthenics group engaging
in mild range-of-motion and flexibility movements that kept their heart rates
close to resting levels. Serum lipids and lipoproteins, maximal aerobic
capacity (VO2 Max), four skin folds, and dietary intake at baseline and after 5
and 12 weeks. RESULTS: When the highly conditioned serum and combined
group of sedentary subjects were compared at baseline, serum high-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C; 1.61 + 0.14 Vs 1.27 + 0.05 mmol/L
respectively: P=002), but not total serum cholesterol (5.72 + /0.36 Vs 5.72
+/0.19 mm0l/L, respectively ) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C:
3.62+/0.36 Vs 3.72 +/0.18 mmol /L respectively, were significantly different.
Twelve weeks of moderate cardio respiratory exercise improved the VO2 Max
of the sedentary subjects 12.6% but did not result in any change in body
weight, energy intake, dietary quality, or any of the serum lipids or lipoprotein.
Highly conditioned and lean elderly women, when compared with their
sedentary counterparts, had higher HDL-C and lower glycerides, but similar
total serum cholesterol and LDL-C values. However, twelve weeks of
moderate cardio respiratory exercise were not associated with an improvement
in serum lipid or lipoprotein profiles in previously sedentary elderly women.

Palatini (1988) studied the blood pressure behaviour during physical

activity. Aerobic exercise is currently being recommended in addition to
pharmacological therapy for lowering blood pressure levels in hypertensive
patients, i.e. in subjects whose resting blood pressure levels exceed 145/90
mm/Hg. On the other hand competitive sports are generally contraindicated in
hypertensive, which are tough to be at increased risk of morbidity or mortality

39
from their blood pressure levels. The present knowledge of blood pressure
behaviour during isotonic physical activity is almost wholly based on the
results obtained by means of ergo metric tests. Several maximal and sub
maximal exercise protocols have been introduced, but none has proved to be
superior for diagnostic purpose. There is general agreement that the systolic
blood pressure increase determined by isotonic exercise usually ranges from 50
to 70 mm/Hg in both normotensive and hypertensive subjects. Diastolic blood
pressure shows only minor changes in the normotensives, while in the
hypertensive it tends to substantially increase because of their inability to
adequately reduce their peripheral resistance. This mechanism may also
explain the delay shown by the hypertensive in reaching pre-exercise blood
pressure values during the recovery. On average diastolic blood pressure
increases to a greater extent during bicycle ergometry than during treadmill,
while no differences in external systolic blood pressure have been observed
between the 2 tests. The results of several studies indicate that the blood
pressure response to isotonic exercise is a marker for detection of hypertension
earlier in the course of the disease, while resting blood pressure is still normal.
According to some authors it is also of value in predicting future hypertension
in individuals with borderline pressure levels. There are no conclusive data on
the effect of training in blood pressure response to exercise. The majority of
the published studies report small external pressure reductions after
conditioning, which would merely reflect the reduction in resting blood
pressure. Vasodilatation greatly influences the exercise-induced rise in blood
pressure; in fact the external pressure increase is blunted when the test is
preceded by an adequate warm-up session. Isometric effort is tough to be
contraindicated in hypertensive subjects, as it causes a pronounced increase not
only of systolic but also of diastolic pressure. Mean blood pressure is,
however, increased to the same extent by isotonic and isometric exercise, even
though minor discrepancies have been reported by some authors.

40
 Albert (1978) conducted the study to determine the effect of a 12 week
quantitative aerobic training programme [jogging] on the fasting serum
concentration of cholesterol © and triglycerides ( TC) in the high density
lipoprotein of (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL) and very low
density(VLDL) classes in middle aged men after 3,6,9 and 12 weeks. U*sing
the 2x3 or 2x5 multivariate and univariate ANOVAS with repeated measure no
significant changes were observed in the concentration to total serum [LDL-C,
HDL-TC-, LDL-TC and the ration of HDL-C /LDL-C. The jogging however,
had significantly (P <.05) Lower level of total serum Tc (130.9 Vs 177.5mg
%), VLDL-T (83.6. vs. 128.mg %) and VLDL- C (21.5 Vs 34.2 mg%) than the
TRL. The analysis of covariance indicated that these changes in the
lipoprotein fraction were independent of diet and alterations in weight and
adipose tissue. The data (1) supported the contention that aerobic training may
aid in prevention of hyper triglyceridmia and (2) suggests that a training
threshold may exist with respect to exercise induced changes in the level of
HDL-C.
Joseph (1981) conducted the study on sixty college women between
the ages of 18 and 2, one group (x=20) consisted of number of physical
education class engaged in a twelve weekfitness programme employing the
Aero kinetic programme developed by human performance systems, in the
Fayetteville, Arkanasas. The second experimental group consisted of 20
subjects in physical education class engaged in twelve week progressive
running programme. An additional group of 20 matched volunteers was also
used ot serve as control. Participation in the aerokinetic programme yielded
significant improvements in the cardio – vascular fitness, total cholesterol,
triglycerides, LDL Cholesterol and the risk ratios. No participation in either
running on aero kinetic programme resulted in similar improvement in cardio-
vascular fitness total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and the lipoprotein risk ratio

41
while the running programme yielded greater improvements than the
aeroklinetic group in percent body fat, body weight and triglycerides.

Michielli and co-workers (1981) studied a comparison of exercise

training intensity on lipo- protein cholesterol fractions. Forty nine men with
mean age of 44+8 years studied to determine the effect of 12 weeks of bicycle
ergometer training at 65%, 75%, 85% of heart rate maximum of lipoprotein
cholesterol fractions. All other lipid values, total cholesterol HDLC, LDLC,
VCDLC and TG showed no significant changes related to training, while
exercise intensity caused a training effect. It did not significantly effect in the
lipid levels in the blood.
Penny and other ( 1982) have pointed out that the role of exercise (
especially running) in raising the level of HDL Cholesterol has received
considerable attention over the past few years and is presently being researched
attention over the past few years and is presently being researched in various
laboratories throughout the world. Epidomologic research indicated that a
vigorous exercise programme may bring about an increased level of HDL
Choleserol in young and middle aged men, while at same time; exercise
appears to bring about minor, if any, decreases in total serum cholesterol levels.
Bazzare and Izlar (1986) evaluated the effects of a 12 week aerobic
exercise – life style management programme on total cholesterol, HDL
cholesterol and on weight loss and body fat on adult insulin dependent diabetic.
The exercise sessions included a 5 to 10 minute warm –up an aerobic exercise
sessions at 65 -75 % if a maximum heart rate and a 5 to 10 min. cool down.
Exercise sessions increased 5 minute each week from 20 minute at a week 1 to
60 minutes, for 9-12 weeks. Body weight, body fat the sum of four skin folds,
diastolic pressure and glycol – hemoglobin decreased significantly among
seven participants who were classified as good attendance participants.

42
 Franklin and other (1989) conducted a study on lean and obese middle
aged female subjects who participated in the 12 week aerobic training program.
The program was structured along ALSM guidelines, (walking – Jogging 15 to
25 minutes, 4 days per week, 75% max VO2 ) Normal Weight, subjects
decreased their body fat from 24.7 to 23.9 % obese subjects reduced from 38.0
to 36.2 % and the sum of 10 skin folds decreased significantly in both groups.
This moderate intensity physical conditioning program affected both obese and
leaner women in similar fashion.
Judith Jee (1991) studied the effect of an eight week water
aerobic programme on selected physiological measurement of 54 female
participants aged eighteen to twenty five years. The previously secondary
subjects were divided into control group (n=29) and the experimental group
participated in a progressive water aerobic dance programme three times per
week for eight weeks. Each subject was pre and post tested on using heart rate,
resting systolic blood pressure, resting diastolic blood pressure, body weight
and percentage of body fat. Analysis of covariance was used to determine if
any significant difference between the two groups existed on the variables.
The results of this study indicated a significant difference at the 0.05 level in
resting heart rate between the groups. No differences were found in either
systolic or diastolic pressure, body weight or percentage of body fat. It was
concluded that water aerobic dance need to be of sufficient intensity to increase
fitness in young sedentary individuals.
Kravitz et. al., (1993) conducted a study on aerobic dance which
continues to enjoy wide-spread popularity with estimates of over 23 million
adult participants. Numerous aerobic dance styles and variations have been
developed. The new aerobic exercise modality is step training or step
aerobics, which is a modification of aerobic dance using stepping bench
ranging in height from 10.2-30.5 cms. A study was conducted to examine the
physiological effects of eight weeks of step training with (N=12) and without

43
(N=12) ahdn weights. The main effects of step training resulted in significant
(P<).05) overall improvements in VO2 max (38.29 + 1.05 to 41.32 +0.95
ml.Kg-1/min-1). Arm flexion strength (30.73+1.83 to 35.08 + 1.73N/m) Fore
arm flexion strength (26.89+1.13 to 29.29 + 1.14 N/M) and Fore arm extension
strength (28.13 +1.26 to 31.07 + 1.38 N/m)

Masanta, N.C. (2000) stated the acute aerobic exercise and chronic
heavy exercise can act as stressor. To evaluate the effect of glucose on the
reduction of stress response, thirty brick field workers were studied. They
were grouped into two equal halves. One of the groups is allowed to drink 75
gm D-glucose in 200ml water before work. Blood samples were drawn from
both groups at rest and as recovery period. Samples were analysed for
leukocyte count, haemoglobic, blood sugar, lipid profiles and cortisol
estionation. Result showed significant neutropenia ( P< 0.05) and cortisol (
P,0.01) are increased.

2.2 STUDIES RELATED TO YOGASANAS

Madanmohan and others (2008) investigated the study designed to test

whether yoga training of sex week’s duration modulates sweating response to
dynamic exercise and improve respiratory pressures, hand grip strength and
endurance. Out of 46 healthy subjects (30 males and 16 females aged 17-20
years), 23 motivated subjects (15 male and female) were given yoga training
and the remaining 23 subjects served as controls. Hand grip strength and
endurance were determined before and after the six week study period. In the
yoga group, weight loss in response to harward step was 64 +30 g after yoga
training as compared to 161 + 133 kg before the training and the difference was
significant (n=15 male subjects, P<0.0001). In contrast weight loss following
step test was not significantly different in the control group at the end of the
period. Yoga training produced a marked increase in respiratory pressures in

44
in both 40mm. Hg test in both male and female subjects (P<0.05 for all
comparisons). Yoga training for a short period of six weeks can produce
significant improvement in respiratory pressures, hand grip strength and
endurance.

Ray (2001) conducted a study on the effect of yogic exercise on perceived

exertion (PE) after maximal exercise. Forty men from the Indian army aged 19-
23 years were administered maximal exercise on a bicycle ergo meter in a
graded workload protocol. The oxygen consumption, carbon-di-oxide output,
pulmonary ventilation, respiratory rate, Heart rate at maximal exercise and PE
score immediately thereafter were recorded. The subjects were divided into
two equal groups. 12 subjects dropped out during the course of the study. One
group (yoga, n=170 practiced hatha yogic exercises for 1 hour every morning (6
days in a week) for six months. The other group (PT, n=11) underwent
conventional physical exercise training during the same period. Both groups
participated daily in different games for one hour in the afternoon. In the
seventh month, tests for maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 Max) increased
significantly (P,0.05) in the yoga group helped to improve aerobic capacity and
the yoga group performed better than the PT group in terms of lower PE after
exhaustive exercise.

Jankiram, E. (2006) conducted a study on the effects of yoga and

meditationon cognitive, Physical and hematological variables of school children
aged between 11 to 16 years. Physical and cognitive factors determine sporting
achievements in all the games and sport. He tested both experimental and
control groups before the start. He gave 12 week’s yoga training and
meditation to the experimental group and tested both yoga and control groups
again. The results of the yoga experimental group (n=20) was significantly
improved than those of the control group (n=20) in all physical, cognitive and

45
hematologicl variables (P<0.05). The assessments showed that the cognitive
variables difference were much superior to the control group.

Madanmohan and others (2004) presented the study reports of the

effects of yoga training on cardiovascular response to exercise and the time
course of recovery after the exercise. Cardiovascular response to exercise was
determined by the Harvard step test using a platform of 45 cm height. The
subjects were asked to step up and down the platform at a rate of 30/min. for a
total duration of 5 min. or until fatigue, whichever was earlier. Heart rate (HR)
and blood pressure response to exercise were measured in the supine position
before exercise and at 1, 2, 3,4,5,7 and 10 minutes after the exercise. Exercise
produced a significant increase in HR, systolic pressure and a significant
decrease in diastolic pressure. After two months of yoga training, exercise –
induced changes in these parameters were significantly reduced.

Murugesan, Govindarajan and Bera (2000) conducted a study on the

basis of medical officers diagnosis , thirty three (N=33) hypertensive, aged
between 35 and 65 years, from the Government general hospital, Pondicherry,
were examined with four variables viz. systolic and diastolic blood pressure,
pulse rate and body weight. The subjects were randomly assigned into three
groups. The experimental group -1 underwent selected yoga practices,
Experimental group- II received medical treatment by the physician of the said
hospital and the control group did not participate in any of the treatment
stimuli. Yoga training was imparted in the morning and in the evening with 1
hour/session /day for a total period of 11 weeks. Medical treatment comprised
drug intake everyday for the whole experimental period. The result of pre-post
with ANCOVA revealed that both the treatment stimuli (i.e., yoga and drug )
were effective in controlling the variables of hypertension.

Telles and others (1997) studied the heart rate, breathing rate and skin
resistance for 20 community girls (home group) and for 20 age –matched girls

46
from a regular school (school group). The former group had a significantly
higher rate of breathing and a more irregular breath pattern known to correlate
with high fear and anxiety, than the school group, skin resistance was
significantly lower in the school group, which may suggest greater arousal, 28
girls of the Home group formed 14 pairs, matched for age and duration of stay
in the Home. Subjects of a pair were randomly assigned to either yoga or
games groups. For the former emphasis was on relaxation and awareness,
whereas for the latter increasing physical activity was emphasized. At the end
of an hour daily for six months both the groups showed a significant decrease
in the resting heart rate relative to initial values (wilcoxon paired sample test)
and the yoga group showed a significant decrease in breath rate, which
appeared more regular but no significant increase in the skin resistance.
These results suggest that yoga programme which includes relaxation,
awareness and graded physical activity, is a useful addition to the routine of
community Home children. A group of 25 healthy adults who were
performing yoga and age matched control group were compared in this study.
The examination included biochemical, hematological and ventilator function
tests. Showing of pulse rate, corrective improvement in hematological values,
significant decrease in blood sugar with increase in plasma protein specially
albumin were noted in this study. Mid expiratory flow rate was found to have
appreciable improvement in majority of the patients.

Uppal (1982) in his study of secondary school level boys investigated

endurance training employing slow continuous running method which
significantly reduces resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure after exercise
and found out that in the case of control group there was no significant change
as it was obviously reflection of inactivity.

Raja and others (1997) examined the short term effects of 4 weeks of
intensive yoga practice on physiological responses in six healthy adult female

47
volunteers who were measured by using the maximal exercise treadmill test.
Yoga practice involved daily morning and evening sessions of 90 minutes each.
Pre and post yoga exercise performance was compared maximal work out put
9WMAX0 for the group increased by 21% with a significantly reduced level of
oxygen consumption per unit work but without a concomitant significant
change in heart rate. After intensive yoga training, at 154 Wmin (-1)
(corresponding to Wmax of the pre yoga maximal exercise test) participants
could exercise more comfortably with a significantly lower heart rate (P<0.05)
and a significantly lower respiratory lower heart rate (P<0.05), and a
significantly lower respiratory quotient (P, 0.05). The implications for the
effect of intensive yoga on cardio respiratory efficiency are discussed, with the
suggestion that yoga has some transparently difference quantifiable
physiological effects to other exercises.

Scholl and others (1994) examined the physiological and psychological

Effects of hatha yoga exercise in healthy women. Hata yoga has become
increasingly popular in western countries as a method for coping stress.
However little is known about the physiological and psychological effects of
yoga practice. We measured heart rate, blood pressure, the hormones cortisol,
prolactin and growth hormone and certain psychological parameters in a yoga
practicing group and a control group of young female volunteers reading in
comfortable position during the experimental period. There were no
substantial differences between the groups concerning endocrine parameters
and blood pressure. The course of heart rate was significantly different; the
yoga group had a decrease during the yoga practice. Significant differences
between both groups were found in psychological parameters. In the
personality inventory the yoga group showed markedly higher scores in life
satisfaction and lower scores in excitability, aggressiveness, openness,
emotionally and somatic complaints. Significant differences could also be
observed concerning coping with stress and the mood at the end of the

48
experiment. The yoga group had significant higher scores in high spirits and
extravertedness.

Chinnasamy (1992) conducted a study on effects of asanas and physical

exercise on selected physiological and bio-chemical variables among school
boys. In this study ninety male students were randomly selected from
Government Higher Secondary School. The initial score was measured for the
selected physiological and bio-chemical variables namely pulse rate, systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, hemoglobin content and blood sugar
level. The treatment was given for a period of 6 weeks for the experimental
group. The significance of the difference among two kinds of exercise group
and asana group for the pre and post test mean gain were determined by ‘F’
ratio through analysis of covariance. Asanas had significantly improved the
hemoglobin content and reduced the blood sugar pulse rate and blood pressure.

Damodaran and others (2002) studied the effect of yoga on the

physiological, psychological well being, psychomotor parameter and
modifying cardiovascular risk factors in mild to moderate hypertensive
patients. Twenty patients (16 males, 4 females0 in the age group of 35 to 55
years with mild to moderate essential hypertension underwent yogic practices
daily for one hour for three months. Biochemical, physiological and
psychological parameters were studied prior and following a period of three
months of yoga practices, biochemical parameters included, blood glucose,
lipid profile, catecholamine, MDA, Vit.C. Cholinesterase and urinary VMA.
Psychological evaluation was done by using personal orientation inventory and
subjective well being. Results showed decrease in blood pressure and drug
score modifying risk factors i.e. blood glucose, cholesterol and triglycerides
decreased the overall improvement in subjective well being and quality of life.
There were decrease in VMA Catecholamine, and decrease at the MDA level
suggestive of decrease in sympathetic activity and oxidant stress.

49
Yoga can play an important role in risk modification for cardiovascular
diseases in mild to moderate hypertension.

Manchanda and others (2000) evaluated the possible role of life style
modification incorporating yoga on retardation of coronary artherosclerotic
disease. In this prospective randomized, controlled trial, 42 men with
angiographically proven coronary artery disease (CAD) were randomized to
control (n=21) and yoga intervention group (n=21) and were followed for one
year. The active group was treated with a user friendly programme consisting
of yoga, control of risk factors, diet control and moderate aerobic exercise.
The control group was managed by conventional methods i.e. risk factor
control and American Heart Association Step I diet. After one year, the yoga
groups showed significant reduction in number of angina episodes per week,
improved exercise capacity and decrease in body weight. Serum total
cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels also showed greater
reductions as compared with control group.

Mahajen and others(1999) conducted a study on the effect of yogic

lifestyle on the lipid status was studied in angina patients and normal subjects
with risk factors of coronary artery disease. The parameters included the body
weight, estimation of serum cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL, and the
cholesterol HDL ratio. A baseline evaluation was done and then the angina
patients and risk factors subjects were randomly assigned as control (n=41) and
intervention group (n=52). Lifestyle advice was given to both the groups. An
integrated course of yoga training was given for four days followed by practice
at home. Serial evaluation of both the groups was done at four, 10 and 14
weeks, Dyslipidemia was a constant feature in all cases. An inconsistent
pattern of change was observed in the control group of angina (n=18) and risk
factor subjects (n=23). The subjects practicing yoga showed a regular
decrease in all lipid parameters except HDL. The effect started from four

50
weeks and lasted for 14 weeks. Thus, the effect of yogic lifestyle on some of
the modifiable risk factors could probably explain the preventive and
therapeutic beneficial effect observed in coronary artery disease.

Schmidt (1997) evaluated participants of comprehensive residential

three month yoga and meditation training programme living on a low fat lacto-
vegetarian diet in cardiovascular risk factors and hormones were studied
substantial risk factor reduction was found. Body mass index, total serum and
LDL cholesterol, fibrinogen, and blood pressure were significantly reduced
especially in those with elevated levels. Urinary excretion of adrenaline,
noradrenalin, dopamine, aldosterone, as well as serum testosterone and
luteinizing hormone levels reduced, while cortisol excretion increased
significantly.

Pansare Lulkarni and Pendsc (1989) determined the effect of yogic

training on serum LDL levels. LDh is a glycol tic enzyme utilized during
exercise to provide energy to contracting muscles. Chronic sub maximal
exercise for a longer duration shows about two fold increase in LDH levels.
Yogic practices might be bringing similar effects. The present work was
designed to study effect of yogic training on LDH levels. Fourteen female
and six male students of average age or 18 years were subjected to yogic
training for six weeks. Serum LDH levels were found before and after the
training course by spectrophotometric method of Henry et al,The serum LDH
levels were within normal limits and showed significant increase both in
females and males after yogic training. It indicates that yoga has similar effect
on LDL levels like endurance training.

Durgalakshmi (1989) conducted a study on “Effect of yogic exercises

on selected physiological variables of High School Boys”. The group
consisted of 60 students. The result of the study showed that systolic pressure
was increased and diastolic pressure remains unchanged after a six week

51
training of yoga. The scores in breath holding time and vital capacity had also
improved. It was statistically significant. She also recommended that the
athletes could adopt these exercises and thereby increase in the cardio
respiratory function and further she adds, yoga could be included in the regular
programme of Physical Education in schools and colleges.

Bhargava, Gogate and Mascarenhas (1998) examined the effect of

autonomic responses to breath holding and its variations following pranayama.
Autonomic responses to breathe holding were studied in twenty healthy young
men. Breath was held at different phases of respiration and parameters
recorded were Breath Holding time, Heart Rate, Systolic and Diastolic Blood
Pressure and Galvanic Skin resistance (GSR). After taking initial recordings
all the subjects practiced Nadi-Shodhana Pranayama for a period of 4 weeks.
At the end of 14 week the same parameters were again recorded and the results
compared. Baseline heart rate and blood pressure (systolic and Diastolic)
showed a tendency to decrease and both these autonomic parameters were
significantly decreased at breaking point after pranayamic breathing.
Although the GSR was recorded in all subjects the observations made were not
conclusive. Thus pranayama breathing exercises appeared to alter autonomic
responses to breath holding probably by increasing muscle tone and decreasing
sympathetic discharges.

Telles, Reddy and Nagendra (2000) evaluated a statement in ancient

yoga text that suggests that a combination of both “calming and “stimulating
“measures may be especially helpful in reaching a state of mental equilibrium.
Two yoga practices, one combining “calming and stimulating” measures
(cyclic meditation) and the other, a “calming” technique (Shavasan), were
compared. The oxygen consumption, breath rate, and breath volume 40 male
volunteers were assessed before and after sessions of cyclic meditation (CM)
and before and after sessions of shavasan (SH). The 2 sessions (CM, SH)

52
were 1 day apart. Cyclic meditation includes the practice of yoga postures
interspersed with periods of supine relaxation. During SH the subject lay in a
supine position throughout the practice. There was a significant decrease in
the amount of oxygen consumed and in the breath rate and an increase in breath
volume after both types of sessions (2 factors ANOVA, paired t test).
However, the magnitude of change on all 3 measures was greater after CM: (1)
Oxygen consumption decreased to 32.1% after CM compared with 10.1% after
SH; (2) breath rate decreased to 18.0% after CM and 15.2% after SII; and (3)
breath volume increased 28.8% after CM and 15.9% after SII. These results
support the idea that a combination of yoga postures interspersed with
relaxation reduces arousal more than what relaxation alone does.

Dhanraj (1974) studied that the effects of yoga and the 5 Bx fitness
plan on selected physiological parameters. The results indicated increase in
basal metabolic rate total volume in basal state T-4 thryoxine, hemoglobin,
blood cell PWC 130, vital capacity, chest in expansion, breath holding time and
flexibility after yoga training. Decreases in heart rate were also observed.
When yogic training was discontinued for six weeks following in treatment a
significant decline in the values of PWC 130, flexibility and breath holding
time were noticed.

Scholl and Allolio and Schonooke (1994) examined the physiological

and psychological effects of Hatha-Yoga exercise in healthy women. Hatha-
yoga has become increasingly popular in western countries as a method for
coping with stress. However, little is known about the physiological and
psychological effects of yoga practice. We measured heart rate, blood
pressure, the hormones cortisol, prolactin and growth hormone and certain
psychological parameters in a yoga practicing group and a control group of
young female volunteers reading in a comfortable position during the
experimental period. There were no substantial differences between the

53
groups concerning endocrine parameters and blood pressure. The course of
heart rate was significantly different; the yoga group had a decrease during the
yoga practice. Significant differences between both groups were found in
psychological parameters. In the personality inventory the yoga group showed
markedly higher scores in life satisfaction and lower scores in excitability,
aggressiveness, openness, emotionally and somatic complaints. Significant
differences could also be observed concerning coping with stress and the mood
at the end of the experiment. The yoga group had significant higher scores in
high spirits and extravertedness.

Schell, F.J., et.al. (1994) stated that Hatha-yoga has become

sincreasingly popular in western countries as a method for copying with stress.
However, little is known about the physiological effects of yoga practice. We
measured heart rate, blood pressure, the hormones cortisol, prolactin and
growth hormone and certain psychological parameters in a yoga practicing
group and a control group of young female volunteers residing in a comfortable
position during the experimental period. There were no substantial
differences between the groups concerning endocrine parameters and blood
pressure. The course of heart rate was significantly different; the yoga group
had a decrease during the yoga practice. Significant differences between both
groups were found in psychological parameters. In the personality inventory
the yoga showed markedly higher scores in life satisfaction and lower scores in
excitability, aggressiveness, openness, emotionally and somatic complaints.
Significant differences could also be observed concerning coping with stress
and the mood at the end of the experiment. The yoga group had significant
higher scores in high spirits and extravertedness.

54
 Chapter – III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter the procedure adopted involves the sources and selection
of subjects, selection of criterion variables, experimental design, reliability of
data and tester competency, instrument reliability, orientation to the subjects,
pilot study, training programme schedule, test administration, collection of data
and statistical analysis are explained.

SELELCTION OF SUBJECTS

To achieve the purpose of the study 60 middle aged men teachers were
selected randomly from the group of seventy five middle aged men teachers.
The subjects’ age ranged from 35 years to 40 years. They were examined by
a qualified medical practitioner and were found to be medically and physically
fit to participate in the training programme. The subjects were teachers of
different schools in Puducherry and hence there was no difference in routine
life pattern and hence were considered as a homogeneous group.

Experimental Design

The selected subjects (N=60) were divided into three groups equally and
randomly. Of which Experimental Group I underwent aerobic training,
Experimental Group II underwent yogic practices training and Group III acted
as Control Group. The two experimental groups were treated with their
respective training for one and half hour per day for three days a week for a
period of sixteen weeks.

Selection of Criterion Variables

Aerobic and yogic practices awaken the mental and physical strength.
“Aerobics” increases red blood cells count, which contains hemoglobin that is
responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood, a decrease in resting blood
pressure and a decrease in blood lipids. A regular aerobic exercise programme
will cause a reduction in blood fats such as cholesterol and triglycerides.
Aerobics builds stamina and increases the efficiency of bones, joints, muscles,
blood circulation, respiratory, feeding, urine and nerve centers, organs and
glands.
Yogic practices, if done regularly and with proper preparations, they
lend their full benefit to the fitness of the body and mind. Yoga helps to
perform hard tasks confidently and successfully. It improves the functioning of
veins and arteries. On the whole yoga can be powerful enhancement in regular
training exercises.

The special feature of the yogic practices, is that what they do for the
body, they do for the mind also in an effective way. Physical fitness can be
excellently maintained by practicing in a selected yogic routine.

The impurities which are formed due to the wear and tear of the body
are sent out properly through the outlets besides strengthening the organs
which are responsible for our life, while building strength, power and
flexibility. Aerobics is a good way to decrease percentage of body fat and to
attain the other metabolic benefits of fitness. Aerobics and Yogasana were
selected as independent variables. The investigator reviewed the available
scientific literatures, journals, periodical, magazines and research papers
pertaining to the study and selected the following dependent variables to the
investigation.

Physiological Variables

 Systolic blood pressure

 Diastolic blood pressure
 Resting heart rate

56
Haematological variables

 Haemoglobin
 Packed cell volume

Bio-Chemical Variables

 Total cholesterol
 High density lipoprotein
 Triglycerides
 Low density lipoprotein

Criterion Measures

The selected tests for this research are highly standardised, relevant to
the study and ideal to assess the selected variables. Having the expert
consultation in the field of physical education, sports sciences and scanning
various literatures related to yogic practices and aerobics the investigator has
selected the following variables and test items as criterion measures and is
presented in Table I

57
 Table I

Variables and criterion Measures

Sl. Physiological variables Cognitive measures

No.
1. Systolic blood pressure Sphygmomanometer
2. Diastolic blood pressure Sphygmomanometer
3. Resting heart rate Pulse count
4. Breath holding time Nose Clip Method
Haematological Variables Criterion Measures
5. Haemoglobin Cyanmethalmoglobin method
6. Packed cell volume Wintrobe hematocrit method
Bio chemical Variables Criterion Measures.
7. Total cholesterol Enzymatic calorimetric Method
8. High density lipoprotein Enzymatic calorimetric Method
9. Low density lipoprotein LDL=TC-HDL +TGL/5
10. Triglycerides GPO – PAP method

Reliability of Instruments

Standard equipments were used for this study. Stethoscope, Stop watch,
and electronic sphygmomanometer were utilized from the Department of
physical Education and sports, Pondicherry University, Puducherry. For
hematological variables and bio-Chemical variables Aruna Clinical Laboratory
was utilized. These instruments were procured from the standard scientific
companies and were accepted as accurate enough for the purpose of this study.

58
 Reliability of the Data and Tester Competency

To ensure uniformity and reliability of the testing techniques, the investigator

had a number of practice sessions in the testing procedures. He did this study
with the guidance of experts. The test reliability was established by test and
retest process. All the measurements were taken by the investigator with the
assistance of Department of Physical Education and sports, Pondicherry
University, Puducherry, and Aruna clinical laboratory, Puducherry. Care was
taken that each test item was administered by the same person, so that reliable
results could be ensured. After trails and familiar with the test the
investigator tested the data on each of the variables.

Table II
INTRA CLASS RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF
SELECTED DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Sl. No. Variables Co-efficient of
Correlation 'R'
Physiological Variables

1 Systolic blood pressure 0.951*

2 Diastolic blood pressure 0.962*
3 Resting heart rate 0.982*
4 Breath holding time 0.892*
Haematological Variables

5 Haemoglobin 0.980*
6 Packed cell volume 0.964*
Bio chemical Variables

7 Total cholesterol 0.986*

8 High density lipoprotein 0.962*
9 Low density lipoprotein 0.896*
10 Triglycerides 0.948*
* Significant at 0.05 level. Table value of 0.05 level = 0.632
The test retest values were highly reliable above 0.01 level of significance

59
Orientation to the subjects

To make the subjects involve themselves in the training program an

orientation class was arranged. The researcher has explained the purpose of
the study to the subjects and their part in the study. Five sessions were spent
to familiarise the subjects with the technique involved to execute the Yoga and
Aerobics. The subjects were verbally motivated to attend the training sessions
regularly. Further, the control group was specially oriented, advised and
controlled to avoid the special practice of any of specific training programme
till the end of the experimental period. The subjects of all the groups were
sufficiently motivated to perform their maximal level during testing periods.

Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted on August 2006 before finalizing the

training program to ensure that the intensity and duration of the activities
included in the yogic practices and aerobic training program were within the
limits of the subject’s capacity to produce the desired effects.

Experimental Training Programme

Based on the results of the pilot study the training programmes were
scheduled. During the training period, the experimental groups underwent their
respective training programmes for sixteen weeks. The assistance of three
senior research fellows specially trained in the field was sought on
administration of various tests. The scientifically structured general training
programmes are presented in the table 3.3

60
 Table III

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF TWO DIFFERENT TRAINING

PROGRAMMES
GROUPS WITH TRAINING TREATMENT
PARTICULARS

Group I Aerobic Training

Group II Yogic practices Training

Group III Control group

Training duration Ninety minutes

Training session per week Three days

Total length of training Sixteen weeks

Training load progression Every four weeks

AEROBIC EXERCISES TRAINING PROGRAMME

The Aerobic Exercise training programme was scheduled and conducted

for 16 weeks to group I for one session in the morning between 6.00 A.M. to
7.30A.M. for 3 days on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday as shown in Table IV

61
 Table IV
AEROBIC EXERCISES TRAINING PROGRAMME

Aerobic Intensity Repetition Set Frequency Each Rest in

Week Exercise (1 RM) per week Aerobic Between
Exercise Aerobics

Forward
Sideward
1-4 Backward 50 % 10 times 5 3 days 1 minute 30
Kick seconds
Lunge
Forward
Sideward
5-8 Backward 60% 8 times 5 3 days 1 30
Kick minute Seconds
Lunge
Forward
Sideward
9-12 Backward 70% 6 times 5 3 days 1 30
Kick minute seconds
Lunge
Forward
Sideward
13-16 Backward 80% 4 times 5 3 days 1 minute 30
Kick seconds
Lunge
(RM- Repetition Maximum)
Basic step : Right leg up and down. Left leg up down
V step : Right leg up right forward diagonally down. Left leg
up forward diagonally down. Repeat with alternate legs.

Turn step : Right foot up down. Left foot up down together.

Right foot up turn right bring behind left foot. Left
foot up turn right bring behind left foot. Left foot up
down feet together. Repeat with alternate legs.

Over the top : Turn the body side. Feet close. Right leg up apart
down. Left leg up down close together. Right foot
apart over down. Do with alternate legs.

62
L step : Right leg knee up toe forward and down diagonally.
Repeat with alternate legs.

Basic straddle
step : Right foot up apart on the right side and down. Left
knee up straddle down on the spot and move a right
foot right side apart. Repeat with alternate leg.

Side to side : Right leg apart hands forward left leg tap down
Sideward hands down. Repeat with other leg.

Double step side : Right leg apart and hands up. Left leg tap down
hands pull down clap. Repeat the same with right
leg once again. Same action with alternate leg on
both sides.

Knee kick : Right knee up kick down. Same action with alternate
leg on both sides.

Grapevine : Right leg apart. Left leg tap down behind right leg.
Move right leg apart. Bring left leg close and parallel
to the right leg.

Side lunging : Right leg stretch sideward and lunge. Repeat with
alternate leg.

Back lunging : Right leg push back land on toe lunge. Repeat on the
other side.

Leg curl : Right leg apart and curl left leg. Do with alternate
side.

Knee up : Right knee up stretch sideward and down. Repeat

with alternate knee

Touch out : Right leg stretch apart land on toe and heel. Do with
alternate leg.

Kick forward : Right knee up kick forward down. Repeat with

other leg on other side.

63
Kick sideward : Right leg stretch and kick sideward down. Repeat
the same on the other leg on other side.

A step : Right leg move forward diagonally down. Left leg

move forward close together forward close together.
Right leg move right backward diagonally down.
bring back left leg close together. Repeat with
the alternate leg on the other side.

Step touch : Right leg diagonally forward on right side left leg
close together to the right leg. Stretch the left leg
apart left side. Right leg close to the left. Repeat
on the other side with alternate leg.

64
65
66
67
DETAILS OF YOGIC PRACTICES

The yogic practices training programme was given to group II for 16

weeks of one session in the morning between 6.00 A.M. to 7.30A.M. for three
days on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday as shown in Table V
Table V
YOGIC PRACTICES TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week Yogasana Intensity Repetition set Frequency Each Rest in
positions per week Asana between
asanas
Standing
Sitting
Kneeling
1-4 50% 10 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone
Supine minute Seconds
Pranayama
Standing
Sitting
Kneeling
5-8 60% 8 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone
Supine minute Seconds
Pranayama
Standing
Sitting
Kneeling
9-12 70% 6 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone
Supine minute Seconds
Pranayama
Standing
Sitting
Kneeling
13-16 80% 4 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone
Supine minute seconds
Pranayama
(RM –Repetition Maximum

68
Standing Position

Trikonasana

Stand erect keeping a distance of about 75 cms between the feet. Stretch
the arms sideways. Then raise them to the level of the shoulders. Let the
palms face the ground. Stand erect. Then bend the trunk to the left side and
touch the left toes with the left hand. Stretch the right arm upwards and
straighten it. Keep the eyes fixed on the right arm. Bring the left hand near to
the left toe. Keep the left hand in the same position and rotate the right arm
from over the waist and bring it to head level. Look downward. Then touch
the right toes with the right hand. This is the final position of Trikonasana.

Veerasana

Stand straight and erect on the ground. Keep left foot forward at the
maximum distance from the initial position. Join palms and place them on the
left knee. Bend the left leg knee and keep the right knee straight. Raise the
joined hands up and back above the head without bending the elbows. Bend
the head backward. Stay for few seconds. Slowly bring the body and hands
forward and to the original position. Repeat this with the other leg.

Vrikshanana

Stand on either leg. If difficulty is experienced to balance the body on one

leg, take the support of a wall. Bend the other leg at the knee and place its
heel at the root of the thigh of the former leg. Join the palms and raise the
arms straight over the head as if you are making and obeisance to the sky.

69
Straighten the elbows. Inhale slowly. Hold this position for about ten
seconds. Then repeat the post, standing on the other leg.

Sitting position

Padmasana

Sit on the ground. Spread the legs forward and place the right foot on the
left thigh and left foot on the right thigh. Some persons like to place first the
left foot on the right thigh and then to put the right foot on the left thigh. Either
process is right. Let the left hand rest on the left knee and the right hand on
the right knee. Let the trips of the thumbs of both the hands touch the tips of
the index fingers. Keep the hand and the spinal column erect. Keep your
eyes close or open.

Pachimottasana

Sit on the floor with the legs stretched straight in front. Bend the trunk
and hold the feet with the thumbs and the first and the middle fingers. Exhale,
and bend the trunk lower so that the head rests on the knees. Draw the
abdomen in while bending lower. This will make the bending of the trunk
easy. While bending bring the head between the arms. The aspirants having
flexible spine can touch the knees with the head at the first attempt.

Gomukasana

Sit on the floor. Fold the left leg and place the heel under the left hip.
Fold the right leg over the left thigh and place the right foot near the left hip.
Take the right arm back over the right shoulder and left arm below and
interlock both hands at the back. Retain this position for few seconds. Repeat
this with the alternate leg and hand.

70
Yogamudra

This asana is called the psychic union posture. Subjects are asked to sit in
long sitting position. Slowly bring the right leg and place it on the left thigh.
The heel of the right foot should as much as possible touch the groin. Slowly
bring the left leg and place it on the right thigh. The heel of the left foot
should as much as possible touch the groin. Slowly bring the hands back and
hold the right hand at wrist by the left hand. Slowly bend the trunk forward
until the fore head touches the ground.

Janusirasana

Sit straight and stretch the left leg forward. Bend the right leg and place
the right foot under the left thigh close to the abdomen. Raise the hands up
while inhaling and bring them down slowly while exhaling. Bend the body
forward and catch the left foot with both the palms. Try to touch the knee with
nose and rest the elbows on the ground. Empty the lungs by exhaling and hold
this position for few seconds. Come to the original position slowly.

Kneeling position

Vajrasana

Bend the legs at the knees. Place the heels at the sides of the anus in such
a way that the thighs rest on the legs and the buttocks rest on the heels.
Support the whole body on the knees and ankles. Breathe normally while
performing this asana. The knees and the ankles will perhaps ache in the
beginning but this ache or pain will disappear by itself. Stretch the arms and
place the hands on the knees. Keep the knees close by. Sit erect keeping the
trunk. The neck and head in a straight line. This is a very simple posture and
one can hold this posture with ease for a longer time.

71
Supta vajrasana

Attain vajrasana. Then with the support of the elbows lie with the back
on the ground. The back should touch the ground. Interlace the arms and put
them on the chest. Tilt the head as far back as possible. Hold this position for
eight to ten seconds. In the beginning, the back may not wholly touch the
ground. The lower part may remain in a raised position.

Ushtrasana

Sit in vajrasana. Stand on knees and separate gradually until they are I
foot apart. Place hands on the waist Bend back from the waist. Take the
hands from the waist and place them on the soles of the feet. Throw the
abdomen front and bend the head back as much as possible. Stay in this pose
for some time and breathe normally. While coming back place the hands on the
waist and sit on the knees. Come to the original position and relax.

Shashankasana

Sit in vajrasana. Inhale and raise both hands above the head with palms
facing forward. Exhale and bend forward from waist and place the hands and
the forehead on the ground a little away from the knees. Stay at this position
for a few seconds. Slowly raise the body and come to the original position
while inhaling.

Supine position

Uttanpadasana

Lie down on your back. Stretch both hands behind the head parallel to
the ears and keeping the palms facing the sky. Raise the left leg to 90o from
the ground while inhaling. Raise the right arm and touch the raises leg while

72
inhaling. Hold this for a few seconds. Bring the leg to the original position
while inhaling. Repeat this with the other leg and other hand.

Pawanmuktasana

Lie down on your back. Stretch the left leg on the floor. Bend the right
leg at the knee. Inhale and press the bent leg on the chest with both the hands
which are interlocked. Retain this position for a few seconds. Hold the
breath. Bring the leg back to the position. Relax for a few seconds and repeat
the same with the other leg.

Hastapadottasana

Lie down on your back. Raise both legs straight up to 45o. Raise the
head from waist and touch the feet with hands without bending. Only the
buttocks should be on the ground. Stay at this position for a few seconds.
Come to the original position and relax.

Ardhachakrasana

Lie down on your back. Bend both legs on knees and bring toes near to
the hip. Lift the waist and make the spine straight. Remain in this position
for a few seconds. Relax all the muscles and continue normal breathing.
Slowly lower the waist to touch the ground and bring legs to the original
position.

Savasana

Lie down on your back. Keep the feet 1 to 1.5 foot apart, arms on the
sides with palms upwards, eyes gently closed with attention on breathing.
Keep the body straight. Keep legs, hands and neck without any curves and
bends. Relax the body completely. Breathe deeply and effortlessly in a

73
natural way. Concentrate the attention on the body and relax each and every
part of the body without any tension in the body and mind. Make the mind
completely vacant and stay in this position for some time.

Prone position

Dhanurasana

Lie down on the carpet with the face downward. Inhale deeply. Bend
legs and grasp ankles with hands. Fingers of both the hands should face the
inner side of the legs. Slowly raise the hind part of the body and then the chest
like a bow. Bend the head backward. Retain this position for a few seconds.
Slowly come back to the original position while exhaling. Relax.

Bhujangasana

Lie down with the face downward touching the ground. Keep palms on
the ground just below the shoulders and wide apart from the chest. Raise the
elbow a little. Inhale and raise the front part up to the naval and backward.
Keep the heels together. Hold this position for few seconds and return to the
original position while exhaling. Relax.

Shalabhasana

Lie down with the face downward. Join the heels and keep chin on the
ground. Place hands under thighs in such a way that the palms should stick to
the thighs. Raise the hind portion and legs backward without bending while
inhaling. Stay in this position for few seconds and come to the original
position slowly while exhaling. Relax.

74
Naukasana

Lie on the carpet, face downward and touching the ground. Stretch arms
forward, palms closed together and forehead on the floor. Exhale and inhale,
lift the arms and neck up at front and legs up at the back without bending like
boat. Continue normal breathing and maintain the same posture for few
seconds. Inhale and exhale and bring knees, legs chin, and shoulder slowly to
the original position. Relax.

Makarasana

Lie on the ground face down, the chest touching the ground and both
legs stretched out. Let the upper parts of the feet touch the ground. Keep the
heels upwards. Raise the arms and put them in front of the head and hold the
middle part of the right upper arm with the left hand. Keep the head
downwards and close the eyes. The head will rest on the arms. The parts of
the arms from the elbows to shoulders, the abdomen, the thighs and the upper
parts of the feet will touch the ground in a straight line. Relax the body while
practicing this asana. Breathe deeply and meditate on God.

Pranyama

Nadi shodhana

Sit in Padmasana or Siddhasana or Sukhasana. Breathe normally.

Close the right nostril with the thumb and fill the lungs with air with left
nostril. Close the left nostril with third finger and hold the breath for
fewseconds. Lift the thumb from the right from the right nostril and exhale
slowly through the right nostril. Do this slowly and rhythmically. Increase the
process time slowly after learning the nadi shodhana properly.

75
Kaplabhati

Sit in Padmasana or siddhasana and normalize the breath. Throw the

breath out through the nose with force. Do it slowly in the beginning and
increase the speed later. In the beginning do it for 15 to 20 times. This
should be increased gradually.

Bhastrika

Sit in Padmasana or Siddhasana. Relax the mind. Close the left nostril
with right thumb. Inhale and exhale with full force through the right nostril.
First slowly and later increase the speed. Do it quickly for 20 times. Repeat
this process by closing the right nostril.

Ujjayee

Sit in Padmasana or Siddhasana. Twist the tongue inward and touch the
palate with the tongue. Now inhale and produce the sound of snoring from the
throat and exhale similarly. Do it for 15 or 20 times in the beginning and
increase gradually. The speed of the breath should be slow and equal.

Bhramari

Sit in Padmasana or Siddhasana. Close both the ears with Index

fingers. Keep the palms open and elbows on the shoulder level. Inhale
slowly and fill the lungs fully. Hold the breath for some time. Slowly exhale
producing the buzzing sound of Bhramari. Do it 5 or 7 times in the beginning
and increase gradually.

76
77
78
79
80
81
82
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The data on physiological variables were collected by using Electronic

Sphygmomanometer, stop watches and nose clips were used to monitor the
measurements for systolic pressure and diastolic pressure, pulse rate. Fasting
blood sample was collected from every subject early in the morning and it was
assessed for haemoglobin and packed cell volume. The readings were taken
from Haemoglobinometer tube and Haemoglobinometer pipette. Bio-chemical
variables such as total cholesterol, LDL- cholesterol, HDL- cholesterol and
triglycerides were assessed in the elite laboratory in Puducherry. The data was
collected two days before pre test and after (post test) the experimental period
of 16 weeks.

ADMINISTRATION OF TESTS

Physiological variables
1. Blood pressure (systolic and diastolic)
2. Resting heart rate
3. Breath holding time

Blood Pressure
Purpose
To find out the Blood Pressure (Systolic and Diastolic) through the
blood pressure monitor
Instrument
Electromagnetic Sphygmomanometer Monitor

83
Procedure

The blood pressure of the subject changes momentarily according to the

physiological tension, excitement and physical activity. So these were
considered as sensitive indicator to check the subject’s physical soundness to
assign the task. The subjects were given adequate time to relax on the chair in a
comfortable position before the blood pressure was recorded. While taking the
blood pressure the subjects right arm was completely made bare to make
certain that the clothing did not be an obstruct to take the blood pressure. The
blood pressure was of two units; viz. main unit and cuff unit. The main unit
has power switch, to ON or OFF the unit, a microphone jack to connect the
microphone plug, an air connector to connect the tube from cuff and display
unit which displays the systolic/diastolic blood pressure, inflation indicator,
deflation indicator. The cuff unit has a fastening tape, a microphone and its
positioning mark, a cuff ring, a microphone plug to insert it in to microphone
jack, a rubber tube plug to insert it into air connector and a rubber bulb with air
release adjustment valve. The source of power is a 9 volt battery. The
cuff unit was fastened on the subject’s arm with the help of positioning mark
and systolic /diastolic blood pressure was noted from the display unit. The
same procedures were adopted for all the subjects and the blood pressure
measure was recorded. From the values it was observed that the blood
pressure of all the subjects was in the normal rate.

Resting Heart Rate

Purpose
To find out the resting heart rate
Instrument
A stop watch

84
Administration
The most common places to measure heart rate using the palpitation
method are the wrist (radical artery). To take the resting heart rate at the wrist,
place index and middle fingers together on the opposite wrist, about ½ inch on
the inside of the joint, in line with the index finger. Feel for a pulse. When
you find a pulse, count the number of beats you feel within a one minute
period. We can estimate the rate per minute by counting over 30 seconds and
multiplying this figure by 2 and doubling the result.

Breath Holding Time

Purpose
To find out the subject’s maximum breathe holding time.
Instrument
A stop watch and a nose clip
Procedure

The test consisted of voluntary forced inhalation and holding the breath
as long as possible without in haling or exhaling after holding the breathe. The
subject was asked to sit on the chair and the nose clip was clamped over the
nostrils. The subject then tools a voluntary forced maximal inhalation through
his mouth. When the subject finished inhalation as indicated by raising the
Index finger by the subject, the stop was started. It was stopped as soon as the
subject started to exhale. To prevent exhalation or inhalation through the
mouth during the recording time the subject was asked to couple his lips
tightly. To detect exhalation or inhalation through the mouth the investigator
maintained a careful watch on the subject’s mouth. Two trials were permitted
for each subject and the best time was recorded.

85
Scoring

The better of the two breaths holding time was recorded in seconds as
score.

Haematological variables

1. Haemoglobin
2. Packed cell volume
Haemoglobin concentration

To find out the percentage of haemoglobin concentration in the blood.

To assess the haemoglobin concentration was estimated by

Cyanmethalmoglobin menthod was used.

Apparatus and Chemicals Required:

Sterilized syringe with needle, cotton, spirit stopper, test tube rubber bung
and drabkin’s solution, photoelectric calorimeter.

Procedure:

2 ml of EDTA blood from the subject were taken in a test tube and 5 ml
of drabkin’s solution was also added to the test tube, stopper tube by means of
a rubber bung and fix the solution through inverting several times.

1. Allow it to stand for 10 minutes at room temperature.

2. Compare the values with the standard in a photoelectric calorimeter
3. Drabkin’s solution was a mixture of 18 ml solution bicarbonate,
0.2gm of potassium cyanide and 0.2 g of potassium ferrricyanide and
1 litre of distilled water.

86
Packed cell volume
Purpose
To find out the packed cell volume in the blood
Apparatus
Wintrobe hematocrit, tubes, pipette, centrifuge and wintrobe stand.
Procedure
Collected venous blood in a wintrobe’s anti coagulant bottle. Shake the
blood to re suspend the cells properly. Fill the blood in to wintrobe tube up to
100 mm mark with the help of paster pipette having a capillary long enough of
reach the bottom of the wintrobe tube centrifuge for 30 min at 3000 rev/ min in
a centrifuge of 22.5 cm radius at a speed of 3800 rev / min centrifuge of 15 cm
radius. Read the height of red blood cell column and express it as a percentage
of whole blood. This shows the concentration of the packed volume.

BIO-CHEMICAL VARIABLES

1. Total cholesterol

2. High density lipoprotein

3. Triglycerides

4. Low density lipoprotein

Total cholesterol

Collection of Blood sample

Venous blood was collected in the early morning after the subjects were
abstained from food and drink except water for 12 hour to estimate the selected
biochemical variables. Ten ml of blood was drawn from the subjects anti

87
cubical vein by venous puncture method and the samples were collected before
and after experimental period of 12 weeks. All bio chemical parameters were
done by Bio-systems semi auto analyzer. (Model BTS -320)

Method

Enzymatic colorimetric method recommended by Siedel et al. and

Kauttermann et al., was applied for estimation of cholesterol. Bio systems
Semi Auto Analyser (model BTS -320) was used for this purpose. Enzymatic
calorimeter method, “Enzokit” supplied by BMK laboratories, Rable, Thane,
Maharashtra under the licence from Boehringer Mnnheim GMbh, Manneheim,
Germany was used for this purpose.

Test Principle

Procedure

Ten µl of serum, standard and distilled water ( blank) was incubated

with 1000 µl of the reagent at 37oC for 5 minutes and the absorbance of the
sample and standard were read at 546 nm within 1 hour against reagent blank.

Serum Cholersterol is expressed as mg /dl.

High density lipoprotein cholesterol

Method

HDL – Cholesterol was estimated by applying enzymatic colorimetric

method, as recommended by Burstein et al., and Lopes et al., Bio Systems
Semi Auto Analyser (Model BTS -320) and was used for this purpose.

88
Principle

Chylomicrons, VLDL (very low density lipoproteins) and Ldl (low

density lipoprotein) are precipitated by adding phosphotungstic acid and
magnesium ions to the sample. Centrifugation leaves only the HDL (high
density lipoproteins) in the supernatant, their cholesterol content is determined
enzymatically by cholesterol oxidase paraminophenazone method.

Reagents
Phosphotugstic acid – 0.44 mmol /1
Megnesium chloride – 20 mmol/1

Procedure
To 200 µl of sample, 500 ml of precipitating reagent was added, mixed
and kept for 10 minutes at room temperature. The tubes were centrifuged at
4000 rpm for 10 minutes and 100 µl of clear supernatant was removed for
cholesterol estimation by cholesteroloxidaseparaaminopphenazone method
with 1000µl of the reagent.

Serum HDL cholesterol is expressed as mg/dl.

Triglycerides

Method

Serum triglycerides were estimated by GPO-PAP method as recommended

by Fossati and Bio-systems Semi Auto Analyser (Model BTS -320) was used
for this purpose.

Test Principle

Triglycerides + 3 H2O ----------------►Glycerol + 3 RCOOH

89
Glycerol + ATP ------------------------►Glycerol-3- phosphate + ADP
Glycerol-3-phosphate+O2-----------►Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate + H2O2
H2O2 + 4 aminophenazone + 4-Cholrophenol--------------------------------►
4- (P- benzoquione- mono-imino)- Phenazone + 2H2O + Hcl.
Procedure

To 10µl of the sample, standard and distilled water (blank) 1000µl of the
reagent were added, mixed and incubated for 10 minutes at 29oC and the
absorbance of the test and standard were read at 500nm, against the reagent
blank.

Serum triglycerides are expressed as mg/dl.

Low density lipoprotein cholesterol

LDL-Cholesterol was calculated from the Total Cholesterol, Triglycerides

and HDL Cholesterol levels, by using the following formula recommended by
Friedwald, Levy and Fredickson.

LDL-C=Total Cholesterol – HDL Chol + TGL

5

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND STATISTICAL PROCEDURE

The study was based on the groups’ pre-test and post-test design. The
subjects chosen for the study were divided into two experimental groups and
one control group, each group consisting of 20 subjects. Of the two
experimental groups, one was assigned yogic practices and the other was given
aerobic exercises. The subjects of the control group were not allowed to
participate in any of the training programme except in their routine activities.
The data was collected for the selected physiological, haematological and bio-

90
chemical variables first at the beginning (pre-test) and finally at the end of the
experimental period of 16 weeks (post –test). The study was aimed at mainly
in finding out the effects of training on selected dependent variables. In
addition to that it had been analysed if there was any significant difference
between the Yogasana and Aerobic training program.

The data collected from the three groups were statistically analysed for
significance, the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used and the F ratio
was found out. Hence to make the adjustments for significant difference, the
analysis of covariance was used. Since, three grouped were involved,
whenever the F ratio was found to be significant for adjusted post means,
Scheff’s Post Hoc test was followed to determine which of the paired means
difference was significant. In all the cases to test the significance, 0.05 levels
of significance were fixed. The data were analysed by computer using
statistical packages.

91
 Chapter IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION

OF THE STUDY

In this chapter the data collected were analysed statistically to reveal the
purpose of study. They do not serve the purpose unless and otherwise they
were carefully processed, systematically arranged, scientifically calculated and
analysed, brilliantly interpreted and rationally concluded.
In this study the influence of two independent variables namely aerobic
exercises and yogic practices on physiological, haematological and
biochemical variables were investigated. To achieve the purpose of the study
sixty middle aged men teachers from various schools in Puducherry region
were selected as subjects at random and divided into three groups namely
aerobic exercises Group (I) yogic practices Group (II) and control Group (III).
The experimental groups I and II underwent sixteen weeks yogic practices and
aerobic exercise training respectively and the Group III acted as control. All
the subjects of the three groups were tested before and after experimental
period on selected criterion variables.
To find out the variance in the selected criterion variable, due to the
application of independent variables. Analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) was
applied on each criterion variables. Whenever the ‘F’ ratio for adjusted post
test means found significant, Scheffe’s post hoc test was applied to determine
which of the three paired means significantly differed.
Analysis of Data
The influence of independent variables on the selected criterion variable
was determined by subjecting the collected data to the analysis of variance and
analysis of variance and analysis covariance.
Level of Significance
To test the obtained results on variables, level of significance 0.05 was
chosen and considered as sufficient for the present study
 SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on systolic pressure of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table VI
Table VI
Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test data on Systolic
blood pressure of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices
group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 129.70 127.75 130.15 B.M. 2 65.10 32.55 0.34
S.D. 7.45 12.11 9.27 W.G. 57 5472.50 96.01

Post-test
Mean 121.25 122.50 126.25 B.M. 2 270.83 135.42 4.38*
S.D. 2.22 4.73 8.09 W.G. 57 1762.50 30.92

Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 123.07 121.06 125.88 B.S. 2 234.75 117.37 7.05*

W.S. 56 932.49 16.65
*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within
Sets
(Systolic Pressure in mm/Hg)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 level with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are
3.15 and 3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 129.70,
127.75 and 130.15 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.34 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group

93
and control group are found 121.25, 122.50 and 126.25 respectively. The
obtained F ratio 4.38 for post test is greater than the table value of 3.15 for df 2
and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 123.07,
121.06 and 125.88 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test
7.05 is also greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for
significance at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group;
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table VII
Table VII
Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired means on
Systolic blood pressure
Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value
Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
123.07 121.06 -- 2.01 2.44

123.07 -- 125.88 2.81 4.78

-- 121.06 125.88 4.82 14.080*

*Significance at 0.05 level

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 2.01 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value
is 2.44 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise group and
the control group is 2.81 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 4.78 (P>
0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the control
group was 4.82 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value is 14.080 (P> 0.05). From
that it can be clearly noticed that yogic practice exercise group responded to the

94
 training with more positive influences of systolic blood pressure when
compared with the aerobic exercise group and control group. The aerobic
exercise group responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control groups on systolic pressure are graphically represented in the Figure I
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control groups on systolic pressure are graphically
represented in Figure II
Figure I

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on systolic blood pressure

132
130.15
129.70

130
127.75
128
126.25

126

124 Pre test

Mm/Hg

122.50
Post test

122 121.25

120

118

116
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

95
 Figure II

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on systolic blood pressure

125.88
126

125

124
123.07
123

122
121.06
121
Mm/Hg

120

119

118
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

96
 DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on diastolic pressure of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table VIII
Table VIII
Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test data on
Diastolic blood pressure of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 85.60 84.10 85.50 B.M. 2 28.133 14.067 .588
S.D. 5.174 5.369 4.019 W.G. 57 1363.60 23.923

Post-test
Mean 80.0 79.05 84.0 B.M. 2 276.033 138.017 12.31*
S.D. 2.80 4.07 3.02 W.G. 57 638.95 11.210
Adjusted
Post-test

79.80 79.40 83.84 B.S. 2 239.49 119.748 14.76*

Mean
W.S. 56 454.21 8.111
*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(Diastolic Pressure in mm/Hg)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 level with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 85.60,
84.10 and 85.50 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.588 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 80.00, 79.050 and 84.00 respectively. The

97
obtained F ratio 12.31 for post test is greater than the table value of 3.15 for df
2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means
of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 79.80,
79.40 and 83.84 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test
14.764 is also greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for
significance at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table IX
TABLE IX

Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired means on
Diastolic blood pressure
Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value
Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
79.804 79.406 -- 0.398 0.195

79.804 -- 83.841 4.037 20.11*

-- 79.406 83.841 4.434 24.19*

*Significance at 0.05 level

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 0.398 P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 0.195 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise group
and the control group was 4.037 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 20.11
(P< 0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the
control group was 4.434 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 24.19 (P>
0.05). From that it can be clearly noticed that yogic practice group responded to
the training with more positive influences of diastolic blood pressure when

98
 compared with the aerobic exercise practice group and control group. The
aerobic exercise group responded better when compared with the control
group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on diastolic pressure are graphically represented in Figure III
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on diastolic pressure are graphically
represented in Figure IV
Figure III

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on diastolic blood pressure

86 85.6 85.5

85 84.1
84
84
83
82
81
80
Pre test
Mm/Hg

80 Post test
79.05

79
78
77
76
75
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

99
 Figure IV

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on diastolic blood pressure

83.841
84

83

82

81
Mm/Hg

79.804
80
79.406

79

78

77
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

100
 RESTING HEART RATE
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on resting heart rate of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table X
Table X
Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test data on
Resting heart rate of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 74.73 74.20 73.80 B.M. 2 6.58 3.29 0.62
S.D. 1.69 2.79 2.07 W.G. 57 223.73 5.33

Post-test
Mean 71.80 71.00 73.37 B.M. 2 59.24 29.62 8.94*
S.D. 1.72 1.83 1.73 W.G. 57 139.33 3.32
Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 71.65 71.01 73.87 B.S. 2 66.52 3.26 11.50*

W.S. 56 118.42 2.89

*Significance at 0.05 level

B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(Resting Heart Rate in beats/minute)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 levels with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 74.73,
74.20 and 73.80 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.62 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are 71.80, 71.00 and 73.73 respectively. The obtained F

101
ratio 8.93 for post test is greater than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57
required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of aerobic
exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 71.65, 71.01 and
73.87 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test 11.51 is also
greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for significance at
0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XI
Table XI
Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired means on
resting heart rate

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
71.651 71.00 -- 0.651 2

71.651 -- 73.869 2.218 23.38*

-- 71.00 73.869 2.869 39.19*

*Significance at 0.05 levels
Table F (0.05) = 6.32

In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 0.651 P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 2 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise groups and
the control group was 2.218 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 23.38 (P<
0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the control
group was 2.869 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 39.19 (P> 0.05).
From that it can be clearly noticed that yogic practice group responded to the
training with more positive influences of resting heart rate when compared with
102
the aerobic exercise practice group and control group. The aerobic exercise
group responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control groups on resting heart rate are graphically represented in Figure V.
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on resting heart rate are graphically
represented in Figure VI
Figure V

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on resting heart rate

75 74.3

74.2

74 73.8

73.37

73
Beats / Minute

72 71.8
Pre test
Post test

71

71

70

69
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

103
 Figure IV

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on resting heart rate

73.869
74

73.5

73

72.5

72
Beats /Minute

71.651

71.5
71
71

70.5

70

69.5
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

104
 BREATH HOLDING TIME
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on breath holding time of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table XII
Table XII
Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test data on
Breath holding time of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source of df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group variance of squares Ratio
Group Group squares
Pre-test
Mean 33.20 33.10 33.05 B.M. 2 0.23 0.12
S.D. 2.56 2.83 1.96 W.G. 57 367.95 6.46 0.02

Post-test
Mean 36.95 37.40 33.95 B.M. 2 140.70 70.35
S.D. 1.77 2.22 1.96 W.G. 57 238.70 4.19 16.80*

Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 36.90 37.41 33.99 B.S. 2 136.44 68.22 30.81*

W.S. 56 123.98 2.21
*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-
Within Sets
(Breath Holding Time in seconds)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 levels with df 2 and 57 and df 2 and
56 are 3.15 and 3.16 respectively.
The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 33.20,
33.10, and 33.05 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.02 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 36.95, 37.40 and 33.95 respectively. The

105
obtained F ratio 16.80 for post test is greater than the table value of 3.15 for df
2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means
of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 36.90,
37.41 and 33.99 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test 30.81
is also greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for
significance at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XIII
Table XIII
Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on breath holding time

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
36.90 37.41 --- 0.51 1.17

36.90 --- 33.9 2.92 38.5*

--- 37.41 33.9 3.42 52.9*

*Significance at 0.05 level

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 0.51 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 1.17 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise groups
and the control group was 2.92 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 38.5
(P< 0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the
control group was 3.42 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 52.9 (P> 0.05).
From that it can be clearly noticed that yogic practice group responded to the

106
training with more positive influences of breath holding time when compared
with the aerobic exercise practice group and control group. The aerobic
exercise group responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on breath holding time are graphically represented in Figure VII

The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on breath holding time are graphically
represented in the Figure VIII
Figure VII

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on Breath holding time

38 37.4
36.95
37

36

35
in seconds

33.95
34 Pre test
33.2 33.1 Post test
33.05
33

32

31

30
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

107
 Figure VIII

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on Breath holding time

38
37.41

36.9
37

36
in seconds

35

33.9
34

33

32
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

108
 HAEMOGLOBIN
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on haemoglobin of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table XIV
Table XIV
Analysis of Covariance for the pre and post test data on Haemoglobin of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source of df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group variance of squares Ratio
Group Group squares
Pre-test
Mean 13.40 13.39 13.89 B.M. 2 2.40 1.20 0.74
S.D. 1.30 0.87 1.45 W.G. 57 68.25 1.62
Post-test
Mean 14.51 14.24 13.93 B.M. 2 2.59 .29 0.93
S.D. 1.20 0.74 1.39 W.G. 57 58.54 1.40

Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 14.65 14.38 13.65 B.S. 2 7.76 3.88 16.54*

W.S. 56 9.63 0.23
*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(Haemoglobin in gm/dl)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 levels with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 13.40,
13.39 and 13.89 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.74 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 14.51, 14.24 and 13.93 respectively. The
obtained F ratio 0.93 for post test is lesser than the table value of 3.15 for df 2
109
and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 14.65,
14.38 and 13.65 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test 16.54
is greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for significance
at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XV
Table XV

Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on Haemoglobin

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
14.65 14.38 --- 0.27 0.42

14.65 --- 13.65 1.00 5.88*

--- 14.38 13.65 0.73 3.13

*Significance at 0.05 level.
Table F (0.05) = 6.32

In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 0.27 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 0.42 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise group and
the control group was 1.00 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 5.88 (P<
0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the control
group was 0.73 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 3.13 (P> 0.05). From
that it can be clearly noticed that yogic practice exercise group responded to the
training with more positive influences of haemoglobin when compared with the
110
 aerobic exercise group and control group. The aerobic exercise group
responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on haemoglobin are graphically represented in the Figure IX
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on haemoglobin are graphically
represented in Figure X

Figure IX

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
groups on Haemoglobin

14.6 14.51

14.4
14.24

14.2

14 13.89 13.93
gm / dl

13.8
Pre test
13.6 Post test

13.4 13.39
13.4

13.2

13

12.8
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

111
 Figure X

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on Haemoglobin

14.8
14.65

14.6
14.38
14.4

14.2

14
gm /dl

13.8
13.65
13.6

13.4

13.2

13
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

112
 PACKED CELL VOLUME
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on packed cell volume of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table XVI

Table XVI

Analysis of covariance for the pre and post test data on Packed cell volume
of aerobic exercises, yogic practices and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 43.60 44.0 43.81 B.M. 2 1.60 0.80 0.07
S.D. 4.06 3.60 2.34 W.G. 57 698.28 12.25
Post-test
Mean 49.37 48.87 43.98 B.M. 2 354.37 177.18 27.40*
S.D. 1.98 2.92 2.44 W.G. 57 368.64 6.47

Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 49.42 48.82 43.98 B.S. 2 356.14 178.07

31.62*
W.S. 56 315.39 5.63
*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(Packed Cell Volume in percentage)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 levels with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 43.60,
44.0 and 43.81 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.07for pre test is lesser than
the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level.
The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and
control group are found 49.37, 48.87 and 43.98 respectively. The obtained F
ratio 27.40 for post test is lesser than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57

113
required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of aerobic
exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 49.42, 48.82 and
43.98 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test 31.62 is greater
than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for significance at 0.05
level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XVII
Table XVII

Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on Packed cell volume

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
49.42 48.82 --- 0.61 0.66

49.42 --- 43.98 5.44 52.56*

--- 48.82 43.98 4.84 41.60*

*Significance at 0.05 level.

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 0.61 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 0.66 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise group and
the control group was 5.44 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 52.56 (P<
0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the control
group was 4.84 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 41.60 (P> 0.05). From
that it can be clearly noticed that aerobic exercise group responded to the
training with more positive influences of packed cell volume when compared

114
 with the yogic practice group and control group. The yogic practice group
responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on packed cell volume are graphically represented in Figure XI
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on packed cell volume are graphically
represented in Figure XII
Figure XI

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on Packed Cell volume

50 49.37
48.87
49

48

47

46
in percentage

45 Pre test
44 43.81 43.98 Post test
44 43.6

43

42

41

40
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

115
 Figure XII

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on Packed Cell Volume

50 49.42
48.82
49

48

47
in percentage

46

45
43.98
44

43

42

41
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

116
 TOTAL CHOLESTEROL
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on total cholesterol of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table XVIII
Table XVIII
Analysis of covariance for the pre and post test data on Total cholesterol
of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 190.42 190.45 190.45 B.M. 2 0.01 0.01
S.D. 19.99 21.27 26.31 W.G. 57 30873.7 541.64 0.00
Post-test
Mean 182.71 184.27 191.52 B.M. 2 883.7 441.85
S.D. 17.72 21.17 24.00 W.G. 57 26766.7 469.59 0.94

Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 182.72 184.26 191.51 B.S. 2 880.29 440.14

W.S. 56 1266.70 22.62 19.46*

*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(Total Cholesterol in mg/dl)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 level with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from the table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 190.42,
190.45 and 190.45 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.00 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 182.71, 184.27 and 191.52 respectively. The
obtained F ratio 0.94 for post test is lesser than the table value of 3.15 for df 2

117
and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 182.72,
184.26 and 191.51 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test
19.46 is greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for
significance at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XIX
Table XIX
Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on Total cholesterol

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
182.72 184.26 --- 1.53 1.01

182.72 --- 191.51 8.78 34.10*

--- 184.26 191.51 7.25 23.25*

*Significance at 0.05 level.

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 1.53 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 1.01(P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise group and
the control group was 8.78 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 34.10 (P<
0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the control
group was 7.25 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 23.25 (P> 0.05). From
that it can be clearly noticed that aerobic exercise group responded to the
training with more positive influences of total cholesterol when compared with

118
 the yogic practice group and control group. The yogic practice group
responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on total cholesterol are graphically represented in Figure XIII
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on total cholesterol are graphically
represented in the Figure XIV
Figure XIII

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on Total cholesterol

192 191.52

190.42 190.45
190.45

190

188

186
gm/ dl

184.27 Pre test

Post test
184
182.71

182

180

178
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

119
 Figure XII

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on Total cholesterol

192 191.51

190

188
gm/ dl

186
184.26
184
182.72

182

180

178
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

120
 HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on high density lipoprotein of experimental and control group have
been presented in Table XX
Table XX
Analysis of covariance for the pre and post test data on
High density lipoprotein of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 83.24 84.88 84.25 B.M. 2 27.367 13.684
S.D. 22.07 7.55 11.29 W.G. 57 12765.59 223.95 .061
Post-test
Mean 95.29 97.24 84.50 B.M. 2 1883.24 941.624
S.D. 10.28 7.22 10.953 W.G. 57 5282.68 92.67 10.16*

Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 95.690 96.906 84.44 B.S. 2 1886.97 943.488 19.22*

W.S. 56 2748.22 49.07

*Significance at 0.05 level

B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
((HDL – Cholesterol in mg/ dl)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 level with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control groups are 83.24,
84.88 and 84.25 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.061 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 95.29, 97.24 and 84.50 respectively. The
obtained F ratio 10.16 for post test is lesser than the table value of 3.15 for df 2
and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of

121
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 95.690,
95.906 and 84.44 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test
19.22 is greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for
significance at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XXI
Table XXI

Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on High density lipoprotein cholesterol

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
95.690 96.906 --- 1.216 0.3
95.690 84.44 12.44 31.58*

--- 96.906 84.44 11.25 25.82*

*Significance at 0.05 level.

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean difference between aerobic exercise
group and yogic practices group was 1.216 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value
was 0.3 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise group sand
the control group was 12.44 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was 31.58 (P<
0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and the control
group was 11.25 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 25.82 (P> 0.05).
From that it can be clearly noticed that aerobic exercise group responded to the
training with more positive influences of high density lipoprotein when

122
 compared with the yogic practice group and control group. The yogic practice
group responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on high density lipoprotein are graphically represented in Figure
XIII
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on high density lipoprotein are graphically
represented in the Figure XIV

Figure XIII

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on High density lipoprotein

100
97.24

95.29

95

90
gm/dl

Pre test
84.88 84.5 Post test
84.25
85 83.24

80

75
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

123
 Figure XIV

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on High density lipoprotein

98 96.906
95.69
96

94

92

90
gm/ dl

88

86
84.44

84

82

80

78
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

124
 TRIGLYCERIDES
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on triglycerides of experimental and control group have been
presented in Table XXII
Table XXII
Analysis of covariance for the pre and post test data on Triglycerides of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 109.45 109.16 109.77 B.M. 2 3.72 1.86 0.03
S.D. 7.85 7.96 9.14 W.G. 57 4170.82 73.17
Post-test
Mean 103.1 105.09 109.75 B.M. 2 465.99 232.99
S.D. 5.72 7.91 8.92 W.G. 57 3497.36 61.36 3.80*
Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 103.1 105.35 109.47 B.S. 2 416.70 208.35

W.S. 56 202.69 3.62 57.56*

*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(Triglycerides mg/dl)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 level with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 109.45,
109.16 and 109.77 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.03 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 103.1, 105.09 and 109.75 respectively. The
obtained F ratio 3.80 for post test is greater than the table value of 3.15 for df 2
and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of

125
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 103.1,
105.35 and109.47 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test
57.56 is also greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for
significance at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XXIII
Table XXIII
Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on triglycerides

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
103.1 105.35 --- 2.25 13.98*

103.1 --- 109.47 6.37 112.09*

--- 105.35 109.47 4.12 46.89*

*Significance at 0.05 level.

Table F (0.05) = 6.32
In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean differences between aerobic
exercise group and yogic practices group was 2.25 (P>0.05) and the calculated
F value was 13.98 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise
groups and the control group was 6.37 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was
112.09 (P< 0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and
the control group was 4.12 (P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 46.89 (P>
0.05). From that it can be clearly noticed that aerobic exercise group responded
to the training with more positive influences of triglycerides when compared
with the yogic practice group and the control group. The yogic practice group
responded better when compared with the control group.

126
 The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on triglycerides are graphically represented in Figure XV
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the control group on triglycerides are graphically
represented in Figure XVI
Figure XV

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on Triglycerides

109.77 109.75
110 109.45 109.16

108

106 105.09
gm /dl

104 103.1 Pre test

Post test

102

100

98
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

127
 Figure XVI

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on Triglycerides

110 109.47

109

108

107

106 105.35
gm/ dl

105

104 103.1

103

102

101

100

99
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

128
 LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
The statistical analysis of the data collected from the pre test and the
post test on low density lipoprotein of experimental and control group have
been presented in Table XXIV

Table XXIV
Analysis of covariance for the pre and post test data on
Low density lipoprotein of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group

Test Aerobic Yogic Control Source df Sum Mean F

Exercises Practices Group of of squares Ratio
Group Group variance squares
Pre-test
Mean 119.64 119.85 119.96 B.M. 2 1.06 0.53
S.D. 10.42 9.29 12.6 W.G. 57 7072.67 124.08 0.00
Post-test
Mean 113.03 114.22 119.51 B.M. 2 475.94 237.97 2.28
S.D. 8.47 8.71 12.25 W.G. 57 5955.51. 104.48
25
Adjusted
Post-test

Mean 113.16 114.19 119.4 B.S. 2 447.13 223.57

6.84*
W.S. 56 1830.01 32.68
*Significance at 0.05 level
B.M.-Between Means W.G. - Within Groups B.S. Between sets W.S.-Within Sets
(LDL – Cholesterol in mg/ dl)
Table value required for significant at 0.05 level with df 2 and 57 and 2 and 56 are 3.15 and
3.16 respectively.

The statistical analysis from table shows that the pre-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 119.64,
119.85 and 119.96 respectively. The obtained F ratio 0.00 for pre test is lesser
than the table value of 3.15 for df 2 and 57 required for significance at 0.05
level. The post test means of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group
and control group are found 113.03, 114.22 and 119.51 respectively. The

129
obtained F ratio 2.28 for post test is lesser than the table value of 3.15 for df 2
and 57 required for significance at 0.05 level. The adjusted post-test means of
aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control group are 113.16,
114.19 and 119.4 respectively. The F ratio obtained for adjusted post-test 6.84
is greater than the table value of 3.16 for df 2 and 56 required for significance
at 0.05 level.
The above analysis of the study indicates that there is a significant
difference among the adjusted post-test means of aerobic exercises group,
yogic practices group and control group. Further, to determine which of the
three paired means had a significant difference, the Scheffe’s was applied as
post hoc test and the results are presented in Table XXV
Table XXV
Scheffe’s test for the differences between the adjusted post test paired
means on Low density lipoprotein

Aerobic Yogic Control Mean F-Value

Exercise Practices Group Difference
Group Group
113.16 114.19 --- 1.03 2.88

113.16 ---- 119.4 6.24 105.80*

--- 114.19 119.4 5.21 73.76*

*Significance at 0.05 levels.

Table F (0.05) = 6.32

In the above table, the results of Scheffe’s Post hoc test are presented.
From the table it can be seen that the mean differences between aerobic
exercise group and yogic practices group was 1.03 (P>0.05) and the calculated
F value was 2.88 (P>0.05). The mean difference between aerobic exercise
groups and the control group was 6.24 (P<0.05) and the calculated F value was
105.80 (P< 0.05). The mean difference between the yogic practice group and
the control group was 5.21(P>0.05) and the calculated F value was 73.76 (P>
0.05). From that it can be clearly noticed that aerobic exercise group responded

130
 to the training with more positive influences of low density lipoprotein when
compared with the yogic practice group and control group. The yogic practice
group responded better when compared with the control group.
The mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice group and the
control group on low density lipoprotein are graphically represented in Figure
XIX
The adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic
practice group and the Control group on low density lipoprotein are graphically
represented in Figure XX

Figure XV

Mean values of aerobic exercises group, yogic practices group and control
group on Low density lipoprotein

119.85 119.96
120 119.64 119.51

118

116
114.22
gm/dl

114 113.03 Pre test

Post test

112

110

108
Aerobic Exercise Yogic Practices Control group
group group

131
 Figure XVIII

Adjusted post test mean values of aerobic exercise group, yogic practice
group and control group on Low density lipoprotein

120 119.4

119

118

117

116
gm/ dl

115
114.19
114 113.16

113

112

111

110
Aerobic Exercise Yogic practice Control group
group group

132
DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS
Physiological variables
The results of the study indicate that the experimental groups namely
aerobic exercise group and yogic practices group has significantly differed
from the selected dependent variables namely breath holding time, systolic
blood pressure and diastolic pressure when compared to the control group. It
is also found that the improvement caused by yogic practice group was greater
when compared to the effects caused by the aerobic exercises group.
It is a known fact that the yogic practice and aerobic exercises is best
suited for developing physical fitness and mainly improving the aerobic
capacity. The reason may be due to the regular, long time practice of
pranayama and aerobic exercises. It will also increase the efficiency of
physiological profiles. The present study also revealed that the above findings
of the study was supported by Gore, M.M., examined the effect of Kapalabhati
on some of the body functions such as breath holding time and heart rate were
significantly improved.
The results of the studies of Telles, Reddy and Nagendra examined the
effect of cyclic meditation and shavasana on some of the physiological
functions. They concluded that the breath volume and heart rate were
significantly decreased before and after sessions of cyclic meditation (CM) and
Shavasana (SH).
According to Chinnasamy, a study on effect of asanas and physical
exercise on six week training, showed that it had significantly reduced the
pulse rate and blood pressure.
Gillett and Elsenman in their study determined the effect of 16 weeks
aerobic dance programme. Random assignment was given to experimental
group and was concluded that a significant improvement was found in the
physiological variables such as breath holding time and heart rate.
The development of physiological variables through yoga and aerobic
training is supported by the findings of Telles et. al., Cox et. al., Rigla et. al.,
and Dengel et. al.

133
 It is a known fact that the yogic practices and aerobic training are best
suited for developing physiological variables. Yogic practices and aerobic
training improve the breath holding time and reduce the heart rate for the
same task. This shows that there is a great improvement in all the
physiological variables. The reason may be the pranayama(breathing
practices) and aerobic training. Yogic practices and aerobic exercises reduce
the diastolic blood pressure moderately.
Madanmohan et al. conducted a study on the effect of yoga training on
reaction time, respiratory endurance and muscular strength. It was concluded
that the yoga practice for 12 weeks showed significant reduction in visual and
auditory reaction time and increased in breath holding time. The development
of physiological variables through yogic practices and aerobic training is
supported by the findings of Telles et.al.,Cox et al., Rigla et al., and Dengel et
al.
From the results of the present study and literature, it could be
concluded that there is a significant difference exists between aerobic exercises
and yogic practices in developing dependent variables such as breath holding
time, resting heart rate, blood pressure.

Hematological Variables
Haemoglobin and packed cell volume were developed significantly by
aerobic exercise group and yogic practices group when compared to the control
group. It is also found that the improvement caused by aerobic exercises
group was greater when compared to the effects caused by yogic practice
group.
Aerobic refers to the variety of exercise that stimulates heart function
and lungs activity for a time period sufficiently long to produce beneficial
changes in the body. The heart is always able to deliver sufficient oxygen rich
blood to muscles. So that they can derive energy from fat and glycogen
aerobically, since it increases the efficiency of heart circulation and muscles.

134
The above findings of the study also confirmed by the following findings of
Khare et al ., Angelopoulos et al., and spodaryk.
From the findings of the above literature and results of the present study,
it is concluded that the significant difference exist between aerobic exercises
and yogic practices in developing dependent variables such as haemoglobin
and packed cell volume.

Bio-Chemical Variables
Total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides and
low density lipoprotein cholesterol were developed significantly by aerobic
exercise group and yogic practice group when compared to the control group.
It is also found that improvement caused by aerobic exercise group is highly
significant when compared to the effects caused by yogic practices group.
Meditation and other relaxation techniques are not only effective in
relaxation and stress management but also have a limited role in control of
hypertension and cholesterol. Increased physical activity induced a number of
positive changes in the metabolism of lipoproteins. Triglycerides were lowered
when the high density lipoprotein is increased. Since the data of the study
analysed using ANCOVA, it would be appropriate to suggest that the
experimental group showed significant difference. These above findings were
supported by the study of Kin Jsier et. al., Leon and Sanchex., Ades and
Poehiman, Leaksonen, Lemura, Khare, Manchanda et al., Damodaran et al.,
Mahajam et al., and Schmidt.
It is inferred from the above literatures and from the results of the
present study systematically designed aerobic exercises and yogic practices
develops the performance standard as the selected dependent variables are very
important qualities for better performance in almost all sports and games.
Hence it is concluded from the results of the study that systematically and
scientifically designed aerobic exercises and yogic practices may be given due
recognition and be implemented properly in the training programmes of all the
disciplines in order to achieve maximum performance.

135
DISCUSSION ON HYPOTHESIS
1. It was hypothesised that there would be a significant improvement in
physiological, haematological and bio-chemical parameters due to training for
the two experimental groups as compared to the control group. The present
study produced similar results. Hence the research hypothesis of the
investigator was held true and the null hypothesis was rejected.
2. In the second hypothesis, it was mentioned that the significant
differences exist between aerobic exercises and yogic practices groups on
selected criterion variables. The findings of the study were similar to this
hypothesis. Hence the research hypothesis was accepted and the null
hypothesis was rejected.

136
 Chapter V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

Aerobic exercises and yogic practices is an attempt to bring out

optimal gains in physiological, haematological and biochemical parameters.
The aim of the aerobic exercises and yogic practices was to bring out the
needed factors that were essential to achieve one’s own goal.

The summary of the present study was to find out the effects of aerobic
exercises and yogic practices on the selected physiological parameters such as
systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, breath holding time and
resting heart rate and on haematological parameters such as haemoglobin and
packed cell volume and on selected biochemical parameters viz., total
cholesterol, high density lipoprotein, triglycerides and low density lipoprotein.
To achieve this purpose, sixty men teachers from various schools in
Puducherry region were selected and their age ranged between 35 to 40 years.
As the subjects were all teachers, there was not much difference in the pattern
of their life style. The subjects were randomly divided into two experimental
groups and one control group. Group I was assigned aerobic exercises and the
Group II was given yogic practices. The subjects of the control group were
not allowed to participate in any of the training programme except in their
routine activities.

Among the physiological, haematological and biochemical variables the

following variables were selected as criterion variables namely systolic blood
pressure, diastolic blood pressure , breath holding time and resting heart rate,
haemoglobin, packed cell volume, total cholesterol, , HDL- Cholesterol,
triglycerides and LDL – Cholesterol .The data on physiological parameters
such as systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, breath holding time,
and heart rate were recorded by using stethoscope, stop watches and by
Sphygmomanometer,. Fasting blood samples from every subject was taken in
the morning and it was analysed for haemoglobin and packed cell volume, total
cholesterol, high density lipoprotein, triglycerides and low density lipoprotein
in a clinical laboratory. The data were collected first at the beginning (pre test)
and at the end of the experimental period of 16 weeks (post test).

The study was aimed at mainly in finding out the effects of training on
selected dependent variable. In addition to that it had been analysed if there
was any difference between the aerobics and yogic practices programme. The
collected data from the three groups were statistically analysed for significant
difference, if any, applying the analysis of covariance. Whenever the ‘F’ ratio
was found to be significant for adjusted post means, Scheffe’s test was
followed as a post-hoc test to determine the level of significant difference
between the paired means. In all the cases 0.05 level of significant was fixed to
determine the significance.

CONCLUSIONS

From the analysis of the data the following conclusions were drawn.

1. Two experimental group’s namely aerobic exercises group and yogic

practices group have achieved significant improvement as compared to control
group towards improving the selected criterion variables such as systolic blood
pressure, diastolic blood pressure, breath holding time, and resting heart rate.

138
2. Significant improvement were found in aerobic exercises and yogic
practices groups as compared to control group towards improving the selected
criterion variables such as heamoglobin and packed cell volume.

3. It is concluded that yogic practices group found to be better than aerobic

exercises group in improving breath holding time, resting heart rate, systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure.

4. It is concluded that aerobic exercises group found to be better than yogic

practices group in developing the selected haematological and bio-chemical
parameters.

5. Aerobic exercises and yogic practices groups have achieved significant

improvement on total cholesterol, Low density lipoprotein cholesterol, High
density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides as compared to control group.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. In the present study, it was concluded that the selected physiological,

hematological and bio chemical parameters were improved by aerobic
exercises and yogic practices. Hence it is recommended to the coaches, trainees
and physical educators to adopt these findings to improve physiological,
hematological and bio-chemical parameters.

2. A similar study may be conducted by psychological variables as

criterion variables.

3. A similar study may be attempted by selecting the state or national level

athletes or players as subjects.

139
4. A similar study may be attempted by selecting the diabetic and hyper
tension patients as subjects.

5. A similar study may be conducted on female subjects.

140
 Appendix I

AEROBIC EXERCISES TRAINING PROGRAMME

Aerobic Intensity Repetition Set Frequency Each Rest in

Week Exercise (1 RM) per week Aerobic Between
Exercise Aerobics
Forward
Sideward
1-4 Backward 50 % 10 times 5 3 days 1 minute 30
Kick seconds
Lunge
Forward
Sideward
5-8 Backward 60% 8 times 5 3 days 1 30
Kick minute Seconds
Lunge
Forward
Sideward
9-12 Backward 70% 6 times 5 3 days 1 30
Kick minute seconds
Lunge
Forward
Sideward
13-16 Backward 80% 4 times 5 3 days 1 minute 30
Kick seconds
Lunge
(RM- Repetition Maximum)

153
 Appendix II

YOGIC PRACTICES TRAINING PROGRAMME

Week Yogasana Intensity Repetition set Frequency Each Rest in

positions per week Asana between
Asanas
Standing
Sitting
1-4 Kneeling 50% 10 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone minute Seconds
Supine
Pranayama
Standing
Sitting
5-8 Kneeling 60% 8 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone minute Seconds
Supine
Pranayama
Standing
Sitting
9-12 Kneeling 70% 6 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone minute Seconds
Supine
Pranayama
Standing
Sitting
13-16 Kneeling 80% 4 times 6 3 days 1 30
Prone minute seconds
Supine
Pranayama
(RM –Repetition Maximum

154
 APPENDIX III

RAW DATA ON SYSTOLIC PRESSURE OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,

YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (mm/Hg)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 130 125 121 120 132 130

2 140 120 133 125 124 120

3 110 120 120 120 122 120

4 120 120 137 120 144 140

5 130 125 145 125 130 130

6 110 120 125 120 126 120

7 130 120 127 120 114 120

8 140 125 130 125 120 120

9 120 120 140 120 120 120

10 124 120 125 120 130 125

11 131 125 130 125 140 140

12 160 140 140 120 150 140

13 125 120 120 120 136 130

14 120 120 120 120 130 120

15 130 120 130 120 130 130

16 135 125 140 125 140 140

17 140 125 130 120 125 120

18 110 120 128 120 120 120

19 130 120 125 120 140 120

20 120 120 128 120 130 120

155
 APPENDIX IV
RAW DATA ON DIASTOLIC PRESSURE OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (mm/Hg)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 85 80 93 85 81 81

2 90 80 82 80 81 80

3 80 80 82 75 91 85

4 80 80 80 80 90 85

5 90 80 83 80 91 90

6 75 80 95 80 90 90

7 88 80 79 80 83 80

8 90 85 83 80 84 85

9 90 80 82 80 85 85

10 90 85 85 75 80 80

11 80 75 83 80 90 85

12 80 70 93 85 90 85

13 85 70 89 80 80 80

14 80 80 90 85 85 85

15 85 80 85 80 84 84

16 90 85 88 80 86 86

17 90 78 82 80 84 84

18 80 78 80 75 80 80

19 78 75 83 80 85 85

20 76 80 95 80 90 85

156
 APPENDIX V
RAW DATA ON BREATH HOLDING TIME OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (Seconds)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 33 38 33 35 35 36

2 39 42 32 36 34 34

3 30 38 35 39 34 35

4 38 40 30 37 35 38

5 30 35 35 38 30 31

6 32 35 32 37 33 33

7 34 38 30 35 30 32

8 32 35 32 35 35 34

9 32 38 35 38 30 32

10 33 38 40 42 32 34

11 40 42 33 38 32 32

12 33 38 32 36 34 33

13 30 35 31 38 35 32

14 30 38 32 35 35 38

15 32 35 32 38 34 34

16 31 36 32 35 34 34

17 35 40 35 38 35 36

18 33 35 30 36 30 33

19 32 36 38 35 30 32

20 33 36 35 38 34 36

157
 APPENDIX VI
RAW DATA ON RESTING HEART RATE OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (Beats/Minute)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 78 73 73 70 74 72

2 78 75 76 72 72 72

3 77 70 72 72 72 72

4 74 70 75 72 74 74

5 75 72 74 70 76 78

6 72 70 77 74 72 75

7 76 70 78 74 74 76

8 78 70 75 70 76 76

9 78 72 76 72 78 74

10 73 72 78 74 75 73

11 76 70 75 70 74 72

12 75 71 76 72 76 74

13 77 72 78 72 75 74

14 78 72 76 70 72 72

15 74 68 74 70 74 72

16 72 70 73 72 72 72

17 76 72 75 72 76 74

18 75 70 74 72 74 72

19 77 72 76 74 78 74

20 78 72 78 74 72 71

158
 APPENDIX VII
RAW DATA ON HAEMOGLOBIN OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (gm/dl)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 13.5 14.5 13.6 15.1 12.5 12.9

2 14.5 15.8 14.5 16.5 13.5 13.6

3 13.1 14.3 13.5 14.8 14.6 16.5

4 16.2 16.5 14.8 15.8 15.5 15.8

5 14.1 15.5 12.5 14.6 14.5 14.2

6 14.9 15.8 13.5 15.5 13.6 13.8

7 15.5 16.8 13.5 15.5 14.1 14.2

8 13.5 14.8 12.8 16.5 12 12.2

9 14.5 15.8 15.5 16.5 15.9 15.5

10 14.8 16.2 16.1 16.8 16 16.6

11 14.7 16.5 16.2 16.9 14.5 14.6

12 15 15.9 14.5 15.8 15.1 15

13 13 14.5 15.8 16.8 15.2 15.8

14 14.9 16.5 14.2 16.9 16.3 16

15 13.7 15.5 15.1 16.8 15.8 15.7

16 14.5 16.8 13.5 14.9 13.5 13.6

17 16.2 16.5 14 16.8 16.7 16.5

18 15.5 16.8 13 15.5 14.1 14.2

19 14.8 16.5 15.5 16.8 15 15.5

20 15 16.4 14.5 16.5 15.1 15

159
 APPENDIX VIII
RAW DATA ON PACKED CELL VOLUME OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (Percentage)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 44 48 40 49.2 45 48

2 44.3 49.1 43.2 50.5 44.5 46

3 46 42.8 37 51 42.3 43

4 39 42.5 36.5 45.2 39.4 40.1

5 38 48.6 41 48 41 42

6 39 45.2 40.25 45.1 43.2 44

7 41 52 48 48 47 45

8 39.8 49 46 47.3 45 44

9 42 45.9 37 48.4 39 38.8

10 44 52.5 50.1 49.5 46 46.5

11 44 49.9 47 50 45 45

12 46 52.1 46 52.2 45.1 45.3

13 48 49.5 42.5 51 40 39

14 51 51 47 49 42 42

15 50.3 50.3 41 52.3 47 46.2

16 44.5 46.8 43.6 49 44.3 43.8

17 41 52.1 48 51 45.2 45.5

18 44 52.5 49.2 49 45 45.3

19 46 49.3 46 49.5 45.2 44

20 48 48.3 42.5 52.1 45 46.1

160
 APPENDIX IX
RAW DATA ON TOTAL CHOLESTEROL OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (mg/dl)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 169.6 164.9 166.9 152 198.3 192.5

2 168.2 165.4 172.6 166.5 205.6 200.5

3 180.5 170.1 198.3 192.3 216 220

4 192.8 180.3 209.3 200.5 220 220

5 166.4 154.5 210.5 200.3 240.3 230.5

6 177.3 170.8 160 155.8 185.3 195.5

7 180 175.2 176.3 170.5 185.6 192.8

8 165.5 160.5 155.6 157.8 208.6 200

9 228.7 220.6 168.6 162.8 218 220

10 195.5 180.5 206.5 193.2 175 175.9

11 217.5 212.3 199.5 190.4 166 165

12 200 196.3 166.9 160.5 155.5 162

13 179.1 175.3 215.3 210.2 142.5 150

14 175.6 173.2 210.5 204.9 164 162

15 160.3 163.6 206.4 195.2 155 160

16 228.7 225.3 168.6 176.2 218 220

17 217.5 210.5 199.5 185 180.2 185.2

18 192.8 186.3 210.5 195.3 220 220

19 195.5 183.4 206.5 194.5 175 175.9

20 217.5 216.4 200 190.2 180 182.5

161
 APPENDIX X
RAW DATA ON HDL CHOLESTEROL OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (mg/dl)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 79 88.5 80.45 89 95.15 95

2 75 86.1 83.3 91.25 90.18 89.5

3 83.2 97.05 90.25 94.15 95 96

4 89 97.15 97 98 98 95

5 77.8 89.75 90 107 103 103

6 76.2 88.65 75.5 87.25 88.65 89

7 75.6 87.25 83.15 98.3 78.8 79.1

8 72.86 87.25 69.8 86.9 95.3 95

9 110 115.8 81.3 94.4 98 98

10 90 95.5 90.3 99.6 78.5 79

11 113.2 113.65 83 107 84 85

12 9.5 93.65 75.45 88.25 67.25 68

13 82 85.5 93 98 62.25 65

14 77.5 86.5 85.5 106 73 70

15 74 88.5 95 102.2 68.5 70

16 90.5 93.45 75.85 88.25 84 85

17 77.5 89.75 95 107 85 88

18 110 115.78 80.3 95.5 78 80

19 90 95.5 90.5 99.6 78.5 75.5

20 112 110.65 83 107.2 84 85

162
 APPENDIX XI
RAW DATA ON TRIGLYCERIDES OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (mg/dl)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 107.2 100.2 104.2 99.8 107.5 106.2

2 99.5 95.5 101.5 95.2 101.5 101.5

3 111.3 100.3 99.8 96.4 120.4 120.2

4 120.4 110.3 101.4 99.3 107.5 105.2

5 103.4 95.3 107.5 101.2 129.1 128.2

6 106.3 98.2 100 96.4 108.1 108.1

7 117.1 108.1 98.4 95.3 106.5 108.5

8 100.35 95.55 98.05 96.2 98.4 100.4

9 129.1 120 105.05 99.8 110.2 111.2

10 108.1 100.3 125.2 115.4 102.4 102.4

11 126.1 112.8 105 100.2 99.8 100

12 106.05 98.4 125 115.2 102.4 102.5

13 100.05 95.5 100.35 96.3 105.8 104.6

14 98.4 95.4 110.2 102.2 120.1 120.1

15 102.3 98.3 105.4 101.3 102.4 102.3

16 108.1 100.5 102.3 98.4 112.5 112.4

17 102.7 95.5 102.4 98.4 100.4 101.4

18 99.8 96.3 110.5 103.4 130.5 130.5

19 102.5 95.8 99.5 96.3 115 114

20 105.2 99.4 105.2 101.02 114.8 115.2

163
 APPENDIX XII
RAW DATA ON LDL CHOLESTEROL OF AEROBIC EXERCISES,
YOGASANA PRACTICES AND CONTROL GROUPS (mg/dl)
Sl.No. Yogasana group Aerobic group control group
Pretest Post test Pretest Post test Pretest Post test
1 112 108.2 109 102.5 115.3 116.5

2 117 110.4 111.5 105 119.5 120.1

3 126 110.2 120 115 125.2 126

4 112 109.5 118.15 112.5 124 132

5 125.8 115.4 127 110 116.5 125

6 120 110.5 107.5 110.5 124.2 110.65

7 110.2 130.3 130.5 125.5 114 100.8

8 108 105.5 106.9 105.2 120 117.3

9 105.3 110.5 114.4 105 101.95 102.5

10 142 130.8 119.6 110.6 106.4 105.2

11 124 110.4 127 115.4 100.2 105.4

12 115 102.8 108.25 105.2 96 102.4

13 128 115.2 125 120 145 140

14 130.2 130.4 135.1 125.2 115.25 113.4

15 130 125.8 135.4 120.5 126 125

16 112 105.5 109 102 130.5 130

17 125 120 127 125.2 129 128

18 120.5 115 140.2 130 114 115

19 126 115.4 114.15 110.4 140.2 140.3

20 108 102.5 106.9 104.8 135.8 134.5

164
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Nursing and Allied Health (Ed:3), New York: C.W.B. Saunders
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