Mechanics of Solids 1 / 22

Chapter 1 TENSION, COMPRESSION & SHEAR

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Mechanics of Solids = deals with the relation between the loads applied to a solid
(nonrigid) body and the resulting internal forces &
deformations induced in the body.

Principle Objective = determine the stresses, strains, and displacements in structures &
their components due to loads acting on them.

Alternate Names = Strength of Materials

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Course will provide a basis to determine:

1. the materials to be used in constructing a machine or structure to perform a
given function.
2. the optimal sizes and proportions of various elements of a machine or
structure.
3. if a given design is adequate and economical.
4. the actual load carrying capacity of a structure or machine. (structure may
have been design for a purpose other than one being considered)

1.2 NORMAL STRESSES & STRAINS

Consider a Prismatic Bar

PRISMATIC = straight member with constant cross section

P P

P = AXIAL FORCE, bar is in tension

SIDE VIEW: L

Before Loading

m δ

After Loading d
P P
n
Cut the bar at mn & draw a FBD of the left part of the bar
These forces are continuously
m distributed over the cross sectional.
σ The intensity of the force is called
P STRESS , = σ (SIGMA)
n
Mechanics of Solids 2 / 22
Chapter 1

If continuously distributed, the resultant is:

R = σA _____________________________(a)
A = cross sectional area
The bar is in equilibrium,
R = P _______________________________(b)
From (a) & (b):
P = σA ______________________________(c)

Solve for the stress,

P
σ= ____________________________(1-1)
A

FORCE
UNITS:
AREA

US SI
1 psi = 1 lbs / sq. in. 1 N / m2 = 1 Pa (PASCAL)
1,000 lbs = 1 kip 1 N/ mm2 = 1 MPa (m= 10-3 ; M= 106)
1,000 psi = 1 ksi
1 psi ≈ 7,000 Pa

Normal Stress = stress to the cut surface.

Can be TENSILE or COMPRESSIVE

Tensile Stress = stretching or pulling member; member is in tension

Compressive Stress = compressing or compacting member; member is in compression

Sign Convention: tensile = + stress

Compressive = - stress
NOTE: Eqn (1-1) is only valid if:

1. σ is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the member.

2. The axial force P acts thru the centroid (center of mass…gravity) of the cross
section.
When stress is not uniformly distributed over cross section, the Eqn (1-1) gives the
AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS.
When P does not act at centroid, bending will occur and analysis is more complex (Ch 5).
Mechanics of Solids 3 / 22
Chapter 1
RECALL the Prismatic Bar, the definition of Strain is:

δ
ε=
L __________________________(1-2)

LENGTH
UNITS: (dimensionless but units in which strain was measure are used)
LENGTH

US SI
in / in mm / m
μm / m
OR as a percent.

Normal Strain is associated with Normal Stresses ( to the cut surface).

Tensile Strain = member is stretched ( + strain).

Compressive Strain = member is compressed (- strain).

UNIAXIAL STRESS & STRAIN

The use of Eqns (1-1 & (1-2) are that:

1. deformation of the member is uniform.

2. member is prismatic (straight with constant cross section ).
3. loads act through the centroid of the cross section.
4. material is homogeneous (same throughout all parts of the member).

The stress and strain result for these conditions is called Uniaxial Stress & Strain.

In conclusion:

- stress provides a measure of the intensity of an internal force.

- strain provides a measure of the intensity of a deformation.

Mechanics of Solids 4 / 22
Chapter 1

EXAMPLE No. 1

GIVEN:
The crane structure below supports a load of 17,660 N. If member AB is
a steel bar 15 mm in diameter:

4m 4m 4m

A B C D

9m E
F 17,660 N

FIND:
a. The force transmitted by member AB

b. The axial stress in member AB

SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 5 / 22
Chapter 1

EXAMPLE No. 2

GIVEN:
In the following figure, the axial stresses are 1500 psi C in the wood post B and
20, 000 psi T in the steel bar A.

A Steel
Area = ½ in2
6” 10”
P

O
B Wood
Area = 7 in2

FIND:
Load, P

SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 6 / 22
Chapter 1

EXAMPLE No. 3

GIVEN:
Consider the loads in the following figure to be axially applied at sections B, C, and D to
the concrete structure supported at A. The cross sectional areas are: CD = 8,000 mm2;
BC = 2,000 mm2; AB = 12,000 mm2. All loads are in kN.
80

D
60 60

C
85 85

B
120 120
A
FIND:
Axial stress in the concrete
a.) in section CD
b.) in section BC
c.) in section AB

SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 7 / 22
Chapter 1
1.3 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAMS

Mechanical Properties of materials are determined by testing specimens of the material.

See Tensile Testing Machine, TEXT Pg 11 (Fig 1-7)

Data obtained = P (load) vs δ (displacement, elongation)

See Fractured Specimen, TEXT Pg 12 (Fig 1-8). Notice that around the fracture the
diameter of the specimen is reduced ( necking).

P
The AVERAGE axial stress is: σ=
A

NOMINAL STRESS (σn ) = stress value when initial area of specimen is used.

TRUE STRESS (σt ) = stress value when actual area of specimen at the time of fracture is
used.

σn < σt

δ
The AVERAGE axial strain is: ε= where, δ = L f − Li
L

NOMINAL STRAIN (εn ) = stain value when the initial length ( Li, gage length ) of the
specimen is used.

TRUE STRAIN (εt ) = strain value when the actual length of the specimen at fracture is
Used ( Lf ). Also called, natural strain.

εn > εt

After testing, the stress vs strain is plotted and the result is a stress – strain diagram for
the material tested.

Each material has its own characteristic stress – strain diagram. This diagram provided
important information about the mechanical properties behavior for the material.

Structural steel is one of the most used metals and is found in buildings, bridges, cranes,
ships, vehicles.
 Mechanics of Solids 8 / 22
Chapter 1

Typical Stress – Strain Diagram for structural steel.

σ E’

Ultimate D
stress

E
B C Fracture
Yield stress
Proportional
limit A

ε
O
Perfect Strain Necking
plasticity hardening
or yielding
FIGURE 1-10
Linear TEXT Pg 15
region ( NOT TO SCALE )

DO DIAGRAM IN PARTS

O to A
1. straight line; stress and strain are proportional
2. the slope of the straight line:
σ
Modulus of Elasticity: E = UNITS: same as stress
ε
Beyond A ( proportional limit )
3. stress and strain are no longer proportional

A to B
4. the strain increases more rapidly than the stress. Slope decreases to 0 (zero) at B

B to C
5. yielding = considerable elongation occurs with no noticeable increase in tensile
force. Thus, B is the Yield Point. Corresponding stress is the Yield Stress.
6. material is perfectly plastic ( = deforms without increasing applied load)
Mechanics of Solids 9 / 22
Chapter 1
C to D
7. due to the large strains occurring from B up to C, the crystalline structure of the
material undergoes changes that allows the material to withstand higher loads.
This is call Strain Hardening
8. eventually a maximum stress value is obtained called, the Ultimate Stress

D to E
9. the specimen continues to be stretched (elongated) even though the load is
reduced. Fracture occurs at E
10. lateral contractions occur. This results in a decrease in the cross sectional area
and is called Necking. Becomes apparent in the vicinity of the Ultimate Stress
(See TEXT Pg 16, Fig 1-11)

C to E’
11. if the actual “necked” cross sectional area is used to compute the stress, the curve
will follow CE’

NOTE: The total load the specimen can carry decreases after the Ultimate Stress is
encountered. However, this is due to the decrease in AREA not to a loss
of strength in the material.

For most cases, the curve OABCDE is used which is based on the initial cross sectional
area of the specimen.

Stress – Strain Diagram was not drawn to scale. See TEXT Pg 17 (Fig 1 -12) for a
diagram drawn to scale.

Ductile = ability to undergo large strains before failure.

Ductile Materials:
1. mild steel (low carbon, structural steel)
2. aluminum
3. copper

Read the rest of this section (Pg 17 – 20)

- Aluminum Alloys
- Offset Method ⇒ Offset Yield Stress
- Rubber
- % eleongation
- % reduction in area
- Brittle ⇒ glass
- Plastics
- Stress-strain diagrams for compression

Important Mechanical Properties for various materials can be found in Appendix H

(Pg 911 – 915)
Mechanics of Solids 10 / 22
Chapter 1
1.4 ELASTICITY & PLASTICITY

We have considered what happens when a material (structural steel) is loaded.

What happens during unloading??

ELASTIC BEHAVIOR PARTIALLY ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

σ σ
F B F
loading E loading
A E
A
unloading

unloading

ε C D ε
O O
Elastic Plastic
Residual
Strain
Elastic
Recovery
Consider the loading and unloading of a tensile specimen in the following:

O to A
When loading is removed, the material follows exactly the same curve back to O.
This property of the material to return to its original dimensions is called elasticity.
Stress-strain curve need not be linear in the elastic region.

E = Elastic Limit = the max. stress value for which the behavior of the material remains
completely elastic.

Generally, the elastic limit is slight more or the same as the proportional limit.

For mild steel, yield stress, elastic limit, and proportional limit are considered equal.

O to B
When unloaded from B (above the elastic limit), the material will follow BC which is
parallel to a tangent at O on the stress-strain curve.

At C, the load has been completely removed, but a permanent set (residual strain) is now
in the material represented by OC. The tensile specimen is now, longer than it was
originally (permanent set).

OD represents the total strain developed during loading from O to B. Of this, the strain
CD has been recovered elastically. Therefore, the material is partially elastic.
Mechanics of Solids 11 / 22
Chapter 1
Plasticity = when a material has inelastic strains beyond the strain at the elastic limit.

Plastic Flow = large deformations that occur in ductile materials loaded in the plastic
region.

σ
B F
A E

unloading

loading

C ε
O
Residual
Strain

RELOADING
1. new loading begins at C and goes to B (unloading point from previous cycle).
2. from B, original stress-strain curve is followed.
3. Material is linearly – elastic from C to B
4. B is the new Proportional Limit (higher than original Prop. Limit)

Properties of the material are changed by stretching it into the plastic region.
- Linear elastic region is increased
- Proportional Limit is raised
- Elastic limit is raised
- BUT: ductility is reduced because YIELDING from B to F is less than from E to F

NOTE:
- F is not necessarily failure (could be, but not necessarily)
- If B is exceed (new elastic limit), then a new unloading line is created, parallel to CB
which is also, parallel tangent at O.

CREEP

Creep = plastic deformation that continues to increase under a constant stress.

Strains resulting from a constant load over a long period of time.

Mechanics of Solids 12 / 22
Chapter 1
1.5 LINEAR ELASTICITY, HOOKE”S LAW & POISSON’S RATIO

Linearly Elastic = region where the material is both linear and elastic as illustrated in
previous stress-strain diagrams (from O to A, FIG 1-10, Pg 15 ). Designs which stay
within this region avoid yielding and permanent deformations.

σ
We defined Modulus of Elasticity as: E= (slope of line OA, FIG 1-10)
ε
Also called, Young’s Modulus

Hooke’s Law: σ = Eε where σ = axial stress

ε = axial strain
only valid when: σ < σy

Stretching a bar results in the bar getting:

- longer
- thinner
Thinning is due to a lateral strain (strain normal to the direction of applied load).

The lateral strain at a given point in the bar is proportional to the axial strain at that point
IF the material is linearly elastic.

For the lateral strains to be proportional throughout:

1. material must be homogenous (same composition throughout)
2. material must be isotropic (have the same properties in all directions)

ε'
Poisson’s ratio: ν =−
ε
where ε’ = lateral strain
ε = axial strain
ν (nu) = poisson’s ratio

Anisotropic = material with properties that vary with direction

Orthotropic = material properties vary at perpendicular directions (plywood)

For isotropic materials: 0.25 < ν < 0.35 (most metals)

Theoretical upper limit: ν = 0.5 (rubber)

ν is assumed to be the same in both tension and compression.

Mechanics of Solids 13 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 1

GIVEN:
An axial load of 430 kN is slowly applied to a 25 x 100 x 2500 mm rectangular bar.
When loaded (the action is elastic) the 100 mm side measures 99.965 mm and the length
has increased 2.50 mm. 25 mm

FIND: P = 430 kN

a.) Poisson’s ratio 100 mm

b.) Young’s Modulus
P = 430 kN
SOLn: 2500 mm
Mechanics of Solids 14 / 22
Chapter 1
P = 140 kip
EXAMPLE No. 2

GIVEN:
Pipe is compressed by axial force, P = 140 kip;
L = 40 ft; d1 = 4.5 in (I.D.); d2 = 6.0 in (O.D.).
E = 30,000 ksi; ν = 0.30 (poison’s ratio)
40’ 4.5” t
FIND:
a.) the shortening, δ
b.) lateral strain, ε’
c.) O.D. increase, Δd2 and I.D. increase, Δd1
d.) increase in wall thickness, Δt 6”

SOLn:
 Mechanics of Solids 15 / 22
Chapter 1
1.6 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

P P

P P

FLAT BAR CLEVIS

BOLT

Due to action of tensile load, P, the BAR and CLEVIS will press against the bolt and
contact stresses called BEARING STRESSES will be developed in the bolt.

CLEVIS
m n
BAR
p q
CLEVIS

FBD of BOLT

BEARING STRESS: 1. assumed to be uniformly distributed

2. average bearing stress = total bearing force ÷ bearing area
3. IN THIS CASE, bearing area = the projected area of the curved
surface which is a rectangle.
Fb
σb =
Ab
Ab = td
t = thickness of bearing member (bar or
clevis half)
d = diameter of bolt

For bearing stress between bolt and bar, Fb = P

between bolt and clevis half, Fb = ½ P

Mechanics of Solids 16 / 22
Chapter 1
Shear Stress ( τ ) = Stress that acts parallel to the surface of the material.
τ
m n

mV n
BAR
p
V q

FBD of bolt portion mnpq

The shear force acts on 2 surfaces, thus the bolt is in DOUBLE SHEAR.

The SHEAR FORCES, V, are due to SHEAR STRESSES distributed over

the cross-sections mn and pq.

V
τ avg = average shearing stress ( UNITS = )
A FORCE
AREA
For this example: V = ½ P (double shear)
A = ¼ πd 2

When the shearing stresses (as in this example) are created by the direct action of the
forces trying to cut through the material it is called DIRECT SHEAR (or simple shear).

Generally, direct shear occurs in the design of bolts, pins, rivets, keys, welds, and glued
joints.

Members in tension, torsion & bending can indirectly produce shearing stress.

In general, for a small element of material we have:

τ
x

z
This block is in pure shear (to be discussed later, Ch 3)
Mechanics of Solids 17 / 22
Chapter 1
These shearing stresses cause the block to deform as shown. Thus causing SHEARING
STRAINS within the material

The shear stresses cause the block to change shape, but the lengths of the sides do not
change.

γ (gamma) = measure of the distortion and is called SHEAR STRAIN

UNITS = radians

SIGN CONVENTION for SHEAR STRESSES (text, pg 33)

POSITIVE FACE: outward normal is in direction of a positive axes.Opposite faces are negative.

POSITIVE SHEAR STRESS: Acts on a positive face in the positive direction of an axis.
Anything else is negative.
SHEARING STRESSES ON:

POSITIVE FACES NEGATIVE FACES

SIGN CONVENTION for SHEAR STRAINS (text, pg 33)

1. when angle between 2 positive or 2 negative faces decreases, γ is +
2. when angle between 2 positive or 2 negative faces increases, γ is –
+F +F
THUS: + SHEAR → + STRAIN
- SHEAR → - STRAIN Decease in angle → +γ

π/2 - γ
π/2 + γ
Mechanics of Solids 18 / 22
Chapter 1
HOOKE’S LAW in shear applies to the linear elastic region of the shear stress – strain
diagram.

These diagrams are similar in shape to tensile stress – strain diagrams, except magnitudes
are different.
τ = Gγ Hooke’s Law in shear

G = Shear Modulus of Elasticity ( Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity)

UNITS: same as E, elastic modulus
SI: N / m2 = Pa
US: psi or ksi

Typical Values for E & G are listed in Table H-2, Appendix H (text, pg 913)
E
E & G are related by : G= ν = Poisson’s Ratio
2(1 +ν )

1.7 ALLOWABLE STRESSES & ALLOWABLE LOADS

actual strength
Factor of Safety = n = required strength

n must be greater than 1.0 for no failure USUALLY: 1.0 < n < 10

If n is too small, failure could occur.

If n is too large, waste material / increased weight / increased cost

Many ways to establish n

1. Allowable or Working Stress

yield stress
a.) Allowable Stress = factor of safety
σy
σ allow =
n
Used when material is to remain in the linear – elastic range.
Typically, for mild steel, n = 1.67

ultimate stress
b.) Allowable Stress = factor of safety
σu
σ allow =
n
Used for brittle materials: Concrete
High strength steels
Typical values, n = 2.8
2. Service or Working Loads
Mechanics of Solids 19 / 22
Chapter 1

ultimate load
Factor of Safety = n = service load

ultimate load = load that produces failure

Strength design or Ultimate load design

ultimate load = (service load) (n)

sometimes called “LOAD FACTOR”

structure is design so that it can just sustain the ultimate load.

Margin of Safety

margin of safety = n – 1

failure occurs when margin of safety = 0.00

Mechanics of Solids 20 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 1

GIVEN:
A lever is attached to the steel gate valve operating shaft by means of a ½ x ½ x 1 inch
key. A Load of 200 lbs is applied to the level.

FIND:
Average cross shearing stress in the key.

SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 21 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 2
OMIT
GIVEN:
A structural steel bar, 30 mm in diameter, is subjected to an axial tensile load of 27π kN.

FIND:
a. the normal and shearing stresses on a plane through the bar that makes an
angle of 30° with the direction of the load.

b. the maximum normal and shearing stresses in the bar

SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 22 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 3

GIVEN:
The rigid bar DC in the figure shown is horizontal under no load and bars A and B are
unstressed. When the load P is applied, the axial strain in bar B is found to be 0.0015.
The material properties are as listed in the following table.

BAR MATERIAL σy (MN/m2) σu (MN/m2) E (GN/m2)

A Steel 500 800 200
B Cold-Rolled Brass 400 500 100

400 mm
B
A 200 mm

C D

100 mm 100 mm 50 mm
P

FIND:
The factor of safety with respect to failure by yielding for each bar.

SOLn: