Electrical Power Quality and Utilisation, Journal Vol. XII, No.

2, 2006

Methods of Voltage Unbalance Estimation

in Electric Power Networks
Zbigniew OLCZYKOWSKI , Andrzej W¥SOWSKI
Technical University of Radom, Poland

Summary: Methods of voltage unbalance estimation based on the theory of symmetrical Key words:
components and the method of differential — angular coefficients of asymmetry have been voltage unbalance,
discussed. It has been proposed the last one to estimate the asymmetry of square absolute voltage symmetric component,
value, as useful for distorted processes. differential coefficient,
differential angle

1. INTRODUCTION In overall case, line voltages:

Polish access to European Union required plenty of work U AB = U 1 + U 2 (3)

concerning adjustment of Polish Standards to International
(IEC) and European (CENELEC) Standards. At present,
measures concerning popularization unified requirements and U BC = a 2 U 1 + aU 2 (4)
their controlling methods are taken at different conferences
and in different scientific magazines.
The subject of this paper is line voltage unbalance in three U CA = aU 1 + a 2 U 2 (5)
phase electric power networks. Current situation requires both
further detailed research in this subject (or even changes of
particular requirements) and conducting the popularization of ( a = −1 / 2 + j 3 / 2 ) have different absolute values and
power quality subject in wide range and on different levels [1]. their phase angles are different from 1200 (they do not create
Measures concerning popularization include familiarization equilateral triangle).
both electric and other professions staff with requirements In power electric network, the conjugate coefficient of line
and measuring methods, hence existence of both scientific voltage unbalance of the form (6) is most often used to the
and popular publications. assessment of voltage unbalance [1]:

2. SYMMETRIC COMPONENT METHOD U 2 U AB + a 2 U BC + aU CA U 2 j yu

ku = = = e (6)
U 1 U + aU + a 2U U1
AB BC CA
Basic method using in electrotechnics to analysis and
estimation of current and voltage unbalance in three phase In practice, it is not necessary to take into account the
circuits is symmetric component method [2]. angle yu – phase angle between positive sequence and
At the reference to line voltage – voltages UAB, UBC, negative sequence components and estimation of unbalance
UCA are replaced with symmetric components: is performed on the basis of the coefficient of line voltage
— positive sequence: unbalance defined in the following form:

=
(U AB + aU BC + a 2 U CA ) (1)
U AB + a 2 U BC + aU CA U2
U1
3 ku = = (7)
U AB + aU BC + a U CA2 U1
— negative sequence:
Determination of the coefficient ku from formulas (6) and

U2 =
(U AB + a U BC + aU CA
2
) (2)
(7) requires knowledge of complex values of line voltage. It
was argued a long time ago that equivalent result can be
3 obtained using simple trigonometric relationships calculating
for between-lines voltage triangle, then formulas (3–5) can
(Zero components do not exist in line voltages). be presented in following forms:
In the case of negative sequence component U2 = 0, there
exists only circuit of positive sequence component U1 and U AB = U 1 (1 + k u ) (8)
three phase circuit is symmetric, similarly it is possible to
assume that U1=0 and then there is only circuit of U2.
However if U1 ¹ 0 and U2 ¹ 0 then three phase circuit is U BC = a 2 U 1 (1 + a 2 k u ) (9)
unbalanced.

Zbigniew Olczykowski and Andrzej W¹sowski: Methods of Voltage Unbalance Estimation in Electric Power Networks %
 U CA = aU 1 (1 + ak u ) (10) he obtained simplified formula for the angle yu [3]:

and square absolute value of line voltages in forms: 3  x1 − x2 

ctg yu =  2 x − x − 1 (16)
3  3 2 
2
U AB = U12 1 + ku2 + 2ku cos yu  (11) and for the coefficient of unbalance voltage:
 

(x3 − x2 )(x3 + x2 )
2
U BC = U12 1 + ku2 + 2ku cos (yu − 1200 )  (12) ku = (17)
  2 3 sin yu

In commonly accepted version [4, 5], the coefficient of voltage

2
U BC = U12 1 + ku2 + 2ku cos (yu + 1200 )  (13) unbalance is determined according to the following formula:
 
Above relationships constituted the base of elaboration 1− 3 − 6 b
of several methods of unbalance voltage determination. In ku = (18)
Poland, first who introduced such method was Rachwalski 1+ 3 − 6b
[3]. He proposed an approximated method basing on the
assumption that positive sequence voltage component where the auxiliary term b is calculated as:
occurring in power network could be approximated, at small
unbalance voltage, by the mean of absolute voltage values:
4
U AB + U BC
4
+ U CA
4
b= (19)
2
(U AB + U BC
2
+ U CA
2 2
)
U1 ≈ 1 (U AB + U BC + U CA ) (14)
3 Formulas (18) and (19) are recommended in the part 4 of
IEC and Polish Standard [5] and in the part 2 of this Standard
Introducing auxiliary variables: [6], the formula of the form (20) determining approximated
value of the coefficient of voltage unbalance knap is also
x1 = U AB / U1 ; x2 = U BC / U1 ; x3 = U CA / U1 (15) recommended [6]:

2
6(U AB + U BC
2
+ U CA
2
)
knap = −2 (20)
(U AB + U BC + U CA )2

Figure 1 shows the relationship between precise and

approximated values of the coefficient knap / ku as a function
of the angle yu, for yu = 0...120o and ku = 0.1 — Figure 1a,
and as a function of the coefficient ku, for ku = 0...0.1 and yu
= 0o, 120o and 240o (bottom line) and yu = 60o, 180o and 300o
(upper line) – Figure 1.b (at assumed values of the coefficient
ku and the angle yu, first values of U AB 2 2
, U BC 2
, U CA were
calculated from (11, 12 and 13) and next the approximated
value of the coefficient knap was determined from (20) ).
Depending on the angle yu, the ratio knap / ku oscillates
between bottom and upper lines, for example at ku = 0.02, the
range of variability is approximately equal to 1 ± 0.005. It can
be notice that in application including power network, formula
(18) and (20) are equivalent. In authors opinion these formulas
should occur together in Standards, for example formula (18)
along with (19) as recommended and formula (20) as
alternative. However the placement of different formulas in
different parts of the Standard seems an improper approach.

3. DIFFERENTIAL – ANGULAR COEFFICIENT

METHOD

One of advantages of symmetric component method is

the ability to use it together with Bia³ek’s method —
differential-angular coefficient method [7, 8].

Fig. 1. Dependence of ratio knap / ku on the angle yu (a) and on the

coefficient ku (b)

% Power Quality and Utilization, Journal • Vol. XII, No 2, 2006

 It allows not only deeper current and voltage analysis of
three-phase unbalance circuit but also ensures its further
extension on other physical quantities such as power and
impedance.
For example, phase power of electrothermal receiver PA,
PB, PC — Figure 2, can be expressed with the use of mean
power P, differential module WP and differential angle aP of
power unbalance.

PA = I A2 rA = P + W p cos a p (21)

PB = I B2 rB = P + W p cos (a p −1200 ) (22)

PC = I C2 rC = P + W p cos (a p +1200 ) (23)

where: Fig. 2 Simplified equivalent circuit diagram of the arc furnace (arcs are
replaced by linear resistances)

P = 1 (PA + PB + PC ) (24)
3
Occurring current unbalance has been determined with
the use of following formula:
2 (P − P )2 + (P − P ) 2 + (P − P ) 2 (25)
Wp = A B B C C A
3 I2 De j d + Wr e j ar
k i = ki e j yi = =− (32)
I1 2(Ze j j z + r )
 P − PC 
 3(P − P )  [
a p = arc tg  B + 1 − sign(PA − P ) ] ⋅ 900 (26) and power asymmetry from:
 A 
jap I12 
Proposed differential-angular coefficient would be of the form: k p = k pe = 2rk e j yi + (1 + ki2 )Wr e j ar + kiWr e− j (yi + ar ) 
P  i 
(33)

jap Wp jap at the mean power value equal to:

k p = k pe = e (27)
P
P = I12 (1 + ki2 )r + kiWr cos (yi − ar )  (34)
and would consist of the terms – differential coefficient kp =  
Wp/P and differential angle aP. Simultaneous application of these two methods allows for
Similarly, for the resistance and reactance of supplying the determination in the simple manner conditions ensuring:
circuit, phase quantities are replaced by R, WR and aR and X, maximization of power and its symmetry [10], choosing
WX and aX. The assessment of impedance unbalance of transformer phase ratio with respect to phase current balance
supplying circuit of the mean value: of carbide furnace [11] or currents fed from supplying network
resulting from the limitation of supplying voltage unbalance
Z = Ze j jz = R + jX (28) [12].

has been carried out with the help of proposed differential-

angular coefficient [8]: 4. NOMOGRAPHY METHODS

Thinking of practical applications, many nomograms

k z = k z e jd = D e jd (29)
Z ensuring higher or lower accuracy have been worked out.
differential module D and differential angle d (for consecutive
phase sequence A, B, C) were calculated from formulas:
D cos d = WR cos a R − WX sin a X (30)
D sin d = WR sin a R + WX cos a X (31)
Because of possibility of calculation of low values of
unbalance coefficients in the range of 0,1–2% , nomograms
developed in Institute of Electrodynamics (Ukrainian Science
Academy) [1,13] turned out to be useful in the assessment of
voltage unbalance of power networks. Method used in the
development of these nomograms is based on three absolute
values of line voltage U AB, U BC , U CA, obtained from
measurements:

Zbigniew Olczykowski and Andrzej W¹sowski: Methods of Voltage Unbalance Estimation in Electric Power Networks %!
— on the basis of these three values, ratios of two of them Taking into consideration the need of determination of
to third one are calculated: negative sequence component voltage with the higher
accuracy, the special tables given in the book [13] have been
x = U BC / U AB and y = U CA / U AB (35) elaborated with the use of computer. Thanks to it, it is possible
to read ku with the accuracy of ten positions after the comma
and absolute value of positive: for the range of x = 0.9...1 and y = 0.9...1 with the step of 0.001
and for extended range with the step of 0.002 or 0.005.

2 New proposition has been presented by Jagie³a and Ga³a
1 + x2 − y 2 p 1 + y 2 − x2 
1 + x cos ( arccos − ) + y cos ( p + arccos ) + [14], in which authors argued that it is possible to determine
U AB  2 x 3 3 2y 
U1 =
3 2 unbalance coefficient kuf with respect to phase voltage taking
 1 + x2 − y 2 p 1 + y 2 − x2 
+  x sin ( arccos − ) + y sin ( p − arccos ) into account both coefficients of amplitude inconsistency
 2x 3 3 2y 
ku1 = UB / UA, ku2 = UC / UA, and coefficients of phase angle
(36) inconsistency xu1 = juB – juA; xu2 = juC – juA. It allows to
treat the coefficient kuf as a function of four variables and
and negative sequence component: depending on the choice of any two variables from the set
{ku1, ku2, xu1, xu1} as independent, it is possible to determine
 p 1 + x2 − y 2 1 + y 2 − x2 
2
nomograms showing for example the influence of amplitude
1 + x cos ( 3 + arccos ) + y cos ( p + arccos ) +
U AB  2x 3 2y  or phase angle inconsistency on the coefficient of voltage
U2 =
3
 1 + x2 − y 2 1 + y 2 − x2 
2 unbalance. Thanks to it, the complex assessment of coefficient
+  x sin ( p + arccos ) − y sin ( p + arccos
 3 2 x 3 2y
)
 changes is possible.

(37)
5. DISCUSSION PROPOSAL
are also calculated.
The value of unbalance coefficient will be determined from Present methods of the assessment of voltage and current
the formula: unbalance based on symmetric component method are correct
for sinusoidal waveforms, however they should not be used
k u = U 2 / U1 (38) for distorted waveforms. In this case the analysis of harmonic
components with the help of Fast Fourier Transform algorithm
Basing on [13], it is possible to estimate this method error,
is recommended [6, 14].
whose value does not exceed 0,05%. For determination of
W¹sowski’s works conducted together with Bia³ek and
the angle yu simple formula has been proposed:
independently were concentrated on the power asymmetry
in arc and arc-resistance furnaces, therefore on active power
3(x 2 − y 2 ) (generated by all harmonic components). Authors propose
yu = arc tg + p⋅n (39) as an additional method, the adaptation of differential-angular
2 − x2 − y 2
coefficient method using in these works to the assessment
(n depends on the sign of numerator and denominator of of voltage and current unbalance of three-phase circuits.
formula (39)). Particularly for distorted waveforms, authors propose the
Exemplary nomogram is shown in Figure 3. application of this method to the assessment of asymmetry
of square current and voltage rms.
For example for line voltages of absolute values UAB, UBC,
UCA, it would consist in the expression of square absolute
values U AB
2 2
; U BC 2
; U CA by their mean value U M
2
, differential
module value WU 2 and differential angle aU 2 :

2
U AB = U M2 + WU 2 cos aU 2 (40)

2
U BC = UM
2
+ WU 2 cos (aU 2 − 1200 ) (41)

2
U CA = U M2 + WU 2 cos (aU 2 + 1200 ) (42)

mean value and differential parameters would be calculated

from formulas:

2
UM = 1 (U AB
2
+ U BC
2
+ U CA
2
) (43)
Fig. 3. Nomogram for the estimation of the coefficient of unbalance 3
voltage ku (in %%), for x = 1 ± 0,04 and y = 1 ± 0,04 [13]

%" Power Quality and Utilization, Journal • Vol. XII, No 2, 2006

 — between differential angle of square voltage asymmetry
WU 2 cos aU 2 = U AB
2
−UM
2 (44)
and phase shift angle between negative and positive
sequence voltage components:

WU 2 sin aU 2 = 1 (U BC
2
− U CA
2
) (45) aU 2 = yu (54)
3
As the example of usefulness of proposed method, we
or:
consider the case of the assessment of power unbalance of
hypothetical resistance furnace consisting of three different
WU 2 = 2 U 2 −U 2 2 + U 2 −U 2 2 + U 2 −U 2 2
( AB BC ) ( BC CA ) ( CA AB )
heating elements delta connecting RAB ¹ RBC ¹ RCA,
3 connected to the network of unequal absolute values of line
(46) voltages UAB ¹ U BC ¹ U CA. Phase heating power are
expressed by following formulas:

2
U BC − U CA
2
PAB = U AB
2
/ RAB = U AB
2
GAB (55)
aU 2 = arc tg + 1 − sign(U AB
2 2 
−UM )  ⋅ 900
2
3(U AB −UM
2
) 
(47)
PBC = U BC
2
/ RBC = U BC
2
GBC (56)
The differential-angular coefficient could be used to
assessment of asymmetry of square line voltages:
PCA = U CA
2
/ RCA = U CA
2
GCA (57)
a 2

k U 2 = kU 2 e j U (48)
Determining mean value U M 2
, differential
coefficient kU 2 and asymmetry differential angle aU 2 for
consisting of two terms: asymmetry differential coefficient
square line voltage and for heating elements mean value of
kU 2 :
equivalent phase conductance G, their differential coefficient
kG and differential angle aG, mean heating power can be
calculated with the use of following formula:
WU 2 2
(U AB − U BC
2 2
) + (U BC
2
− U CA
2 2
) + (U CA
2
− U AB
2 2
)
kU 2 = = 2
2
UM 2
(U AB + U BC
2
+ U CA
2
)
(49) P = UM
2
G 1 + 1 kU 2 kG cos (aU 2 − aG )  (58)
 2 
and differential angle aU 2 .
and differential-angular coefficient of power asymmetry by
In the case of sinusoidal waveforms, the attention should
the formula:
be paid on the occurrence of simple relationship between
parameters used to the assessment of asymmetry in two
ja − j (a + aG )
presented in the paper methods: U2
+ kG e j aG + 1 kU 2 kG e U
2

ja p
kU 2 e
— between mean square voltage and the sum of square k p = k pe = 2
1 (59)
positive and negative — sequence voltage components: 1 + kU 2 kG cos (aU 2 − aG )
2
2
UM = U12 + U 22 = U12 (1 + ku2 ) (50)

— between differential coefficient of square voltage 6. CONCLUSION

asymmetry and the coefficient of voltage unbalance:
Authors believe that proposed method of the assessment
2 of line voltage unbalance in power networks treating as a
2k
kU 2 = u
(51) supplement of the method based on symmetrical component
1 + ku2 theory will be useful in practice and find the application into
sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveform analysis in
and: unbalanced working states of three-phase circuits, and
electrothermal devices in particular.
1 − k 22 − 1
k u= ; kU 2 ≠ 0 (52)
U

kU 2 REFERENCES

1. K o w a l s k i Z . : Asymmetry in electric power systems. PWN.

(in case when kU 2 = 0, also ku = 0). Warszawa 1987 (in Polish).
In case of little voltage unbalance it can assume in 2. B o l k o w s k i S . : Theory of electrotechnics . T.I. WNT.
approximation: Warszawa 1986 (in Polish).
3. R a c h w a l s k i J . : Simplified method of determination of
unbalance three-phase line to line voltage. ENERGETYKA.
ku ≈ 0,5kU 2 (53) 1960, z. 8 (in Polish).

Zbigniew Olczykowski and Andrzej W¹sowski: Methods of Voltage Unbalance Estimation in Electric Power Networks %#
 4. UIE “Power Quality” Working Group WG 2: Guide to quality of
electrical supply for industrial installations. Part 4: Voltage
unbalance.
5. PN-EN 61000-4-30. Electromagnetic compatibility (KEM).
Part. 4: Estimation and measurement method of electric energy
quality coefficient (in Polish).
6. PN-EN 61000-2-2. Electromagnetic compatibility (KEM). Part.
2-2. Environment – Compatibility levels of low frequency networks
disturbances and signals transmitted by low voltage networks (in
Polish).
7. B i a ³ e k J . , W ¹ s o w s k i A . : Assessment of power unbalance
of three-phase arc furnaces with the help of differential-angular
coefficients. RE. 1983, z. 4 (in Polish).
8. W ¹ s o w s k i A . , B i a ³ e k J . : Purpose of the change of
criterion of assessment of three-phase arc furnace asymmetry
in norm PN-93/E-06204 (IEC 676 (1980)). PE. 1999, z. 4 (in
Polish).
9. W ¹ s o w s k i A . : An influence of actual maintenance conditions
of three-phase arc furnace on criterion of maximal efficiency
and overall efficiency. JUEE. 2000, z. 1 (in Polish).
10. W ¹ s o w s k i A . : Possibility of increase of arc furnace heating
power at current unbalance. AE. 1985, z. 3/4 (in Polish).
11. W ¹ s o w s k i A . , T r i f i N . : Selection of phase ratios of
furnace transformer with the use of formalized Jab³oñski’s method.
PE. 1994, z.4 (in Polish).
12. W ¹ s o w s k i A . : Selection of phase ratios of Yd11 transformer
with respect to symmetry of supplying network of carbide furnace.
PE. 1995, z. 8 (in Polish).
13. S z i d ³ o w s k i j A . K . , M u z y c z e n k o A . D . : Tablicy
simmetricznych sostawlajuszczich. Izd. “Naukowa Dumka”. Kijew
– 1976 .
14. J a g i e ³ a K . , G a ³ a M . : Nomography method of
determination of unbalance coefficient in three-phase power nets.
PE. 2004, z. 1 (in Polish).
%$ Electrical Power Quality and Utilization, Journal • Vol. XII, No 2, 2006
Andrzej W¹sowski 1935 – 2006
He was Professor at the Faculty of Transport of
Politechnika Radomska in Radom/Poland. He received
Doctor ’s degree in Electrical Engineering from
Politechnika Warszawska in Warsaw in 1965. His
main fields of interest were voltage flicker and
unbalance in power systems, estimation of arc power
of EAF in real operation conditions as well as
rationalization of the performance of arc furnaces
taking into account their asymmetry. He was a member of the Polish
Committee of Electroheat, and member of the Electroheat Section of
Electrotechnical Committee in the Polish Academy of Science.
Zbigniew Olczykowski
was born in Radom in 1965. He graduated from The
High Engineering School, Transport Faculty in 1990.
He defended doctoral thesis entitled “Superposition
of Voltage Fluctuation at the Work of Arc Devices”
in Technical University of Warsaw, Electrical
Engineering Faculty in 2001. He is a lecturer in The
Department of Electrical and Power Engineering of
Technical University of Radom. His research interests
include matters concerning electrical energy quality such as fast changing
voltage fluctuations causing flicker of lightning phenomena.. He is a
member of Polish Electrical Engineering Association.
Address:
Politechnika Radomska, Wydzia³ Transportu,
ul. Malczewskiego 29, PL 26-600 Radom,
tel.: +(4848)3617767, Fax: +(4848)3617075,
E-mail: z.olczykowski@pr.radom.pl