Introduction

According to the band gap, materials can be divided into three parts.

1.Conductor

2.Insulators

3.Semiconductor

Conductors

A conductor is an object or type of material that allows the flow of electric current in one
or more direction. In metals such as copper or aluminum, the mobile charged particles are
electrons. Positive charges may also be mobile, such as the cationic electrolyte(s) of a
battery, or the mobile protons of the proton conductor of a fuel cell. Insulators are non-
conducting materials with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric
currents. Positive charges may also be mobile, such as the cationic electrolyte(s) of a
battery, or the mobile protons of the proton conductor of a fuel cell. Insulators are non-
conducting materials with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric
currents.In conductors the conduction band and valence band difference is
zero.conduction band and valence band gap is known as forbidden energy gap( Band
gap).e.g metal,aqueous solution of salts.

Insulators

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely,
and therefore make it nearly impossible to conduct an electric current under the influence
of an electric field. This contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors,
which conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is
its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.
perfect insulator does not exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of mobile
charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators become
electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the electric field
tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as the breakdown voltage of an
insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which sthough they may have
lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to prevent qasignificant current from flowing
at normally used voltages, and thus are employed as insulation for electrical wiring and
cables. insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical
conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used in
bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulatiosn.In insulator the gap
between conduction band and valence band is wide and gap is known as forbidden energy
gap ( band gap).e.g plastics,paper,rubber,dry air.

Semiconductor

A semiconductor is a substance usually a solid chemical element or compound that can

conduct electricity under some conditions.But not others ,making it a good medium for
the control of electrical current. Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids
with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high resistance — higher than typical
resistance materials, but still of much lower resistance than insulators. Their resistance
decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal.
Finally, their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate,
controlled introduction of impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure, which lowers
its resistance but also permits the creation of semiconductor junctions between
differently-doped regions of the extrinsic semiconductor crystal. The behavior of charge
carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of
diodes, transistors and all modern electron.e.g germanium,selenium,silicon.

Figure:1.1.Band gap of conductor, Insulator,semiconductor

Formation of band theory or theory of solids:

The energy band structure of a solid determines whether it is a conductor, an insulator, or

a semiconductor.No property of solids varies as widely as their ability to conduct electric
current. Copper,a good conductor, has a resistivity of _ _ρ = 1.7 x 10-8 Ω m at room
temperature, whereas for quartz, agood insulator, _ _ 7.5 _ 1017 _ _ m, more than 25
powers of ten greater. The existence of electron energy bands in solids makes it possible
to understand this remarkable span. There are two ways to consider how energy bands
arise. The simplest is to look at what happens to the energy levels of isolated atoms as
they are brought closer and closer together to form a solid. We will begin in this way and
then examine the significance of energy bands. Later we will consider the origin of
energy bands in terms of the restrictions the periodicity of a crystal lattice imposes on the
motion of electrons.The atoms in every solid, not just in metals, are so near one another
that their valence electron wave functions overlap. we saw the result when two H atoms
are brought together. The original 1s wave functions can combine to form symmetric or
antisymmetric joint wave functions, as, whose energies are different. The splitting of the
1s energy level in an isolated H atom into two levels, marked EA total and ES total, is
shown as a function of internuclear distance.The greater the number of interacting atoms,
the greater the number of levels produced by the mixing of their respective valence wave
functions (Fig. 1.2). In a solid, because the splitting is into as many levels as there are
atoms present (nearly 1023 in a cubic centimeter of copper, for instance), the levels are so
close together that they form an energy band that consists of a virtually continuous spread
of permitted energies. The energy bands of a solid, the gaps between them, and the extent
to which they are filled by electrons not only govern the electrical

Figure: 1.2. Band width as a function of inter-atomic seperation

Types of band gaps:

In semi conductor physics there are two types of bandgaps

1. Direct band gap.

2. Indirect band gap

Direct band gap:

If the bottom of the conduction band and top of the valence band lie on the same value of
k(k=0) it is called direct band gap.if the momentum of electrons and holes is the same in
both the conduction band and valence band an electron can directly emit a photon.e.g
GaAs,Inp.we can apply a formula.

P=ђk

Where ђ is a planck’s constant its value is 6.62x10-34 m2kg/s.Now, basically k is a wave

vectors it tells about the propagation of direction of wave and the frequency of wave
length per unit length.The wave vector(or k vector)of a plane vector is a vector which
points in the direction in which the wave propagates .if we plot a graph between wave
vector (K) and energy (Momentum).The band gap which is the difference in energy
between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band .The effective
mass of electrons and holes in the material.this is given in graph.The digram indicates
that the electron states are equally spaces in k- space which means that the density of
states in E depends on the slope of the E-K curve.

Figure: 1.3. Direct Bandgap

Indirect band gap:

If the bottom of the conduction band and top of valence band donot lie on the same value
of k(k=0) .it is called indirect band gap.Indirect band gap a photon cannot be emitted
because it gain some momentum .An electron must pass through an intermediate state
and transfer momentum to the crystal lattice.e.g Si, Ge .we can apply a formula

Eg = Ephoton+ Ephonon

If we plot a grpah between between wave vector (k) and energy (momentum)the
conduction band and valence band donot lie on the same value because the conduction
band gain some momentum. A photon of energy Eg, where Eg is the band gap energy, can
produce an electron-hole pair in a direct band gap semiconductor quite easily, because the
electron does not need to be given very much momentum. However, an electron must
also undergo a significant change in its momentum for a photon of energy Eg to produce
an electron-hole pair in an indirect band gap semiconductor. This is possible, but it
requires such an electron to interact not only with the photon to gain energy, but also with
a lattice vibration called a phonon in order to either gain or lose momentum. Graph is the
form of dispersion.

Figure. 1.4. Indirect bandgap

Organic Compounds:

An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid,

or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons
discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such
as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon as (CO and CO2), and cyanides are
considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic carbon compounds,
while "useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry... is somewhat arbitrary".e.g
simple carbohydrates are molecules made only of hydrogen ,carbon and oxygen.

Fig.1.5.organic compounds

Organic semiconductors:

1.1.Conducting polymers:

Plastics created a lot of excitement in the 1940s and 1950s. These plastics were
insulators. Until the early 1970s the idea that plastics could conduct electricity would
have appeared absurd. The first conducting polymer was synthesized in the 1970s. In the
early 1970s a graduate student in Shirakawa’s laboratory in Tokyo was trying to make
polyacetylene from the acetylene gas. Instead of the polyacetylene (which is known to be
a dark powder), the student produced a lustrous metallic looking film. The film looked
like an aluminum film but stretched like a thin plastic sheet. Accidentally the student had
added 1000 times more catalyst than the amount required to produce
polyacetylene.Subsequently Shirakawa collaborating with MacDiarmid and Heeger of the
University of Pennsylvania could increase the conductivity of the polyacetylene films a
billion times by doping it with iodine. The doped films looked like golden metallic
sheets. Later more than a dozen organic polymers could be made conducting by
appropriate doping. Now plastics with conductivity comparable to that of copper can be
easily fabricated. Early work on conducting plastics is described in The semiconducting
conjugated polymers can be used as the active layer in LEDs, field effect transistors, solar
cells,photodiodes, electrochemical cells and memory devices.They have proved to be of
great importance as an active medium in lasers. These devices are being pushed toward
commercialization because they can be fabricated by inexpensive techniques, such as
spin coating, ink-jet printing, low temperature fiber drawing and screen-printing on the
flexible substrates. This leads to a real advantage over the expensive and sophisticated
technology used with inorganic materials in the semiconductor industry. The glass and
flexible plastic foil make these devices particularly interesting because of the advantages
they offer in terms of flexibility, low power, low weight, and low cost. In view of the
above advantages, conducting plastics have emerged as a new class of electronic
materials. It is possible that by the year 2010, silicon might hit the wall and the
conducting polymers may become the major players in the field of semiconductor
devices.The polymers consist of chains, each chain contains C–H or related groups bound
together by strong sigma bonds, which provide strength and integrity to the
polymer.Inter-chain coupling is small. Therefore the materials are quasi-one dimensional
(quasi-1D). The structure allows the dopant atoms or molecules to go in space in-between
the chains.

1.2.Early Attempts for Applications:

Early applications of polymers as processible conductors are also given in these
publications.There were attempts to commercialize the conducting polymer products.
Two Japanese companies manufactured rechargeable button-cell batteries. The batteries
used polyaniline and lithium electrodes. These batteries had a longer lifetime than the
nickel–cadmium and lead–acid batteries. However the venture was not successful. A
textile manufacturer Milliken and Company in the USA developed a fabric known as
Contex.Contex had conducting polymer polypyrrole interwoven with other common
synthetics.This fabric is excellent for camouflage because it fools the radar by making it
appear that the signal is going through empty space. Contex was approved for use but for
a variety of reasons the material was not successful. The annual damage to electronic
equipment by electrostatic charges is estimated to be more than $15 million. At present
the protective packaging relies on ionic salts or resins filled with metals or carbon. The
conductivity of ionic salts is low and it is unstable. A metal is expensive and heavy.
Carbon bits cast off during shipment and can cause contamination. IBM is developing a
polyaniline solution, known as PanAquas. If conductivity of PanAquas could be
increased, it could replace the lead based solder, which is hazardous. Polymers are good
candidates for electromagnetic shielding also. Allied Signals developed a product named
Versacon, which was similar in performance to the IBM PanAquas. Several companies
incorporated it in paints and coatings . However the volume of sales continued to be too
small and Allied had to stop its production. As compared to Versacon, which is in a
powder form, PanAquas is a solution and is transparent. Epstein has a patent on a
technique to join two pieces of plastics using conducting polymer polyaniline. The pieces
to be joined are sprinkled with polyaniline and irradiated with microwaves. Polyaniline
absorbs the energy from microwaves, melts and fuses the two pieces together.
MacDiarmid and collaborators have made polymer electromechanical mechanisms. The
polymers undergo large changes in dimensions withsmall electric currents. Potentially
several microactuators coupled together could be used as artificial muscles.
1.3.Growth and Properties:
Monolayer control of thickness of organic films has been obtained using the Langmuir–
Blodgett film deposition technique as well as layers grown by self-assembled
monolayerfrom solutions.However the structure of the films grown by these methods
cannot be controlled accurately. Since its emergence in the mid-1980s, Organic
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (OMBE) has become an important technique for deposition of
organic films with monolayer thickness control in atomically clean environments.
Extreme chemical and structural control of the films is also obtained. Forrest has written
an extensive review on the structure and properties of the films grown by this met.The
conductivity of polymers is compared with the conductivity of other solids in It is seen
that the maximum conductivity is quite high and close to that of good metals.. Low
values of conductivity are obtained in the pristine conducting polymers containing high
degree of disorder. Conductivity increases with stretching, which aligns the molecular
chains of the fiber and produces more ordered regions. The high conductivity under the
heading ‘Others’ is for the sulphuric doped PPV and AsF5 doped PPP. Note that
conductivity close to that of copper has been achieved.Though conductivity of
polyaniline is not as high as that of some other polymers, it is emerging as the material of
choice for many applications. It is stable in air and its electronic properties can be easily
tailored. It is one of the oldest synthetic polymers, and probably it is the cheapest
conducting polymer used in devices. It can be easily fabricated as thin films or patterned
surfaces. Polyaniline will never replace the materials which have extremely high
conductivity. However, it will be useful for certain specific applications.Andy Monkman
has a program to extrude the polymer braids and lay the insulation of the coaxial cables in
a single step. The work is supported by a cable company . .Excitations in conducting
polymers consist of localized polarons. The polarons can be singly charged, doubly
charged or neutral polaron-exciton . This localization results in large binding energy of
the excitons. If there are no quenching centers in the polymer, this localization results in
very high luminescence efficiencies. There are no satisfactory theories of conducting
polymers. The widely quoted SSH Hamiltonian neglects electron energies. It gives
results, which agree with experiments in many cases. Many experiments show
discrepancy with the theory by up to 50%. Almost any theory can be defended by using a
restricted set of data. In many cases the inconvenient data is dismissed as the product of
bad samples by simply ignoring the data altogether. Conductivity of polymers varies over
16 orders of magnitude. Both experiments and theory suggest that ultimate conductivity
will be larger than that of copper as shown by the dotted arrow Much of the modeling of
devices requires knowledge of the mechanism of the transport of charge carriers in the
conducting organics. Because of the importance of transport properties, extensive work
has been done on this topic.
1.4. Active Devices:
Since the discovery of electroluminescence from organic materials it has been recognized
that conducting polymers are important for fabricating the Organic Light EmittingDiodes
(OLEDs). To improve the performance of OLEDs a good understanding of basic device
physics is very necessary. Today OLED technology has become a competitor for
conventional light sources and display technologies like liquid crystal displays. Displays
based on organic semiconductors have already entered the market. Flat panel displays
and LEDs, antistatic coatings, electromagnetic shielding, lights for toys, microwave
ovens are important applications being pursued now. UNIAX Corporation in . Santa
Barbara has demonstrated alphanumeric OLED displays.
Literature Review:
Alojz Anzlover, European Polymer Journal 46 (2010) 1216–1224. His work
is about Poly(methyl methacrylate) composites prepared by in situ polymerization using
organophillic nano-to-submicrometer zinc oxide particles. Nano- and submicrometer
zinc(II) oxide particles were synthesized by the polyol method and were used for the
preparation of ZnO/poly(methyl methacrylate) (ZnO/PMMA) composite materials by the
chain polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) in bulk. ZnO particles with an
organophilic surface layer were homogeneously dispersed in the PMMA matrix. Very
low concentrations (0.1 wt.%) of nano zinc oxide absorbed over 98% of UV light as
determined by UV–vis spectroscopy. Nano zinc oxide (75 nm) increased the initial
decomposition temperature of the PMMA matrix by 30–40 _C at concentrations of 0.1%
and above. This was explained by the changes in the termination mechanism of MMA
polymerization resulting in a reduced concentration of vinylidene chain ends. Nano ZnO
also increased the MMA polymerization reaction rate and reduced the activation energy.
Submicrometer ZnO showed lower UV absorption, thermal stabilization and no influence
on the reaction kinetics indicating that average particle size is of vital importance for the
properties of PMMA nanocomposites and for MMA polymerization.
P.P. Jeeju, Thin Solid Films 531 (2013) 378–384. His work is about Enhanced
linear and nonlinear optical properties of thermally stable ZnO/poly(styrene)–
poly(methyl methacrylate) nanocomposite films. Highly transparent and thermally stable
zinc oxide (ZnO)/poly(styrene)–poly(methyl methacrylate) (PS–PMMA)nanocomposite
films have been deposited on glass substrates, from the ZnO incorporated (PS–PMMA)
solutions in toluene, using spin coating technique. A chemical route at room temperature
is used to synthesize the ZnO nanoparticles. Transmission electron microscope and high-
resolution transmission electron microscope image show that the ZnO nanoparticles are
of size around 10 nm. The composite films have been characterized by X-ray diffraction,
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, Ultraviolet–visible–
Near Infrared (UV–vis–NIR) spectroscopy, Thermo-gravimetric analysis,
photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy and Z-scan technique. From the UV–vis–NIR
spectra it is observed that the ZnO/PS–PMMA nanocomposite films with 10 wt.% ZnO
content exhibit excellent shielding property in the UV region and, high transparency in
the visible region. The PL spectrum of the composite films is different from that of ZnO
and PS–PMMA blend and exhibits an excitonic emission peak at ~375 nm. The optical
absorptive nonlinearity in the nanocomposite films is investigated using open aperture Z-
scan technique. The results indicate optical limiting type nonlinearity in the films due to
two photon absorption. A transmittance minimum of around 0.25 has been observed in
the ZnO/PS–PMMA nanocomposite films which is much lower compared to that in
ZnO/PMMA and ZnO/PS nanocomposite films. The ZnO/PS–PMMA nanocomposite
films also show a self-defocusing type negative nonlinear refraction in closed aperture Z-
scan experiment. These nanocomposite films extend ample scope of applications as
excellent optical limiters and efficient UV protectors.
R. Elilarassi, Materials Chemistry and Physics 123 (2010) 450–455. His
work is about Structural, optical and magnetic properties of nanoparticles of ZnO:Ni—
DMS prepared by sol–gel method. Ni-doped ZnO nanoparticles having 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%,
8% and 10% of Ni are synthesized by means of low temperature sol–gel (auto-
combustion) method. The effects of Ni doping on the structural and optical properties of
ZnO:Ni particles in powder sample are investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy,
ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The XRD
analyses on Ni doped and undoped samples reveal the formation of single phase,
polycrystalline and hexagonal-wurtzite structure. The SEM images show clusters of
particles in nanosizes and some particles in the form of thin rods. The FTIR spectra
confirm the formation of tetrahedral coordination of the oxygen ions surrounding the zinc
ions and a shift in the frequency of bands brings out Ni doping in ZnO. The optical
absorption spectra show a shift in the position of band edge towards lower energy. The
estimated band gap is found to decrease with higher nickel doping. The room temperature
PL measurements illustrate UV emission centered on 392nm (3.16 eV), which is ascribed
to the near-band-edge (NBE) emissions of ZnO, violet emission at 411nm (3.01 eV) and
blue emission at 450nm (2.75 eV). The cause of decrease in intensity of these emission
lines when content of Ni is increased in Ni-doped ZnO nanoparticles is explained on the
basis of relative changes in the distribution of radiative and non-radiative defect sites as
Ni chooses its sites. The nanoparticles of ZnO:Ni exhibit room temperature ferromagnetic
phase in them.
F. Namouchi, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 469 (2009) 197–202. His
work is about Investigation on electrical properties of thermally aged PMMA by
combined use of FTIR and impedance spectroscopies. Effects of thermal aging on
electric properties of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) polymer are reported in this
paper. PMMA samples are submitted to successive heat-cooling cycles (Tmax =45 ◦C
and Tmin =20 ◦C) in the ambient air. Different complementary techniques are thus
employed to investigate structural modifications, conduction processes and dielectric
relaxations. These are the Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectroscopy, impedance
spectroscopy and current–voltage technique. Results are discussed in terms of FTIR
bands intensities, relaxation frequencies and electrical conductivity.We demonstrated that
thermal aging favors oxidation phenomenon. This causes an increase of free radicals
leading to space charge amount increasing. PMMA polymer presents therefore a less
insulating character.
Davood Raoufi, Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 932e937. His work is about
Synthesis and microstructural properties of ZnO nanoparticles prepared by precipitation
method. In this work, zinc oxide (ZnO) precursor was prepared by precipitation method
from zinc nitrate and ammonium carbonate in aqueous solutions. ZnO nanoparticles were
synthesized by annealing the precursor at different temperatures. The effect of the
annealing temperature on the particle size and photo-luminescence (PL) properties of the
synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were studied by XRD, SEM, BET, TG-DTA and PL
measurements. The XRD results indicated that the synthesized ZnO nanoparticles had the
pure wurtzite structure. It is found that with increasing the annealing temperature the
crystalinity and particle size increases as well as the lattice parameters approaches to
those of the XRD standard. The studies of the aggregation of the samples were also
carried out by comparing SEM micrographs with specific surface measurements and
XRD results. Finally, the room temperature PL spectra show UV emission peak in the
range of 378.50e379.80 nm, which is close to the bulk ZnO.
Bharti Choudhary, Current Applied Physics 10 (2010) 807–812. His work is
about Synthesis and surface modification of ZnO:Cu nanoparticles by silica and PMMA.
ZnO nanoparticles doped with Cu were synthesized by solid state reaction using different
precursor routes and varying growth environment. Average crystallite size varied from 40
to 100 nm depending upon synthesis temperature, lower temperature favouring smaller
particle size. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images showed that particles
synthesized at 250 _C were in the shape of nanorods but those synthesized at 900 _C had
spherical shape. Luminescence emission showed marked dependence on the growth
conditions varying from ultraviolet (UV) emission to green emission. For making the
luminescent nanoparticles bio-compatible, a bioinorganic interface on ZnO:Cu
nanoparticles was created by coating them with inert silica. Surface modification of
ZnO:Cu was also done with lipophilic polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). ZnO:Cu
nanoparticles showed hexagonal wurtzite structure and the coating of silica was
confirmed with the presence of two extra peaks due to silica in the XRD spectra.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and FTIR spectroscopy indicated that PMMA
molecules were adsorbed on the surface of ZnO:Cu nanoparticles. SEM images revealed
that PMMA adsorption improved the dispersibilty of ZnO:Cu nanoparticles.
Aparna Thankappan, Optics &LaserTechnology52(2013)37–42.His work is
about Optical characterization of ZnO nanoplates embedded in polymeric matrices for
optical limiting applications. We report on the optical characterization, including linear
and nonlinear, of ZnO nanoplates embedded in PVA. Nonlinear optical characterization
of these films was studied by the Z scan technique using an
Nd:YAGlaser(532nm,7ns,10Hz).The studies show that the material is highly nonlinear,
have desirable lower optical liming threshold of 46.86 MW/cm2 at pump power of
436MW/cm2 and with negative refractive index. Therefore, these films with
immobilized semiconductor nanoplates appear to be attractive candidates for optical
limiting applications.

Yi-Luen Li, Materials Chemistry and Physics 134 (2012) 677e685 .His work
is about Preparation, thermal stability and electrical properties of PMMA/functionalized
graphene oxide nanosheets composites. In this investigation, graphene oxide nano sheets
(GONs) were made from expandable graphite after thermal shock in air and supersonic
bath. SEM (scanning electron microscope), TEM (transmission electron microscope) and
XRD (X-ray diffraction) were used to characterize the structure of GONs, and then were
functionalized using a coupling agent, 3-aminopropyltriethoxsilane (APTS), to produce
covalent bonds between the organic and inorganic phases, enhancing the thermal stability
of the composites. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray
photoelectron spectra (XPS) were adopted to characterize the functionalization reaction
between APTS and GNOs. It is affirmed that APTS has reacted with GONs. The
functionalized GONs (FGONs) had eOEt functional groups that reacted with silane
modified methyl methacrylate through the solegel reaction. The results of
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), integral procedure decomposition temperature (IPDT)
and thermogravimetric difference (TGD) reveal that FGONs can improve the thermal
stability of composites. The four-point probe was used to measure the surface resistivity
of composites. The results showed the PMMA/FGONs composites which contained low
concentration of additives possess excellent electrical property. This kind of composites
can be used in antistatic application to prevent fire accident happen.

Caroline McClory, European Polymer Journal 46 (2010) 854–868.His work is about

Electrical and rheological percolation of PMMA/MWCNT nano composites as a function
of CNT geometry and functionality. Composites of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) of varying aspect ratio and carboxylic
acid functionality were prepared using melt mixing. The extent of dispersion and
distribution of the MWCNTs in the PMMA matrix was investigated using a combination
of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), wide-angle X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy. The electrical resistivity and oscillatory
shear rheological properties of the composites were measured as a function of MWCNT
geometry, functionality, and concentration. The fundamental ballistic conductance of the
pristine free-standing MWCNTs was investigated using a mechanically controlled break-
junction method. The electrical conductivity of PMMA was enhanced by up to 11 orders
of magnitude for MWCNT concentrations below 0.5 wt.%. MWCNTs having higher
aspect ratio, above 500, or functionalized with carboxylic acid groups readily formed
rheological percolated networks with thresholds, determined from a power law
relationship, of 1.52 and 2.06 wt.%, respectively. The onset of pseudo-solid-like
behaviour and network formation is observed as G0 , g*, and tan d_1 are independent of
frequency as MWCNT loading increased. Sufficiently long and/or functionalized tubes
are required to physically bridge or provide interfacial interactions with PMMA to alter
polymer chain dynamics. Carboxylic acid functionalization disrupts the crystalline order
of MWCNTs due to a loss of p-conjugation and electron de-localisation of sp2 C–C
bonds resulting in non-ballistic electron transport in these tubes, irrespective of how
highly dispersed they are in the PMMA matrix.
F. Namouchi, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 469 (2009) 197–202.His
work is about Investigation on electrical properties of thermally aged PMMA by
combined. Effects of thermal aging on electric properties of polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA) polymer are reported in this paper. PMMA samples are submitted to successive
heat-cooling cycles (Tmax =45 ◦C and Tmin =20 ◦C) in the ambient air. Different
complementary techniques are thus employed to investigate structural modifications,
conduction processes and dielectric relaxations. These are the Fourier Transform Infra
Red (FTIR) spectroscopy, impedance spectroscopy and current–voltage technique.
Results are discussed in terms of FTIR bands intensities, relaxation frequencies and
electrical conductivity.We demonstrated that thermal aging favors oxidation
phenomenon. This causes an increase of free radicals leading to space charge amount
increasing. PMMA polymer presents therefore a less insulating character.
Bharti Choudhary, Current Applied Physics 10 (2010) 807–812.His work is
about Synthesis and surface modification of ZnO:Cu nanoparticles by silica and PMMA.
ZnO nanoparticles doped with Cu were synthesized by solid state reaction using different
precursor routes and varying growth environment. Average crystallite size varied from 40
to 100 nm depending upon synthesis temperature, lower temperature favouring smaller
particle size. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images showed that particles
synthesized at 250 _C were in the shape of nanorods but those synthesized at 900 _C had
spherical shape. Luminescence emission showed marked dependence on the growth
conditions varying from ultraviolet (UV) emission to green emission. For making the
luminescent nanoparticles bio-compatible, a bioinorganic interface on ZnO:Cu
nanoparticles was created by coating them with inert silica. Surface modification of
ZnO:Cu was also done with lipophilic polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). ZnO:Cu
nanoparticles showed hexagonal wurtzite structure and the coating of silica was
confirmed with the presence of two extra peaks due to silica in the XRD spectra.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and FTIR spectroscopy indicated that PMMA
molecules were adsorbed on the surface of ZnO:Cu nanoparticles. SEM images revealed
that PMMA adsorption improved the dispersibilty of ZnO:Cu nanoparticles.