Chapter - 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature involves the systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem being
studied. It provides a researcher with a comprehensive, updated view of the
knowledge already explored in his/her area of study and the methods employed to do
so, along with the recommendations for future studies. This foundation of knowledge
helps a researcher to select his/her own pertinent subject for study, to delimit and
define his problem, set his objectives clearly, and avoid replicating earlier studies.

Under this section, the researches relevant to the present study have been
chronologically arranged for the sake of convenience and clarity, under six broad
categories, namely - sources of teachers’ stress, their occupational stress levels, stress
reactions, coping strategies, interventions suggested, and teachers’ attitude towards
counselling, followed by a comment on the overall review.

2.1. THE REVIEW

2.1.1. Sources of Stress in Teachers.

2.I.I.I. International perspective:

1. Kyriacou & Suttcliffe (1978) proposed that stress results from the teachers'
perception that a) demands are being forced upon them b) they are unable to or
have difficulty in meeting these demands and c) failure to do so threatens their
mental and or physical well being. The key element is the teachers' perception of
threat (either this is self-imposed or imposed by others).

2. Owens, R.W. (1983) conducted a study to determine whether the teachers and
principals in Tennessee had the same perceptions of stress factors or not; and also if

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age, sex or size of the school had an effect on the perceptions of teachers and
principals. The instrument used contained 50 Stress Factor items and asked for
demographic information, personal health data, and stress management techniques
used. The stressors were to be rated from the least amount of stress which was number
one to the greatest amount of stress which was number nine. A total of 1237 teachers
and 295 principals from Tennessee were randomly selected for participation in the
study. The response rate for teachers was 35 % with 436 teachers responding. The
response rate for principals was 64 % with 190 principals responding. The data were
subjected to a factorial analysis of variance for main effects and the two-way
interactions. The analysis indicated that a significant difference existed in the
perception of stress by teachers and principals and that the age of the subjects
did play a distinct role in it. However, there was no significant difference in
perceptions in terms of sex of the subjects and size of the school.

3. Harris, K.R. (1984) carried out an investigation of teacher stress focussed upon
teachers' personality, ideology, gender, age, locus of control, and pupil control
orientation. Participants in the study were 130 elementary and secondary school
teachers. Teachers’ responses were obtained from the Pupil Control Ideology Form,
Teacher Locus of Control Scale, and Teacher Occupational Stress Factor
Questionnaire. 5 factors frequently implicated in teacher stress were investigated,
namely - professional inadequacy, principal-teacher professional relationship,
colleaguial relationships, group instruction, and job overload. It was hypothesized that
authoritarian pupil control orientation would be related to high teacher stress and that
internal locus of control would be related to low teacher stress. Findings indicated that
an authoritarian pupil orientation was associated with high stress for 4 of the 5
stress factors; an external locus of control was associated with stress for 3 of the
5 factors; and male teachers tended to have a more authoritarian approach than
female teachers.

4. Friesen, D. & Williams, M. (1985) conducted a research to obtain from teachers

their perceptions of major sources of work-related stress and to assess the degree to
which these stressors accounted for the overall stress on the job. This was achieved by
controlling the selected background variables of sex, age, level of education, grade

32
level taught, years of teaching experience, size of the school, and perceived personal-
life stress. Major findings showed that 4 identifiable job-related factors accounted for
a significant part of teacher work-related stress, and that the selected background
variables failed to account for significant variation in job-related stress levels. The 4
factors which made the most substantial contribution to overall job-related stress
of teachers’ were Role Overload, Relationships with Students, Work Load, and
Relationships with Colleagues.

5. Bain, C., Conn, M. & O’Halloan, P. (1990) investigated the occupational stress
among school teachers and offered suggestions for its cure. According to the findings,
the major occupational causes of stress in government school teachers came from
a variety of sources. Among them were pressure from administration, classroom
pressure from parents and students, and lack of recognition from peers. It was
discovered that there was a lack of cohesion and support in the schools between the
teachers and administrators. The authors suggested that teachers, as a liaison between
administration and students should become informed of issues affecting both entities.
This would aid in the reduction of stress when unexpected problems arose with
administration or in the classroom.

6. Gold, Y. & Roth, R. A. (1993) in their book - Teachers managing stress and
preventing burnout: The professional health solution, commented that too often, they
(teachers) “encounter reality shock when the stark contrast between expectations and
life in the classroom is realized, leading to severe disillusionment, which, in effect, is
burnout”.

7. Ling, L.M. (1995) conducted a study to determine if teacher background

characteristics were related to job strain. Results showed that teachers of lower
forms and of higher professional ranks suffered from high level of strain in job
dissatisfactions. Younger teachers reported a high level of strain in bodily and
affective areas. The findings also revealed that social support had main or additive
(added) effect on teacher stress.

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8. Hui & Chan (1996) investigated the major sources of stress in Hong Kong
teachers, with specific reference to guidance work as a potential source of stress. A
survey of 415 secondary school teachers revealed that guidance-related aspects of
work constituted a major dimension of stress, with guidance teachers, female
teachers, younger teachers and junior teachers perceiving more stress than their
counterparts in this dimension. Workload and time pressure were perceived as
the most stressful aspects of work for all teachers. Results also showed an
association between stress and job satisfaction, and biographical variables.

9. Yagil, D. (1998) examined the sources of stress encountered by inexperienced

compared to experienced teachers. 69 female teachers in elementary schools and
kindergartens in Israel participated in the study. A questionnaire was administered
measuring job-related stress factors, emotional involvement in the job and active
coping with stress factors. The results showed that inexperienced compared to
experienced teachers stated that they experienced an overall higher level of
stress. The major sources of stress for inexperienced teachers were interaction
with pupils' parents and workload. Inexperienced teachers were less involved
emotionally in their work, especially with regard to incidents of unsatisfactory
performance. However, they were similar to experienced teachers in both their
emotional reactions to successful performance and in their actions in stressful
situations. Since the research design was quasi-experimental, the differences between
experienced and inexperienced teachers might have been due to other confounded
factors such as general life experience.

10. Abel, M.H. & Sewell, J. (1999) examined the sources of stress and symptoms of
burnout in 51 rural and 46 urban secondary school teachers from 11 school systems in
Georgia and North Carolina. Urban school teachers experienced significantly more
stress from poor working conditions and poor staff relations than did rural
school teachers. Stress from pupil misbehaviour and time pressures was
significantly greater than stress from poor working conditions and poor staff
relations for both rural and urban school teachers. Poor working conditions and
time pressures predicted burnout for rural school teachers; pupil misbehaviour
and poor working conditions predicted burnout for urban school teachers.

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11. Mokdad, M. (2005) carried out a study to determine occupational stress in
Algerian teachers. A sample of 126 teachers was randomly chosen from Biskra
govemorate (Algeria) primary schools to answer an occupational stress questionnaire
developed comprising of three major areas: sources of stress; symptoms of ill-health;
and coping with stress strategies. The first area (Sources of stress) contained nine
dimensions (9 items about teaching, 8 items about the teaching environment, 5 items
about administration, 7 items about the curriculum, 4 items about work colleagues, 4
items about parents, 5 items about pupils, 4 items about supervision, and 4 items
about society as a whole). The other two areas (symptoms of poor health and
strategies for coping with stress) each contained eight. The questionnaire was
designed as a Likert scale, with five alternative responses. The alternatives were
marked as follows: 4 = very high experience of stress; 3 = high experience of stress; 2
= moderate experience of stress; 1 = weak experience of stress; 0 = very weak
experience of stress. A test-retest method was used to ensure reliability. The reliability
coefficient was 0.78. With regard to validity, the content validity was adopted.
Results indicated that the teachers’ major sources of stress were society, parents,
teaching, the teaching environment, pupils, supervision, the curriculum,
colleagues, and administration. In the light of the above research, the author
suggested that teaching work needs to be ergonomically designed, that is designed, as"
for the workplace in such a way as to maximize productivity by minimizing operator
fatigue and discomfort minimized effort.

12. Evers, W., Tomic, W. & Brouwers, A. (2005) investigated the relationship
between Epstein’s components of constructive thinking and burnout as experienced
by a sample of Dutch secondary school teachers. A postal questionnaire was sent to
teachers from randomly selected secondary schools. The response rate was 54.1%
(N=433). 4 components of constructive thinking significantly contributed to the
explained variance in emotional exhaustion (17%), depersonalization (21%), and
personal accomplishment (20%). The results of the study suggested that secondary
school teachers’ maladaptive thinking processes prevented them from rational

53 Epstein (1998). Constructive thinking: The key to emotional intelligence. London: Praeger
publisher.

35
thinking during their work, which significantly contributed to the onset of
burnout. Burnout intervention programmes for teachers were likely to be more
effective when the participators’ maladaptive thinking system was taken into
consideration. This stemmed from the idea that personality factors are a probably
easier point of departure to tackle burnout symptoms than organizational factors.

13. Cinamon, R.G. & Rich, Y. (2005) investigated work-family conflict among 187
Israeli women teachers to understand relationships between teachers’ professional and
family lives better. The research examined perceived importance of work and
family roles and effects of stress and support variables on W—flF and F—>W
conflict. Additionally, effects of teachers’ years of experience and school level
(primary, junior and senior high) on work-family conflict were examined. Cluster
analysis revealed that many teachers attributed high importance to both roles
and had higher W—>F than F-»W conflict. Relations between teacher stress and
support variables and work-family conflict diverged from patterns found in other
occupations. School level and teachers’ experience contributed to explaining the
conflict.

14. Liu, X.S. & Meyer, J.P. (2005) examined teachers’ perceptions of their jobs and
teachers’ turnover through an analysis of data from the National Center for Education
Statistics Schools and Staffing Survey and Teacher Follow-up Survey. The analysis
suggested that student discipline problems were a major reason for teachers’
dissatisfaction with their jobs, second only to low compensation. Private school
teachers generally encountered fewer student discipline problems and perceived
their professional lives more favourably than public school teachers, although
private schools usually offered lower salaries than public schools. Minority
teachers were less satisfied with work conditions and students’ discipline problems
than non-minority teachers. These findings implied policy changes for teacher
retention.

15. Ghodsy, A. (2007) conducted a study on the role of school organizational climate
in occupational stress among secondary school teachers in Tehran. The population
comprised of all secondary schools teachers in Tehran. Using a multi-stage random

36
sampling method, a sample volume of 220 people was determined according to
Cochran formula.54 The rate of occupational stress among secondary school teachers,
by different dimensions of occupational stress was determined. The frequency and
percentage frequency for the study sample were calculated in five categories ranging
from “very weak” to “very good”. The results revealed that 40.2% of the teachers
showed occupational stress at levels below the mean value, 26.6% at the mean level
and 13.42% at the level higher than the mean. Comparing the means for the different
dimensions of occupational stress, one could note clear differences in the rate of
occupational stress among the teachers. The highest rates were found for the Task
Control dimension and the lowest one for the Lack of Meaningfulness. 43.4% of
teachers in the schools with a closed organizational climate showed high levels and
13.2% low levels of occupational stress. In the schools with the disengaged
organizational climate, the occupational stress was high for 29.3% and low for 10.7%
of the teachers. As regards the schools with engaged organizational climate, the level
of occupational stress was high for 15.2% of teachers, and low for 30.6%. In the
schools characterized by an open organizational climate, 12.1% of the teachers
showed high and 45.5% low levels of occupational stress. It was concluded that the
rate of occupational stress among the teachers who worked in the closed and
disengaged organizational climates was higher than the respective rate for the
teachers working in the open and engaged organizational climates.

16. Prakke, B., Peet, A. & Wolf, K. (2008) conducted a study to identify at risk
teachers (i.e. those most vulnerable to the presence of behaviourally challenging
parents) so that interventions, both in initial teacher training as well as in in-service
training, could be applied to help them develop adequate attitudes and coping skills.
The data for this research was collected in February and March 2007, from amongst
212 elementary school teachers in the middle and middle-east region and urban
agglomeration of Westem-Holland, the Netherlands. The average years of teaching

54 Cochran’s formula for calculation of the minimum sample size is as follows: nmin =
(t(sqr)s(sqr)/d(sqr) Where: nmin = the minimum number of samples required; t = the of alpha
from each tail; s = estimated standard deviation (continuous data) or variance (categorical
data); d = acceptable margin of error for mean being estimated. If sample size exceeds 5% of
the population, the following correction formula should be used: n=
nmin/( 1+(nmin/population))

37
experience was 17 years. Apart from a demographic questionnaire which included
gender, ethnicity of the teacher and years of teaching experience, several questions
dealing with gender, ethnicity, SES (socio-economic status) and family situation of
the parent(s) who contacted the teacher, were also administered. Using a canonical
correlation method55, the results showed that dissatisfied parents, overproteetive
parents, neglectful parents and excessively worried parents had the largest impact on
teacher stress. Because there were 7 types of difficult parents (= the smaller number
of variables of the 2 sets) seven pairs of linear combinations were constructed and
there were seven canonical correlations. 41% of the respondents indicated that they
spent 4% or less of their time dealing with difficult parents. Almost 20% of the
respondents stated that they spent 6% or more of their time on problematic
parent behaviour. Teachers who experienced stress from challenging parent
behaviour, suffered mostly from negative feelings towards their parents,
frustration on working with parents, loss of satisfaction with teaching and to a
lesser extent health problems.

17. Schwar/er, R. & Hallum, S. (2008) examined the relationships among self-
efficacy, job stress, and burnout, focussing on mediation (self-efficacy —> job stress
—> burnout). Moreover, the study questioned whether such a mediation, if found,
would be dependent on the levels of other variables (moderated mediation). Study I,
with two samples of teachers (N = 1,203), examined this putative (supposed)
mechanism cross-sectionally and found such an effect, in particular for younger
teachers and those with low general self-efficacy. Study II, with 458 teachers,
replicated the results longitudinally over a period of one year by employing structural
equation models. In a cross-lagged panel design, low self-efficacy preceded
burnout.

18. Pyzalski, J. (2008) carried out a study on the psycho-social burdens in the
teaching profession, resulting from the misbehaviour of students in Poland. A
large random sample of 429 teachers from the L6dz voivodeship responded to a new

55 Canonical correlation analysis is an exploring method for the study of the relations
between two sets of variables by constructing pairs of linear combinations of the two sets in
such a way that the (canonical) correlation between them is at maximum.

38
tool for measuring psycho-social burdens in the teaching profession, titled - the
Questionnaire of Occupational Burdens in Teaching (QOBT). The three scales in the
new tool comprised of Conflict Situations, Organizational Burdens and Lack of Work
Sense. The results did not show significant differences in the level of occupational
burdens between men and women. Generally, neither were seniority and age
related to the level of burdens. However, it was seen that Organizational burdens
affected older teachers slightly more. Results also revealed that student
misbehaviour (in milder forms) is quite frequent in teachers’ workplace. Severe
misbehavior, e.g., vulgar language, verbal aggression towards teachers or other
students was rather rare. Younger and male teachers were more frequently
exposed to student misbehavior. In addition, it correlated positively with social
support received from teacher's colleagues. The results of the survey emphasized
the need to identify student misbehavior problems in terms of teacher’s
occupational stress and also the need to assure social support for teachers in
their workplace health promotion programmes.

19. Yang, X., Ge, C., Hu, B., Chi, T. & Wang, L. (2009) studied the relationship
between quality of life and occupational stress among primary and middle school
teachers in China. A cross-sectional study was conducted using cluster sampling. The
study population was composed of 3570 school teachers working in 64 primary and
middle schools in Heping District in Shenyang, China. A demographic questionnaire,
the 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) and the Occupational Stress Inventory
Revised Edition were employed to collect demographic variables and assess quality of
life and occupational stress. Multivariate stepwise linear regression analyses were
performed to study the relationship between quality of life and occupational stress.
Results indicated that male teachers scored significantly higher than female
teachers for physical functioning, bodily pain, vitality and physical health. Age,
role overload, role insufficiency, vocational strain, psychological strain, physical
strain, recreation and rational coping were significantly associated with both the
physical and mental components; while role insufficiency, interpersonal strain
and social support were strong indicators of mental health. This study indicated
that in China, teachers had a lower health status than the general population.
The quality of life of female teachers was worse than that of male teachers, and

39
deteriorated with age. Occupational stress and strain induced worsening physical
and mental conditions for teachers, while coping resources could promote their
health. It also suggested that having adequate coping resources, especially social
support, in workplaces might be an important factor for improving teachers’
quality of life. Moreover, psychological counselling should be provided to relieve
stress and enhance quality of life.

20. Shen, J., Zhang, N., Zhang, C., Caldarella, P., Richardson, M.J. & Shatzer,
R.H. (2009) examined teachers' perceptions of classroom behaviour problems in five
provinces of the People's Republic of China. Researchers surveyed 527 Chinese
teachers from 27 elementary schools. Consistent with previous studies in China,
teachers perceived non-attention to be the most frequent and troublesome
behaviour problem. Teachers’ perceptions of which behaviour problems were
most difficult to tolerate and most negative in their effects on student
development, were also investigated. Approximately 45% of the teachers
reported spending too much time on behaviour problems. Significant differences
were found in the prevalence of teachers' perceptions of students’ misbehaviour
and of the time spent on classroom management. There were also differences in
these perceptions according to students' gender, type of school, classroom
subject taught, and teachers' level of experience.

21. Hadi, A.A., Naing, N.N., Daud, A., Nordin, R. & Sulong, M.R. (2009)
attempted to determine the prevalence of stress and the associated factors contributing
to stress among teachers in Malaysia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 580
secondary school teachers in Kota Bharu District. The instrument used to carry out the
study was adopted and modified from the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale
(DASS 21) and Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ). The questionnaire consisted of two
parts: Part I consisting non-job factors (socio-demographic characteristics) and Part II
consisting of psychosocial factors contributing to stress. Simple and multiple linear
regression56 analysis were used. The prevalence of stress was reported as 34.0%.

56 In statistics, linear regression includes any approach to modeling the relationship between a
scalar variable y and one or more variables denoted X, such that the model depends linearly
on the unknown parameters to be estimated from the data. Such a model is called a “linear

40
17.4% teachers experienced mild stress. Age, duration of work and psychological
job demands were significantly associated with stress level. This study indicated
that job-related factors did not contribute much to stress among secondary
school teachers. It was suggested that non-job-related factors should be further
studied to determine methods for stress reduction in teachers in Malaysia.

22. A vast number of studies exist in the relevant literature identifying the main job
stressors facing teachers. The bulk of evidence points to specific factors that are
responsible for high levels of psychological pressure for teachers, such as: high ratio
between teacher-pupils, limited progress of pupils, heavy workload, role
overload and role conflict, relationships with colleagues/poor working
environment, insufficient salary, status, time/resource difficulties, professional
recognition needs. (Borg, et al. 1991; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1979; Kyriacou, 1987;
Manthei & Solman, 1988; Laughlin, 1984; Travers & Cooper, 1996; Guglielmi &
Tatrow, 1998).

23. Chong, E.Y.L. & Chan, A.H.S. (2010) comprehensively investigated the
occupational health problems among teachers of primary and secondary schools in
Hong Kong. A random sample of 6000 teachers was generated from the database of
Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (HKPTU) members. A self-administrated
questionnaire was designed and sent by mail to the teachers of primary and secondary
schools in Hong Kong, together with a cover letter and a reply paid envelope. A total
of 1,710 usable questionnaires were returned. The results indicated that comparing
with one year and five years ago, 91.6% and 97.3% of the responding teachers
reported an increase of perceived stress level, respectively. Heavy workload, time
pressure, education reforms, external school review, pursuing further education,
and managing students' behaviour and learning were the most frequently
reported sources of work stress.

model.” Most commonly, linear regression refers to a model in which the conditional mean of
y given the value of X is an affine function of X. Less commonly, linear regression could refer
to a model in which the median, or some other quantile of the conditional distribution of y
given X is expressed as a linear function of X. Like all forms of regression analysis, linear
regression focusses on the conditional probability distribution of y given X, rather than on the
joint probability distribution of y and X, which is the domain of multivariate analysis.were
carried out.

41
24. Popoola, B.L & Ilugbo, E.A. (2010) investigated the stress level of female
teachers in Osun State Teaching Service and determined the relationship between
stress and each of the personality traits of self concept, extraversion, locus of control
and achievement motivation. Using a sample of 370 teachers drawn from 50
randomly selected primary and secondary schools in Osun State, data were collected
using 4 standardized personality instruments and a Stress Assessment Inventory
(SAI). The results showed that 80.3% of female teachers in Osun State Teaching
Service had low level of stress; and that there was no significant relationship between
stress and each of the personality traits of extraversion, locus of control, self concept
and achievement motivation. The results also showed that marital status of female
teachers significantly influenced the stress experienced by them. Specifically,
women who were divorced experienced more stress than those who were single or
married. The study concluded that personality traits were not substantial
predictors of the level of stress experienced by female teachers in Osun State
Teaching Service.

25. Kerr, R.A., Breen, J., Delaney, M., Kelly, C. & Miller, K. (2011) examined
teachers’ perceptions of their daily stresses and how they attempted to cope with such
situations. Interviews were conducted with 15 secondary teachers from a variety of
school types in eastern Ireland. The teachers showed great concern for their students,
with some being prepared to ignore school guidelines in order to deal with their
pupils’ needs. Several particularly stressful factors were identified, including the
maintenance of boundaries (especially when dealing with students with personal
problems), dealing with disruptive student behaviour, and heavy workload. Levels of
stress and methods of dealing with stress varied widely among the sample, with
primary support coming from their colleagues. One strong finding was the lack of
suitable training and preparation felt by the participants, particularly in
methods of dealing with sensitive and stressful situations in pupils, and in
appropriate means of reaction to student misbehaviour. It was recommended
that teacher training courses include explicit training in dealing with such
situations. However, this study would have been more forceful, had it been
conducted on more number of teachers.

42
26. Lopez, J.M.O., Bolano, C.C., Marino, M.J.S. & Pol, E.V. (2010) carried out a
study to identify, from an integrative approach, the main predictors of different
manifestations of occupational malaise (stress, burnout and job dissatisfaction). The
sample consisted of 1,386 teachers from compulsory secondary education. The results
from statistical analysis conducted (correlation and regression) strongly supported the
existence of (personal, psychosocial and contextual) determining factors common to
all three phenomena. Specifically, support by colleagues, optimism, hardiness,
daily hassles and life events were valid predictors of stress, burnout and job
dissatisfaction in secondary school teachers. Other variables (type A behavioural
pattern, family support, conscientiousness) also showed that account for the
specificity of each of the phenomena. Occupational stress, burnout and job
dissatisfaction were highly related phenomena that might be explained according
to personal variables (optimism and hardiness), relational variables (peer
support) and non-occupational variables (daily hassles and life events). On the
other hand, and as regards the influence of specific variables (Type A
behavioural pattern, conscientiousness and family support) it might be possible
to speak of certain ‘specificity’ for each of the phenomena.

27. Johannsen, S.E. (2011) sought to compare the stress factors experienced by
teachers to determine if there was a link between gender, grade level taught,
years of teaching experience and teacher perceptions of the work factors that
contribute to stress. Teacher responses to a survey regarding the factors that cause or
mitigate occupational stress were analysed. A correlation study identified no
differences in stress based upon years of teaching experience and an Independent t-
test showed no differences in stress based on gender. An Analysis of Variance did
detect a difference in the degree of teacher stress based on grade level taught. The
researcher concluded from this study that teachers exhibited a moderate degree of
occupational stress. Differences in stress levels were identified based on grade level
taught, with elementary school teachers exhibiting higher levels of stress than did
middle school or high school teachers. The results of this study suggested that
despite a greater sense of empowerment, heavy workload was a key determinant
in causing stress. While middle school and high school teachers identified student

43
discipline issues and concerns about mandated testing as key stressors, there was
planning time during the day to prepare lessons, and there were far fewer duties
and responsibilities as compared to elementary teachers.

28. Hussain, I., Sadiq, T., Ahmad, S., Ahmad, M. & Sardar, F. (2012) investigated
the causes of stress among teachers at the secondary level in district Attock,
Pakistan. Population of the study comprised of the teachers teaching at the secondary
level in Punjab. The scope of the study was delimited to the government secondary
schools of Attock district. 72 government secondary school teachers (36 male and 36
female) were taken randomly from different schools (male and female) as sample of
the study. A questionnaire was developed as research instrument for the collection of
information from the teachers. Data was then tabulated and analysed by applying
appropriate statistical tools. It was concluded that a number of factors which were
affecting the teachers’ performance at secondary level, included - extra work load,
duties other then teaching, teaching different subjects to the different classes,
conveyance problem and autocratic behaviour of the principal.

Newspaper articles:

1. Education Guardian, Monday, February 19,2007: Survey reveals rising levels

of stress among teachers.
(By Alexandra L.Smith)

Half of teachers in England have considered quitting the profession because of the
stress of working with disrespectful pupils, a new survey has found. Two-thirds of the
823 teachers poked by the channel Teachers' TV said they felt stressed by teaching -
half of them during lessons - and one of the biggest causes was the behaviour of
pupils. More than 60% said they felt stressed as a result of teaching, even when not in
school, and there were many complaints of long working hours. One in 10 told
researchers for Teachers' TV they worked longer hours than EU rules permit - and
60% blamed the amount of paperwork required. Nearly half of the secondary school
teachers said stress was caused by verbal abuse from pupils and 14% said it was due
to physical abuse from pupils during lessons. When asked specifically about what

44
caused stress, 71% of teachers cited a lack of respect from pupils and three-quarters
said they felt inadequately supported by their headteacher or senior management.
Only four out of 10 blamed stress on poor resources in the classroom and 44% said
they were stressed because of large class sizes. Andrew Bethell, the chief executive of
Teachers’ TV, said: “Teaching is one of the most demanding professions and it is
clear that our teachers are feeling the pressure. "We need to ensure that there are
systems in place to help those teachers who experience stress to access available
resources and support networks.” “We need to ensure that there are systems in place
to help those teachers who experience stress to access available resources and support
networks.” Patrick Nash, the chief executive of the Teacher Support Network, said:
“Nearly 25% of teachers who called or emailed Teacher Support Network in 2006
said they felt stressed by the issue they were facing. Stress is the main emotional state
teachers report they feel, higher than anxiety and depression, loss of confidence and
motivation. We urge teachers who are facing a stressful situation at work or at home
to contact us before it escalates. Just to talk through a seemingly insignificant event or
concern can really help teachers to put their situation into perspective, and to take
steps to resolve problems before they get out of hand.”

2. Irish Examiner Times, Monday, April 09, 2007: ‘Stress levels rising’ among
teachers.

A study conducted by the Association of Secondary Teachers Ireland (ASTI) of

almost 900 members found that three-out-of-four second-level teachers feel under
constant pressure due to stress. The most common causes were workload, teaching
classes with a wide ability range and not having enough time to spend with individual
students. The 875 teachers surveyed identified smaller classes as the intervention
which would help most to reduce stress, with 74% of teachers prioritising this
measure. ASTI general secretary, John White said, “Large class sizes mean teachers
have more work and less control over how they carry out their work. Teachers faced
with 25 to 30 vibrant adolescents are under tremendous pressure to give individual
attention to students to hold the attention of the entire class and cover the syllabus.”
Mr. White also said that discipline issues are more likely to arise in larger classes,
reflected in the surveyed teachers’ desire for consistent implementation of school

45
discipline policies as the most favoured measure after class sizes to counter stress.
“Prolonged occupational stress is not only detrimental to individual teachers. It can
have a significant negative impact on teaching and learning in schools. It is therefore
vital that the issue of teacher stress is acknowledged and addressed,” he commented.
He called for increased staffing allocations to allow class sizes to be reduced and the
expansion of a pilot stress prevention programme for schools. Asked about the most
satisfactory aspects of their jobs, more than two-thirds of the surveyed teachers
referred to the feeling that they are making a difference to students lives and helping
them reach their potentials.

2.1X2. National Perspective:

1. Upadhyay & Singh (2001) investigated the level of occupational stress

experienced by the college teachers and the higher secondary school teachers (HSST).
The sample consisted of 40 respondents (20 from each group), who responded on the
Occupational Stress Index (OSI). Significant difference on the variables related to
role overload, role ambiguity, responsibility, under-participation, powerlessness,
peer relation, and unprofitability, was observed. The study also depicted
difference in the overall stress experienced between the two groups on various
sub-scales of the OSI. Thus, it was concluded that academicians too experienced
stress and needed to learn coping strategies to overcome the negative effects of
job stressors.

2. Ravichandran, R. & Rajendran, R. (2007) conducted a study to investigate the

various sources of stress experienced by higher secondary teachers. A sample of 200
higher secondary teachers (Males=82 and Females=118) was randomly drawn from
government-aided and private schools in the city of Chennai. Their age ranged from
20-55 years and their experience ranged from 1-25 years. They were administered
Teacher’s Stress Inventory (1998) developed by Rajendran, which measures eight
independent factors of sources of stress. The result of one way ANOVA indicated that
the personal variables: sex, age, educational levels, years of teaching experience
and types of school - played a significant role in the perception of various sources

46
of stress related to the teaching profession. Female teachers reported more stress
as compared to their male counterpart Likewise on the factor of Teaching
Assignment both male and female teachers differed significantly in their
perceptions of this source of stress. As regards the age variable, teachers differed
in Personal Teaching Evaluation, Facilities available at school, and
Organizational Policy. The Teachers’ qualification as a source of stress was
found significant only on Personal Stress and Teaching Assignment. Experience
was directly contributing to sources of stress among teachers’ Personal Stress,
Lack of Support from parents, and Organizational Policy. Marital Status as a
source of stress contributed to Personal Expectations, Teaching Evaluation, and
Facilities available at School. Handling of different Classes as a source of stress
was found significant only on Personal Stress factor. In case of Type of Schools
as a source of stress, the significant factors were: Lack of Support from Parents,
Facilities Available at School, Organizational Policy and Parental Expectations.

3. Singh, M. (2009) conducted a study to investigate the various factors causing

occupational stress experienced by senior secondary school teachers. A sample of 100
teachers (50 science teachers and 50 physical education teachers) was randomly
selected. They were administered a comprehensive questionnaire which measures
various factors of stress. Factor analyses were used to identify underlying factors
causing stress. The analysis showed that non-co-operation from the colleagues,
hastiness to finish the work, unable to perform duty smoothly, unclear
instructions and insufficient facilities, unclear expectations of higher authority
and having more work load in less time were the significant factors causing
occupational stress among the teachers. The monotonous nature of work,
ignorance of higher authority and violation of administrative processes and
policies were factors also contributing towards occupational stress among
teachers. However, this study excluded teachers of other subjects besides Science and
Physical Education, and hence suffered a lacuna. It would have been more
heterogeneous and comprehensive, had other subject teachers been included in the
sample group as well.

47
4. Manjula, C. (2012) investigated the personality factors causing stress among
teachers. The objectives were to elicit the personality factors, interpersonal
factors, system factors, and job characteristics causing stress. The sample
comprised of 150 female school teachers from 20 rural and urban schools in and
around Madurai. The data was collected with the help of a questionnaire prepared by
the researcher. The structured questionnaire was divided into 3 categories -
Personality Characteristics, Interpersonal Relations, and System Factors. Few of the
questions were open-ended questions. Many of the items had the options of ‘Yes” and
‘No’. By open-ended questions the respondents were encouraged to express
themselves freely. The test-form was first administered in order to identify the
teachers who had stress. Thereafter the final questionnaire was administered, which
included 30 questions. Results revealed that teachers who were highly exhausted
and there by stressed, included - those above 40 years of age, with no flexibility
of timings, temporarily employed, and with income less than 5000 rupees.
Graduates and rural teachers were less assertive which might have caused stress.
Teachers who were married, who came from joint families, and were working
more than 4 hours lost control which might have caused stress. Teachers who
were graduates, coming from rural areas, were temporary and were earning less
than 5000 rupees were submissive which cause stress. Graduates and those less
than 30 years of age suffered stress due to strict supervision. Temporary
teachers, graduates, rural teachers did not share good or cordial relationship
with management, leading to stress. Single teachers, less than 30 years of age,
and holding temporary posts played lesser role in decision making which might
have caused stress. Married, part-time teachers, temporary, and rural teachers
lacked communication among colleagues which might have caused stress. Full
time and urban teachers suffered due to lack of ventilation in class rooms which
was a potential cause for stress. Graduates, part-time, temporary teachers and
those earning less than 5000 rupees did not have much scope for development
which might have caused stress. Temporary teachers and those married suffered
due to cut in pay for taking leaves.

5. Vijayadurai, J. & Rupa, P.J. (2012) conducted a study to understand and

measure the occupational role of stress as perceived by the teachers, to find out

48
whether teachers’ stress affects their social behaviour, and to identify the causes
of stress. The sample consisted of 120 teachers from 20 schools in Madurai district.
11 schools were from urban areas and 9 schools from rural areas. A structured, non-
disguised interview schedule was prepared and the teachers were interviewed in then-
leisure hours over a period of six months. The predictor variables comprised of 4
organizational variables, namely - conflict, alienation, work-overload and
unfavourable work environment. The variables were measured on a 5-point scale. The
moderating variable - neuroticism, was assessed by NEO 5 Factor Inventory. A 5-
point scale was used here as well. In terms of gender, more than 10% were males and
the remaining 90% were females. Almost 50% were below 26 years old and 23%
were between 26 and 30 years of age. 56.7% were married and 40% were single and
3.3% widows. 66.7% had a work experience of less than 5 years. 86.7% had a
monthly income of less than 10,000 rupees. Tiredness in travel, and work
satisfaction were significantly correlated. Organizational stressors were
positively related to job stress. Substantial relationship was found between
freedom of work and impact of work on family life. Work experience and
marital status had significant influence on job stress.

Newspaper articles;

1. The Telegraph, Sunday, March 14,2010: Punish peeves.

(By Chandreyee Chattel] ee)

Teachers in city schools are struggling hard to find the right way of disciplining
students in these sensitive times, says Chandreyee Chatteijee.
“Corporal punishment is out of the question. The threat of psychological trauma
looms large when they are stem with students. It is a tough time for teachers now.
With the growing incidence of suicides by students, and the fear of triggering extreme
emotion or being sued becoming widespread, teachers say that they may have to think
twice even before asking a student to step out for disturbing the class. “We have no
option but to spare not just the rod but also other kinds of disciplining methods,” says
a teacher of Birla High School.

49
Power shift.
“In schools now we see a lot of defiant behaviour among students, disrespect, callous
attitude, extreme carelessness, lack of sensitivity, tendency for physical abuse, assault
and strong aggression,” says Salony Priya, a psychologist who deals with student
problems. If teachers could be autocratic earlier, a different power equation is settling
in now. A lot has to do with change in parental attitude over the years. Over the last
decade or so, as the nation, its economy, its lifestyle have changed, parents have
become a different breed. “At one point we would have parents coming up to us and
saying ‘my son doesn’t listen to me at home; maybe he will listen to you’. Now if we
try to discipline children, parents say ‘you are too strict with them so they are afraid
of coming to school’,” says a class teacher of a south Calcutta school. When the
parents of a child in a south Calcutta school, who did not perform well in the class test
and the first term examination, were told that they needed to monitor his studies, the
teachers were not prepared for the answer. “The parents told me in front of the child
that we had singled him out from the beginning and deliberately wanted to fail him,”
says a teacher. Parents often feel that their children are entitled to freedoms that they
were deprived of — money, gadgets, and also in school. Children are used to getting
their way at home. They expect it at school too. If playing truant was going to watch
first-day first-show of a movie a generation or two earlier, it may be endorsed by
parents now. When a south Calcutta school called the parents of two students who
were found roaming around the city in their school uniform for two days during
school hours, the parents did not think it wrong. “One parent said his daughter was
incapable of doing something like this and the other asked if kids wouldn’t do all this
at this age when would they do it,” says a teacher.

Mobile matters
The age of consumption and awareness adds to the trouble. “Children today have a
very low threshold of frustration. Being habituated to instant gratification, they
become impatient when they don’t get something. They are also more aware and
sensitive and have a sense of self-esteem because of their exposure and are therefore
more vulnerable,” says psychologist Mohormala Chatteijee, who works with students.
Technology creates mischief at school. “Earlier students would pass around chits and
sometimes we could spot them doing it. Now, with mobile phones they send text

50
messages and even if we do catch them it is not too difficult for them to remove the
evidence,” says a teacher of a Salt Lake school. Priya feels that bringing gadgets like
mobiles and iPods to school could itself be an act of defiance, stemming from the
feeling “I am smart, I will not be caught”. And contraband men’s magazines in a
boys’ school have been replaced by the MMS. Somewhere along the way teachers
have lost their authority, with parents as well as students. It may have to do with the
way schools operate, some feel. “Many schools take donations of lakhs of rupees for
admission and some even charge more than Rs. 50,000 as admission fees. Students
and their parents often feel that they have bought the service and deserve attention and
mollycoddling,” says the teacher of a reputed south Calcutta school. Education
becomes just a matter of getting on to the next level of life with the maximum
advantage, of money, network, degree. What one learns in the process is relegated to
the background. Similarly for the givers of knowledge. If they feel they are buying a
service, parents do not feel the necessity of putting a teacher on an exalted level. They
are openly critical of teachers before the children. “Parents need to be more
respectful towards the teachers. If they disagree with the teachers they should speak to
them separately and not criticize them in front of their wards,” says the principal of a
school in South Calcutta.

Coping strategies
The problem cuts across all schools, but is more prevalent in upmarket English-
medium schools than in the government-run Bengali medium schools such as Hindu
School, Hare School or Ballygunge Government School. “It is true that aggression
among students has increased. But students of these schools primarily come from
middle-class and lower-middle class families and they believe in the value of
education. As a result, disrespect for teachers is not that apparent,” says Dipak Das, a
teacher of the government-run Sanskrit Collegiate School, and the general secretary of
the West Bengal Government School Teachers’ Association. This disregard in the
young is not reserved for teachers alone; it stems from the lack of respect the young
now generally show to older people. “Earlier in joint families there was always
someone who you had to treat with respect, whether it was the grandfather, the uncle
or even their own father. But now with nuclear families and parents being more
friendly, children may not learn to respect their elders. They therefore can’t assess

51
how far they can go with teachers,” says Chatteijee. The schools are trying to cope.
They consciously try to avoid causing emotional harm to the students or getting flak
(criticism) from the parents for disciplining their children. Many schools have now
stopped using terms like “poor”. Schools are bringing in counsellors to hold
workshops for teachers for the purpose. Priya conducts workshops for teachers. She
says she tries to explain disciplining in a positive light to schools. “Discipline should
be positive, based on the belief that each child is good and is capable of good
behaviour with help. Secondly, it should be active. It should be based on actions that
are geared to steer, understand, guide, nurture and lead,” she says. Instead of punitive
measures, schools are also trying to think of more creative solutions. Students who
need disciplining are given a special set of tasks that they enjoy and learn from. “We
try and assign duties to them where they would have a responsibility and though they
know it is a remedial activity they like being responsible for something and therefore
start enjoying it. We have had a good response to this,” says Malini Bhagat, the
principal of Mahadevi Birla Girls’ Higher Secondary School.
Involving parents is another option. “When a child is giving trouble we take the
parents into confidence and ask them what we should do. We take the consent of the
parents before taking any step,” says Bhagat. Not that these are perfect solutions.
Teachers feel that calling parents may also backfire, for the child may take it hard.
“The safest way was to call the parents. Now that also seems to be a problem. Are we
then not supposed to do anything and let students do whatever they like?” asks the
principal of a school in south Calcutta. He was echoing the feeling of heads of
institutions after the death last month of Rouvanjit Rawla, a Class VIII student of La
Martiniere for Boys. His parents were called to report an “act of indiscipline”,
following which the 13-year-old was found hanging from the ceiling of his attic. His
parents, however, said that it was an accident. “We have to understand that we as
teachers have to also change with the changing times. Students today are dealing with
circumstances that were not there 10 years ago. So age-old practices won’t suffice any
more,” says Rita Chatteijee, the principal of Apeejay School.
Psychologists feel what is most required today is the ability of the teacher to keep his
or her cool and deal with students with patience and understanding. It is still the
teachers’ job to teach. How to do it at the moment can only be found out through trial
and error.”

52
 2.1.2. Occupational Stress Levels in School Teachers

2.I.2.I. International perspective:

1. Ngidi, D.P. (1998) examined the determinants of occupational stress among

teachers in KwaZulu-Natal. The first aim was to ascertain the extent to which
teachers in KwaZulu-Natal experienced stress from work-related factors. The second
aim was to determine whether any relationship existed between teachers' personality
dimensions and their stress levels. The third aim was to determine which personality
dimension (s) best predicted stress in different work situations. The last aim was to
determine whether significant effects existed between teachers' biographical
characteristics and perception of the nature of work-related stress factors. To this end,
a standardized scale (KPQ) was used for eliciting teachers' personality dimensions
and the researcher's own scale, Occupational Stress Inventory for Teachers (OSIT) for
measuring teachers' occupational stress. The OSIT scale was validated by the
researcher using the method of factor analysis. The research instruments were
administered to a randomly selected sample of 444 teachers. The findings revealed
that teachers differed in the extent to which they experienced stress from work-
related factors. A very high percentage (67.1%) of teachers reported an above
average level of occupational stress. The findings showed that there was a negative
relationship between extraversion and educational changes. The relationship
between neuroticism and time pressures; neuroticism and administrative
problems and neuroticism and pupil misbehaviour was positive. The findings also
indicated that neuroticism was the best predictor of stress in situations involving
time pressures; administrative problems and pupil misbehaviour, whereas
extraversion was the best predictor of stress in situations involving educational
changes. Finally, the study revealed that teachers' sex, qualification and teaching
experience had an influence on teachers' perception of time pressures;
educational changes; administrative problems and pupil misbehaviour. On the
basis of the findings of this study, both curative and preventive strategies were
recommended for dealing with occupational stress experienced by teachers.

53
2. Yahaya, Azizi Hj. (2007) conducted a survey to identify the level of stress and
the factors that influenced stress among secondary school teachers. 400 teachers
from 4 states - Johore, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor filled up a
questionnaire. The aspects to be identified were - workload, interpersonal
relationship, students’ discipline problem, and the school rules. Data was collected
through cluster random sampling. The reliability of the instrument was 0.8201. The
data was processed using Statistical Package for Social Science. Descriptive statistics
in terms of mean and frequency was used to analyse the level of stress. Inferential
statistics - t-test and Pearson’s correlation were used to test the hypotheses. Results
showed that the secondary school teachers’ level of stress was medium. There was
no significant relation between stress factors and gender. Significant relationship
was found between workload and teaching experiece, age and number of
children. The most dominant stress factor was students’ discipline problem.

3. Kayastha, R., Krishnamurthy, V. & Adhikary, P.R. (2012) compared the

occupational stress of the relationship between 3 different types of schools that is
government, public, and private schools with particular reference to corporate,
Higher Secondary Level School of Nepal. 268 teachers with at least 1 year
experience in anyone of 3 different types of schools in Nepal were selected for this
study. The sample was selected randomly, each from government, public, and private
schools. The following criterion measures chosen for testing the hypotheses in the
study, occupational stress was measured by occupational stress index by Srivastava
and Singh. The data was collected by research assistants through direct contact with
the respondents. Findings revealed that there was no significant difference in
occupational stress among Higher Secondary Level School Teachers of Nepal in
3 different types of schools.

2.I.2.2. National perspective:

1. Singh, M. & Singh, G. (2012) assessed the psychosocial stress, work-family

conflict and the level of anxiety, depression, somatic symptoms and social
dysfunction of middle-aged female school teachers. A sample of 50 middle-aged

54
female school teachers was selected randomly from 15 government recognised girl's
schools of Varanasi city in the year 2001-2002. An interview schedule and 2
questionnaires, namely - General Health Questionnaire and Psycho Social Stress
Scale were administered simultaneously. Psycho Social Stress Scale score showed
moderate to high level of stress in 54% subjects whereas, 18% cases had low
scores while, 28% cases were in between low to moderate level of stress. Anxiety
level was observed low in 64% cases and moderate in 32% cases. Depression
level was low in 92% cases. Somatic symptom score was moderate in 44% cases
while, social dysfunction score had been observed moderate in 80% cases. The
overall assessment revealed that though the subjects were normal in general, but a
substantial proportion was at risk of developing psychosocial stress generated
problems that might affect their mental health.

2. Kaur, S. (2011) examined the occupational stress and job satisfaction of school
teachers. A representative sample of 500 secondary school teachers comprising male-
female, rural-urban school teachers was randomly selected from Bathinda district of
Punjab. Job Satisfaction scale by Sharma and Singh and occupational stress scale
constructed by investigator were used. Central tendency and correlation coefficient
were calculated. The findings of the study reflected that male teachers were more
satisfied with their jobs and occupationally less stressed than the female teachers.
Further rural school teachers were less satisfied and under higher level of
occupational stress as compared to their urban counterparts. The correlation
analysis revealed a strong inverse relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress. It is suggested from findings of the study, that in order to reduce
occupational stress among teachers, the job satisfaction must be enhanced.

3. Verma, A. (2011) studied the effect of stress related to students experienced by

higher secondary school teachers working in different cultural contexts. In view
of the goal to investigate the stressful experiences of higher secondary school
teachers, it was decided to draw the sample from various higher secondary schools
located in urban and semi urban/rural settings near to Bhopal. With this purpose a
sample of 400 higher secondary school teachers (200 male and 200 female) was
drawn from different higher secondary schools located in urban and rural areas in the

55
central regions of Madhya Pradesh, especially the Bhopal region. The teachers were
selected on the basis of random sampling. Equal number of teachers working in urban
areas (N=200) and in rural areas (N= 200) participated in the study. Teachers who
participated in the study were from government schools (N= 200) and from private
higher secondary schools (N= 200). A structured questionnaire to assess the type and
extent of stress related to students was prepared by the researcher in the course of
pilot study. The items of questionnaire were prepared on the basis of interview with
the participants and modified standardized tool. A set of 5-point rating scale ranging
from very high stress (5) to no stress (1) were used to investigate the extent of stress.
Scores obtained on the stress questionnaire were analysed separately with the help of
ANOVA, mean, standard deviation and correlation. It was evident from the result that
the main effect of gender was significant. Male teachers experienced higher stress
than female teachers. Similarly the main effect of residential background was
significant. It indicated that teachers belonging to urban areas experienced
higher stress than teachers belonging to rural areas. However the effect of type
of school was not significant. The interaction effect of sex with residential
background was also not significant. However the interaction effect of sex with
school management was significant. Pattern of interaction effect revealed that
male teachers of government schools experienced greater stress than their
private schools counterparts. Contrary to this, female teachers of private schools
experienced higher stress than their government school counterparts. However
the interaction of sex with residential background with school management was
not significant.

4. Aftab, M. & Khatoon, T. (2012) examined the relationships of a set of

independent variables (gender, qualification, teaching experience, salary,
subjects taught and marital status) with occupational stress among secondary
school teachers. The population in this study consisted of 608 teachers from 42
schools of Uttar Pradesh (India). The Teacher’s Occupational Stress Scale was used
for data collection, while t-test and F-test are used for statistical analysis. According
to the results of the analysis, nearly half of the secondary school teachers
experienced less stress towards their job and males displayed more occupational
stress towards their job than the females. Moreover, the trained graduate

56
teachers were found to have higher occupational stress than post-graduate and
untrained teachers. Teachers with an experience of 6-10 years faced the most
occupational stress, and those with 0-5 years of experience faced the least; while
those falling in the remaining two groups slided in between these two. Findings
also revealed no significant differences between monthly salary, subjects taught,
marital status and occupational stress of secondary school teachers.

2.1.3. Stress Reactions exhibited by the Teachers

2.I.3.I. International Perspective:

1. High levels of occupational stress often lead to job dissatisfaction, absenteeism

and work turnover. Response correlates of teacher stress may be psychological
(anxiety, depression), physiological (headaches, tachycardia57, hypertension,
increased blood pressure) and/or behavioural (alcohol consumption, smoking,
lifestyle, sleeping problems). The sources of stress most likely to be linked with
those responses are poor career structure and low wages. In other words, the
conditions of work rather than the experience of teaching seem to provide the
stress factors which most strongly contribute to job dissatisfaction and intention
to leave teaching (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1979).

2. Watts, W.D. & Short, A.P. (1990) conducted a study in which a stratified random
sample of 500 Texas teachers was surveyed regarding working conditions, colleaguial
and supervisory relationships, job satisfaction, rigidity of attitudes and drug use. Out
of them 56.5% responded. The responding teachers averaged 12 years of teaching and
had a mean age of 38.8 years. 80% of respondents were white, 5.8% were Black, and
12% were Hispanic. Over 75% of the respondents were female. The results revealed
that work-related stress was correlated with wanting to leave the teaching
profession and tw o-thirds of teachers might want to quit the profession while
36% were likely to quit. Teachers in this sample also showed higher rates than the

57 a heart rate that exceeds the normal range for a resting heart rate or heart rate in an inactive
or sleeping individual.

57
national average for lifetime use of alcohol, amphetamine58, and tranquilizer use
as well as higher rates of alcohol use in the past year and previous month.

3. Evers, W. J.G., Tomic, W. & Brouwers, A. (2004) conducted a study to explore

students’ and teachers’ perceptions of teacher burnout in relation to the occurrence of
disruptive student classroom behaviour and the teachers’ competence to cope with
this kind of behaviour. A random sample of 411 students and 41 teachers participated
in the study and responded to some questionnaires. First, the study showed that the
Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Coping with Disruptive Behaviour Scale and the
Perceived Disruptive Behaviour Scale could be adapted to students to report
perceived burnout symptoms among their teachers, the occurrence of perceived
disruptive student behaviour and the students’ perception of their teachers’
competence to cope with disruptive student behaviour. Second, students’
perceptions did not differ according to their age. Third, it was found that there was
a significant difference between the perceptions of male and female students in
respect of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization59 but not in respect of
personal accomplishment. Fourth, according to the students’ perceptions, a
considerable percentage of variance in each of the three burnout dimensions was
explained by teachers’ competence to cope with student disruptive behaviour
and perceived disruptive student behaviour. Finally, with respect to the teachers’
self-reports, it appeared that teachers’ and students’ reports differed
significantly with respect to depersonalization, personal accomplishment and the
competence to cope with disruptive student behaviour. The hierarchical regression
analyses of the teachers’ data showed that the competence to cope with disruptive
student behaviour significantly contributed to depersonalization and personal
accomplishment, whereas the teachers’ age was significantly related with
personal accomplishment. Although the students’ perceptions and the teachers’
self-reports on the teachers’ well-being differed on some dimensions, the

58 A psycho-stimulant drug that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus in

association with decreased fatigue and appetite.

59 A state in which an individual feels that either he himself or the outside world is unreal. In
addition to a sense of unreality, depersonalization may involve the feeling that one’s mind is
dissociated from one’s body; that the body extremities have changed in relative size; that one
sees oneself from a distance; or that one has become a machine

58
students’ information might contribute valid information on some aspects of
teachers’ mental health and classroom processes.

4. Assor, A., Kaplan, H., Kanat-Maymon, Y. & Roth, G. (2005) conducted a study
to investigate the potential effects of directly controlling teacher behaviours
(DCTB), especially anger and anxiety, as predictors of poor motivation and
engagement in girls and boys. The DCTB included such conducts as giving frequent
directives, interfering with children’s preferred pace of learning, and not allowing
critical and independent opinions from students. The sample comprised of 319 Israeli
students of 4th and 5th grades who completed questionnaires assessing the variables of
interest. The extent to which children showed intensive academic engagement was
assessed by their primary teachers. Path analyses (a statistical method of finding
cause/effect relationships) supported the expected relations. DCTB appeared
particularly harmful because they led to a motivation that was intertwined with
anger and anxiety.

5. Mokdad, M. (2005) carried out a study to determine occupational stress in

Algerian teachers. A sample of 126 teachers was randomly- chosen from Biskra
govemorate (Algeria) primary schools to answer an occupational stress questionnaire
developed comprising of 3 major areas: sources of stress; symptoms of ill-health; and
coping with stress strategies. The questionnaire was designed as a Likert scale, with 5
alternative responses. The alternatives were marked as follows: 4 = very high
experience of stress; 3 = high experience of stress; 2 = moderate experience of stress;
1 = weak experience of stress; 0 = very weak experience of stress. A test-retest
method was used to ensure reliability. The reliability coefficient was 0.78. With
regard to validity, the content validity was adopted. Results indicated that teachers
suffered from many health problems. More than 7 out of 10 teachers (74%)
reported headaches. Other health problems (like sensual problems, arthritis,
respiratory problems, ulcers, hypertension, heart problems, diabetes) were also
reported by many teachers but not by the majority.

6. Jackson, L. & Rothman, S. (2006) conducted a study to analyse the occupational

stress of educators, to determine the differences between occupational stress and

59
strain of educators in different biographical groups, and to assess the relationship
between occupational stress, organisational commitment and ill-health. A cross-
sectional survey design was used. A stratified random sample (N = 1170) was taken
of educators in the North West Province. 7 school districts (Klerksdorp, Lichtenburg,
Mafikeng, Potchefstroom, Rustenburg, Yryburg, and Zeerust) were randomly sampled
from a group of 12 districts in the province. The sample consisted mainly of
permanent (89.42%) Setswana-speaking (45.88%) females (69.48%), who were
married (46.25%), possessed a Grade 12 certificate and an Education Diploma and/or
a bachelor's degree (45.68%), who had not experienced a major stressful event over
the last 6 months (56.69%), and who were members of a trade union (91.25%). A
biographical questionnaire was designed to gather information regarding gender,
position, education and marital status. The ASSET60 developed as an initial screening
tool to help organisations assess the risk of occupational stress in their workforce was
used. It measured potential exposure to stress in respect of a range of common
workplace stressors. It also provided important information on current levels of
physical health, psychological well-being and organisational commitment, and
provides data to which the organisation can be compared. The ASSET was divided
into 4 questionnaires. The first questionnaire (37 items) measured the individual's
perception of stressors in his or her job. This questionnaire consisted of 7 subscales,
namely Resources and Communication, Job Security, Work-Life Balance, Control,
Overload, Job Characteristics and Work Relationships. The second questionnaire (9
items) measured the individual's commitment toward his or her organisation. The
third questionnaire (19 items) focussed on the individual's physical health and
psychological well-being. The fourth questionnaire (24 items) focussed on
supplementary information. These items were customized specifically for the teaching
environment. The first 3 questionnaires of the ASSET were scored on a 6-point scale
with 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. The fourth questionnaire was scored
on a 4-point scale with 1 = never to 4 = often. The results confirmed the internal
consistency of the ASSET, Differences between the occupational stress,
organizational commitment and ill-health of educators in different types of
schools, age, and qualification groups were found. Occupational stress and low
organisational commitment explained 15% of the variance in physical ill-health

60 An Organisational Stress Screening Tool.

60
and 30% of the variance in psychological ill-health. Although organisational
commitment had major effects on physical and psychological ill-health, it only
moderated the effect of one occupational stressor, namely, job insecurity, on the
physical and psychological health of educators.

7. Twamlow, S.W., Fonagy, P., Sacco, F.C. & Brethour, J.R.Jr. (2006) examined
teachers’ perceptions of bullying by other teachers to see what causes and
characteristics were attributed to such bullying teachers, and how often teachers were
themselves bullied by students. 116 teachers from 7 elementary schools completed an
anonymous questionnaire reflecting their feelings and perceptions about their own
experiences of bullying, and how they perceived colleagues over the years. Results
confirmed that teachers who experienced bullying themselves when young were
more likely to both bully students and experience bullying by students both in
classrooms and outside the classroom. Factor analysis revealed 2 types of
bullying teachers: sadistic bully type and bully-victim type. The results revealed
the traumatic effects of bullying on childhood development.

8. Pei, W. & Guoli, Z. (2007) devised a questionnaire based on the measuring

instruments used by scholars in China and abroad, to study occupational stress of 500
secondary and elementary school teachers in Tacheng municipality in Xinjiang and
examined its negative effects on teachers. They found that the occupational stress of
secondary and elementary school teachers was considerable and affected their
health and performance. The negative effects of occupational stress on teachers'
health were markedly greater than the effects on work. There were significant
gender differences in the occupational stress among teachers in different schools
and with different lengths of service. It was concluded that occupational stress
was considerable among secondary and elementary school teachers and affected
their health and work performance.

9. Kinnunen, U. & Salo, K. (2007) conducted an eight-year follow-up study to

compare teacher stress between the years 1983 and 1991. 70 teachers in
comprehensive and upper secondary schools participated in the study. The teachers
were studied first during the school year 1983-84 and again 8 years later during the

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autumn term of 1991 by means of repeated questionnaires. During this 8-year period
the general working situation among the teachers had remained quite stable. Most of
them had remained at the same school teaching the same subjects at the same level.
The results showed a drop in the teachers' well-being over the period. In
particular, those over 55 years of age showed more emotional stress reactions in 1991
than 8 years earlier. Furthermore, they evaluated their social relations with pupils as
worse in 1991 compared to 1983. A half of both those with low emotional stress
reactions and those high in them in 1983 were still in the same categories in 1991.
Emotional stress reactions were reflected in simultaneous work ability and
psychosomatic health data. Moreover, long-term stress was seen to lead to
various psychosomatic complaints, but these were not reflected in self-rated
health status. The results suggested that teacher stress was not necessarily a
short-lived problem, and ways of preventing or reducing stress (e.g. continuing
education, counselling, co-operation) should be employed.

10. Hastings, R.P. & Bham, M.S. (2008) conducted a study on 100 British primary
school teachers to explore the properties of a measure of student behaviour in the
classroom using the Pupil Behaviour Patterns scale (PBP) and to test the prediction of
burnout dimensions from dimensions of student behaviour assessed by the PBP. An
exploratory factor analysis confirmed the PBP domains of disrespectful behaviour,
sociability and attentiveness. Furthermore, reliability analyses supported the internal
consistency of the scales. Regression analysis of teacher burnout showed differential
prediction by PBP sub-domains: disrespect predicted emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization burnout, and lack of sociability predicted depersonalization
and personal accomplishment burnout.

11. Yavuz, M. (2009) investigated the bum-out levels of teachers working in

elementary and secondary educational institutions and their attitudes and beliefs
regarding classroom management with respect to gender, job seniority, class size and
the types of schools they had been working in. It was a survey adopting quantitative
methodology. The sampling group consisted of 420 elementary and secondary school
teachers randomly selected, who were employed in Turkey in the 2006 - 2007
academic year. Out of them, 231 were female (55%) and 189 were male (45%). The

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Maslach Burn-out Inventory (MBI) and Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control
Inventory (ABCC) were used in the study. Independent Samples t-test, ANOVA and
Benforroni correction tests were used in the analysis of data. According to the results,
the level of depersonalization was higher among male teachers compared to
female teachers. Moreover, it was observed that the levels of “emotional
exhaustion” and “depersonalization” were high among elementary school
teachers compared to secondary school teachers. When the results of the
research were analysed, it was obvious that secondary school teachers showed
more “interventionist” (advocating intervention) attitudes than elementary
school teachers. There were no significant differences between the groups with
regard to the other variables used in the study.

12. Songiil, K. (2009) examined corporal punishment as a tool for providing

discipline in education: tendency of the elementary school teachers and administrators
to resort to corporal punishment as a method of discipline, why they considered it as a
primary discipline method and what they suggested to eliminate corporal punishment.
This follow up study was conducted at 7 elementary (the first 8 years of free and
compulsory education) public schools in 2005-2006 academic session, where the
earlier study was conducted at Seyhan and Yuregir districts, in Adana, Turkey. In
total, 7 principals and 105 teachers were interviewed. In each school 15 teachers were
interviewed. All the randomly selected teachers gave their consent to participate in the
interview. The majority of the teachers (70%) had had more than 15 years of teaching
experience. The 7 elementary schools differed significantly in term of socio-economic
status; 3 schools served a student population that was from low-economic level
neighborhood (L-SEL); 3 schools served a student population from middle socio­
economic level (M-SEL) and 1 school served a student population from higher socio­
economic level (H-SEL). The ages of students subjected to corporal punishment,
ranged from 6 to 16 years. Since it was assumed that no corporal punishment was
adopted at schools in higher socio-economic level, only 1 school was taken as a
sample from this level to make sure whether this assumption was grounded or not.
This study adopting a qualitative research method, employed a semi-structured
interview schedule in which interviews lasted between 10 minutes and 30 minutes.
The interview notes were coded and the responses were classified as the opinions and

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suggestions of the principals and the teachers from Low Socio-Economic Level (L-
SEL), Middle Socio-Economic Level (M-SEL) and Higher Socio-Economic Level
(H-SEL) Frequencies were presented to describe the data. The findings revealed that
there were more incidents of violence in the first 3 schools located in L-SEL than
there are in the other 4 schools. The large student population, financial problems
of the family, education problems in the family, neighbourhood, and ethnic
minority were put forward for the main causes of discipline problems in these
schools. In districts with low socio-economic level, violence was still used in
education and teachers tried to defend it by relating the problem with
environment problems, family problems, integration problems and so on.
Teachers working in L-SEL might have a difficult job to do. It might be difficult
to deal with the behaviour problems, language problems, integration problems,
family problems on one hand and give instruction in overpopulated classrooms
on the other. Hence, it was suggested that the number of pupils in classrooms
should be reduced to a reasonable number; mentoring would help significantly;
more counsellors should be appointed to the schools in L-SEL,; and more in-
service training should be provided.

13. Akhlaq, M., Brig.Amjad, M., Mehmood, K., Seed-ul-Hassan & Malik, S.
(2010) conducted a study to identify the Sources and Effects of Stress on the Job
Performance of Federal Government (FG) Secondary School teachers of Rawalpindi
Region in Pakistan. Major findings of the study were: (1) The teachers taught the
students as per their level. (2) They were not fair in grading. (3) Majority of students
agreed that teachers did not let their domestic obligations interfere with professional
responsibilities. (3) Teachers focussed on teaching in the classroom. (4) Teachers
were regular to schools /classes. And (5) Teachers exhibited stress related symptoms.
The majority of the respondent teachers were of the view that there was lack of
promotion and advancement opportunities, that they were not progressing in
this job as rapidly, they needed more status and respect in their job and they
received an inadequate salary. The respondents further opined that that there
was lack of recognition for extra work. They felt frustrated because of discipline
problems in the classroom and for having to monitor pupil behaviour. The
respondents further said that they became impatient if others did things slowly.

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According to the opinions of the teachers, they tried to do more than one thing at
a time, had little time to relax, felt uncomfortable wasting time, did not have
enough time to do things, and did too much work in a day. The respondent
teachers described that they responded to stress by feeling insecure, vulnerable,
unable to cope, depressed, anxious, physically weak and exhausted, suffering
from stomach acidity, and by using prescribed drugs to counter stress. The
recommendations of the study were: (1) Regular and fair assessment of teachers for
evaluation of their performance through development of a proforma for monitoring
stress. (2) Newly employed teachers might be provided specific training before they
were appointed and, (3) Teachers’ Training programmes might be developed in such a
way that they help the teachers to overcome the stress.

Newspaper Article:

1. The Times of India, May 25,2010: Brit teacher who battered boy with
dumbbell avoids jail, gets sacked.

London: The British teacher, who hit an unruly pupil with a dumbbell while
screaming, “Die! Die! Die!”, has escaped being sent to prison, but he was relieved
from his job. Union bosses accused education chiefs of "lacking compassion" after
they sacked Peter Harvey over the assault, which took place when youngsters taunted
the science teacher so they could film his reaction. They claimed Harvey, 50, should
be retired on the grounds of ill health after suffering years of mental health issues
brought on by pressures in his personal and private life. The dedicated teacher
battered the 14-year-old after dragging him from a classroom when he was pushed too
far. Last month, the father-of-two was cleared of attempted murder or intending to
cause the boy serious injury - hailed at the time as "common sense" verdicts by the
trial judge. But Harvey admitted causing grievous bodily harm without intent after
hitting the boy with a 3kg dumbbell at All Saints' Roman Catholic School, Mansfield,
Notts, in July of last year. He was on May 24 handed a two-year community order by
a judge who described him as "a decent man" who was "far from well" at the time of
the incident. "You are a thoroughly decent man and for well over 20 years you have
been a dedicated and successful schoolteacher," the Daily Express quoted Judge

65
Michael Stokes QC as saying as he passed sentence at Nottingham Crown Court.
"The incident was brought about, I have no doubt, by a number of factors combining
together and producing in you a quite disproportionate reaction to misbehaviour,
abuse and rank disobedience by him and some of his classmates. "In previous years
you would have handled this easily and professionally. But in July of last year you
were far from well. You were undoubtedly suffering from depression, stress and a
serious lack of confidence," he stated. Harvey had received medical and professional
help and was due another assessment on the day of the attack.
The judge took into account he had spent over eight months in custody -the equivalent
of an 18-month jail term - and said it was not necessary to impose any further
sentence.
He also accepted that Harvey had sought psychiatric help and had recognised he
would need further “assistance”. Chris Keates, General Secretary of the teaching
union NASUWT, said she had written to the new Education Secretary calling for
urgent talks on the issue of Britain’s stressed teachers. The union is appealing against
the decision to sack Harvey and is threatening legal action if it is not overturned. The
subject of his pension will not be addressed until after the outcome of the appeal.

Web Article:

1. guardian.co.uk, Monday, April 25,2011: Stress drives teachers out of schools.

(By Jeevan Vasagar)

Targets, bureaucracy and ballooning workloads make teachers increasingly anxious,

delegates at NUT conference are told. Stress is driving increasing numbers of teachers
out of the profession, with some even considering suicide, a teaching union
conference heard on Monday. Delegates at the National Union of Teachers’
conference in Harrogate heard there had been a “meteoric” rise in work-related stress
due to demands to meet government targets. Research by the Health and Safety
Executive in 2000 found teaching to be the most stressful profession, with 41.5% of
teachers reporting themselves as “highly stressed”. Targets, bureaucracy and
ballooning workloads make teachers increasingly anxious, delegates at NUT
conference are told. Stress is driving increasing numbers of teachers out of the

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profession, with some even considering suicide, a teaching union conference heard on
Monday. Christine Blower, general secretary of the NUT, said: “Despite measures to
reduce teachers' workload, we still have the unacceptable situation of many classroom
teachers, heads and deputies working in excess of 50 hours a week.” With no limit to
the working week, the long hours continue to take their toll on teachers' health and
their lives outside work. “Much of this time is spent on tasks which have little to do
with teaching and learning, but are instead generated by unnecessary bureaucratic
procedures which have become the bane of teachers' lives.” Reducing the burden of
planning and assessment on teachers would help reduce the workload of school staff,
Blower said. “In too many schools, planning and assessment requirements have
become formulaic burdens which simply waste teachers’ time”. John Illingworth from
Nottingham told delegates, “Stress-related illness is widespread, affecting thousands
of teachers each year. It is more likely to end a teacher’s career than any other cause.”

2. Science Daily. May 25,2011: Job Stress in Teachers Linked to Student

Achievement:

Teresa McIntyre and her research team intend to identify predictors and outcomes of
job stress in middle school teachers, linking teacher stress to student behaviour and
achievement via teacher effectiveness. The research study starts at the beginning of
this coming school year and follows 200 seventh-and eighth-grade social studies,
science or math teachers in 20 middle schools in Houston Independent School District
(H.I.S.D.) and thousands of students over a three-year period. McIntyre had
conducted a pilot study in the Greater Houston area in 2010 that indicated that at least
one third of middle school teachers may be significantly stressed. The University of
Houston (UH) research team will combine an innovative multi-method approach to
assessing stress and teacher effectiveness, which involves ecological momentary
assessment or real-time assessment, concurrent physiological measurements that will
monitor blood pressure and heart rate, and in-classroom observational ratings. The
researchers will use the most current technology to assess stress, which includes self-
report on a Teacher Stress Diary using an iPod Touch platform, and teacher
effectiveness ratings on an iPad. Data will be collected on students in the teachers'
classroom using teacher stress diaries, archival school records and observational

67
ratings. The innovative software programmes are being developed by Sean
Woodward at TIMES and the novel statistical methodologies required to analyse the
intensive longitudinal data generated by real time assessment will be provided by
TIMES and the UH department of psychology faculty Paras Mehta. The
methodological and technical support provided by the UH's TIMES, directed by
David Francis, as well as its expertise in education research, are key to the
implementation of this type of study.
“With this study we will be able to get a more dynamic picture of how teachers
respond to stress in real time,” McIntyre said. “And that's what this ecological
momentary assessment does -- it assesses stress through the person's diary report of
stress when things are happening, very close to the event. Teachers will be able to
report their emotions -- positive, negative; how their cognitive functions are affected
by stress; and what's happening at the moment in terms of social interactions, social
conflict, demands on the job, the time pressure and whether they feel they are in
control of their situation. They also report on effectiveness in instruction and
classroom management, an on their student's behaviour in the classroom”. The results
of the study may be used to guide further development of interventions to mitigate
teacher stress and, consequently, improve teacher effectiveness and student behaviour
and learning. The data collected will be useful for school administrators and
principals to know, such as what factors are causing teachers to be more stressed and
less effective, and what resources can be arranged to change that trajectory into a
positive one.

2.I.3.2. National Perspective:

1. Choudhary, S.B., Rao, V. & Suneetha, S. (2004) carried out a study to measure
the heart rate, blood pressure to assess cardiovascular reactivity in teachers during
teaching hours in schools. A total of thirty-three schoolteachers (20 Females, 13
Males) with no major risk factors such as smoking, diabetes, hypertension, and
hyperlipidemia61 volunteered for the investigation. They were aged between 23 - 43
years and with a teaching experience > 3 years, with teaching hours: 6-8 hours/day).
Personal interviews were conducted with individuals to understand their problems in

61 High blood cholesterol (lipid) levels.

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depth. These teachers belonged to primary schools and were teaching students from
nursery to fifth class. The resting heart rates (RHR) of teachers were noted by self­
measurement by the subjects; as radial pulse (beats/min) for 3 consecutive days and
average was taken as RHR. Their morning blood pressure (RBP) was measured with
standard manometer. Their heart rates (THR1), blood pressure (TBP1) were measured
at the beginning of the first class of the day. Their heart rate (THR2) and blood
pressure (TBP2) were measured immediately at the end of the last class of the day.
Heart rates were recorded with the help of ‘Polar Sport Tester PE 4000’ heart rate
monitoring system (Polar Electro, Made in Finland) and the rate of physical exertion
both at the beginning and at the end of classes was recorded with the help of Borg
scale 3 of perceived rate of exertion (RPE). Findings indicated significantly higher
THR2’s (p<0.005) and TBP2 (p< 0.05) than the THR1, TBP1. But their physical
exertion was very light (7 of Borg’s scale of RPE). The increment in heart rates
and blood pressure were higher when compared to increments in physical
exertion. Study indicated that CVR during continuous verbal communication
increased as abrupt increase in BP & HR occurred. Reason for the above, may
be due to sympathetic drive and stress during shouting to control the students (in
a crowded classes). Prolonged exposure to such stress without correct coping
strategies, might emerge as a potential risk factor for hypertension and coronary
artery disease. Biochemical determinants of oxidative stress needed to be evaluated
in teachers.

2. Kumari, M. (2008) carried out a study to understand personality and occupational

stress differentials of high school female teachers in Haryana. For this, 361 high
school female teachers were tested with Maslach Burnout Inventory. The subjects
were categorized into high and low burnout groups on the basis of test scores. 128
subjects scored below P30 and 117 subjects scored above P70, thus constituting low
and high burnout groups, respectively. Selected subjects were further tested with
EPQ-R, Jenkins’ Activity Survey and occupational stress index. The results
differentiated the 2 groups. The high burnout group scored significantly high on

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psychoticism62, neuroticism63, lie scale64, type-A behaviour65, emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization66, but low on extraversion67, occupational stress
and personal accomplishment. The low burnout group scored low on
psychoticism, neuroticism, lie scale, type-A behaviour and all the 3 dimensions of
burnout viz. emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal
accomplishment, but high on extraversion and occupational stress. These
findings suggested that teachers should be frequently screened for their
occupational stress and burnout, and if needed, be counselled to cope with the
threat of burnout and occupational stress.

3. Shukla, I. (2008) conducted a study on burnout and stress among secondary school
teachers in relation to their teaching effectiveness. Her study intended to ascertain the
relationship between burnout in terms of (a) frequency and (b) intensity and teaching
effectiveness as perceived by (i) teachers and (ii) students; to ascertain the
relationship between teachers’ experienced stress and teaching effectiveness; to
ascertain the relationship between teachers’ experienced stress and their perceived
burnout; to compare the relationship between perceived burnout in terms of (a)
frequency and (b) intensity and teaching effectiveness as perceived by (i) teachers and

62 One of the three traits used by the psychologist, Hans Eysenck in his P-E-N model of
personality. High levels of this trait were believed to be linked to increased vulnerability to
psychosis such as schezophrenia.

63 An enduring tendency to experience negative emotional states such feelings as anxiety,

anger, guilt, and depressed mood. They respond more poorly to environmental stress, and are
more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly
difficult.

64 Validity scale developed to detect attempts by patients to present themselves in a

favourable light. People who score high on this scale deliberately try to present themselves in
the most positive way possible, rejecting shortcomings or unfavourable characteristics.

65 Type A individuals are impatient, time-conscious, controlling, concerned about their status,
highly competitive, ambitious, business-like, aggressive, having difficulty in relaxing.

66 A state in which an individual feels that either he himself or the outside world is unreal. It
also involves the feeling that one’s mind is dissociated from one’s body; the body extremities
have changed in relative size; one sees oneself from a distance; or one has become a machine.

67 The act, state, or habit of being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification
from what is outside the self. Extraverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be
enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregariousness.

70
(ii) students on the basis of teachers’ (a) qualification, (b) experience, (c) subjects
taught, (d) type of school and (e) age; to compare the relationship between teachers’
experienced stress and teaching effectiveness as perceived by (i) teachers and (ii)
students on the basis of teachers’ (a) qualification, (b) experience, (c) subjects
taught, (d) type of school and (e) age. The sample was drawn from 11 secondary
schools of Greater Bombay, using stratified sampling technique. From these 11
schools, a total of 93 secondary school teachers responded to Stress, Burnout and
Teaching effectiveness questionnaires. Descriptive, causal- comparative survey
technique was used. Tools included l.The Maslach Burnout Inventory (M.B.I.);
2.Teaching Stress Survey (TSS) of M. Mishra; 3. Teaching Effectiveness - Teachers’
Self Evaluation Rating Scale of M.N. D’Silva; and 4. Students’ Evaluation of
Teaching Effectiveness Rating Scale of M.N. D’Silva. Results showed that Teaching
effectiveness as perceived by teachers and burnout due to intensity & frequency
of emotional exhaustion as well as personal accomplishment were significantly
related. Teaching effectiveness as perceived by students and burnout due to
frequency of personal accomplishment were significantly correlated. Teachers
had the perception that teaching effectiveness was not influenced by the level of
stress. Students also had the perception that teaching effectiveness was not
influenced by the level of stress that teachers perceive. Teachers showed positive
relationship between stress and burnout due to intensity of emotional exhaustion.
Relationship of teaching effectiveness as perceived by teachers and burnout did
not make any difference between (i) experienced / inexperienced teachers, (ii)
qualified / overqualified teachers, (iii) aided / unaided school and (iv) subjects
taught (Language / Social science / Science) with the exception of (i) age of
teachers, (ii) single sex / co-education school. Relationship of teaching
effectiveness as perceived by students and burnout did not make any difference
between (i) experienced / inexperienced teachers, (ii) age of teachers, (iii) single
sex / co-education school, (iv) aided / unaided school with the exception of (i)
qualified / overqualified teachers and (ii) subjects taught (Language / Social
science / Science). Teachers showed that their Stress and teaching effectiveness
on the basis of (i) qualification, (ii) experience, (iii) subjects taught, (iii) type of
school and (iv) age of teachers were not related. Similarly teachers’ stress and
teaching effectiveness as perceived by students on the basis of (i) qualification,

71
(ii) experience, (ill) subjects taught, (iii) type of school and (iv) age of teachers
were not related.

Newspaper Articles;

1. The Telegraph, July 21,2007: Teacher beats, mother slaps - Banned by law,
but caning continues.

Krishnagar, July 20: A mother slapped a teacher right and left yesterday for beating
up her eight-year-old son. Debpranay Chowdhury, who is in Class II of Dhubulia TB
Hospital Primary School, has a chronic lung disorder. His mother Baisakhi said the
teacher, Maya Chakraborty, beat him up on several occasions in the past week — with
a wooden ruler or the blackboard duster. Both the teacher and the mother have lodged
separate complaints with police. Corporal punishment is banned and teachers might
be expelled if found guilty. But school education minister Partha Dey recently
admitted in the Assembly that teachers’ insensitivity cannot be curbed merely by law.
The government is planning anger management classes for schoolteachers, where they
will also be taught how to deal with parents. The minister blamed teachers for the
high percentage — almost 40% from primary to secondary school — of dropouts in
Bengal. Baisakhi said Debpranay had been taken to Vellore for treatment and doctors
had underlined the need for care while dealing with him. “But the teacher repeatedly
beat my son over the past week as she could not tolerate little boys being naughty. On
Wednesday, she hit him with a duster as he wanted to take his midday meal home.”
Doctors had asked Baisakhi to ensure that her son didn’t eat outside. “But Mayadi
became furious. She threw the duster at him and hit him with a ruler.” The boy had to
be taken to a doctor as he started vomiting on returning home. Baisakhi went to the
school to seek explanation last evening. “The teacher refused to listen to me when I
tried to tell her that my son was sick and needed special treatment. I couldn’t control
myself,” Baisakhi said. “If she could hit my sick child in such an inhuman way, I
think I did no wrong,” she added. Headmistress Gita Dutta said the teacher has gone
on leave. “She was humiliated in front of other students,” Dutta added. Classmate
Jagannath Roy said he saw both Debpranay and the teacher being beaten. Dhubulia
officer-in-charge Biman Mirdha said both complaints were being looked into. District

72
primary school council chairman Bibhash Biswas has sought a report from the
headmistress.

2. The Telegraph, February 19,2009: Teacher held for hair snip.

Durgapur, Feb. 18: A school head was arrested today after she snipped the hair of
five girls wearing single braids. Around 1,000 guardians descended on Gopalmath
Girls’ High School as word spread and blocked a national highway on the outskirts of
Durgapur town. Some of the guardians stormed the school, leading to pandemonium.
They disconnected power supply to the school and demanded Manisha Roy be handed
over so they could also give her a snip. Roy, who teaches Bengali, locked the staff
room from inside and hid with 12 others. The parents of the five girls lodged a formal
complaint when a large police team arrived and Roy was picked up. “We have
arrested the teacher but we are yet to decide what charge to press against her,” said
Burdwan superintendent R. Rajsekharan. Criminal lawyer Jayanta N. Chatterjee said
snipping hair was not a cognisable offence under any law. “However, the police can
make an arrest to prevent a cognisable offence, if it appears that without it a serious
breach of peace can take place. But Roy has to be produced in court within 24 hours,”
said Chatterjee. The district inspector of schools suspended Roy following a
recommendation by the school managing committee. She became angry seeing the
girls — three from Class VI and two from Class IX — during the morning prayer.
Roy, the acting principal of the school, wanted girls with long hair to sport double
braids. She called the five, made them stand in a line and cut off portions of their hair
with a pair of scissors around 7 a.m. The two Class IX students ran home after the
incident and told their parents about it. “I felt so ashamed that I ran,” said Mamoni
Badyakar. ‘Tomorrow, a prospective groom is supposed to see me for my marriage.
How can I present myself before him?” asked Mamoni, 16. The law, however, bars
her from getting married before she turns 18. Her aunt Krishna was one of the
demonstrators. “How can a teacher be so cruel. We want to snip the principal’s hair,”
said Krishna.Roy said she had instructed students a week ago to wear long hair in two
“simple” braids. “I have cut off their hair as part of the punishment. I never realised
that I will have to face such mob fury,” she said. The secretary of the school

73
managing committee, Dulal Ghosh, said: “I feel she could have called their parents
and warned them. So, I recommended her suspension.”

3. The Telegraph, Friday, April 30,2010: Handle with care to teach right.
Today’s question: Can teachers manage a class without reprimanding students?

Anindita Chatterjee (Principal, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Salt Lake): “If the teacher
can make her lesson interesting and can involve students they will willingly
participate in class activities. She has to be tactful enough to spot the troublesome one
in the bunch, if any, and single him out to ask questions or call up to the board. Some
teachers get easily impatient. They must remember that children are naughty by
nature. It is the duty of teachers to rectify mistakes also. They must do this without
using abusive language. The feedback must be positive for the child. In my
experience, teachers who have failed to manage a class have always been the ones
with communication problems. A teacher cannot earn respect by raising a cane. She
has to earn it.”

4. The Telegraph, Tuesday, May 11,2010: Assault teacher flees after case.

Siliguri, May 10: A schoolteacher in Siliguri, who has an alleged history of meting
out corporal punishment to students, has fled to his home district following a police
case registered by the father of a 14-year-old boy. K.C. Roy alleged that his son had
been beaten up by Soumya Chakraborty on Friday and was admitted to the Siliguri
District Hospital with injuries on the left ear and other parts of the body. The boy,
Subhojit, was discharged from the hospital yesterday. The parents and the relatives of
the boy gheraoed the principal of Sister Margaret (Nivedita) High School for an hour
today, demanding the suspension of the history teacher. They alleged that
Chakraborty had borne a grudge against the Class IX student for discontinuing the
tuition taken by Mm. “My son was beaten up inhumanly by this teacher. There were
such instances earlier also when he had singled out my son for punishment. But we
kept quiet fearing that my son will be victimised. We can no longer take things lying
down and demand Ms suspension,” said Roy. Roy, a businessman living in a rented
apartment at Ashrampara here, lodged a complaint with the Pradhan Nagar police

74
station against Chakraborty on Friday. According to the boy, he wanted to sit on the
front bench in the classroom after the lunch break on Friday, but some students
refused to allow him. “Soon a minor scuffle broke out. The history teacher was
passing by our class then. When he saw us fighting, he pulled me aside and hit me
randomly with a cane. The teacher slapped me so hard on the cheek that my left ear
was injured. My friends were helpless and they went to call other teachers. By the
time they arrived, Chakraborty had left,” said Subhojit. The school authorities called
Subhojit’s parents and handed him over to them. “The school authorities assured us
that they would bear all expenses for his treatment. We were shocked to see the cane
marks on his body and his left ear was aching badly. We had to admit him to the
hospital,” said Roy. The parents said the boy had taken tuition from Chakraborty for a
month in February. However, they were forced to withdraw Subhojit because the
teacher frequently beat him up. “Whenever I wanted to complain to the school,
Subhojit stopped me fearing he would be victimised. Finally, we withdrew him from
the tuition at the end of the month on the pretext that our home is far away. The
teacher was so furious that he tore all the study papers that he had given to my son,”
said Roy. School sources said the teacher had fled to his home in North Dinajpur
district. “He had called up us yesterday from Raiganj and said he would be absent
from school for a few days for personal problems,” said a source. The principal, M.K.
Laha, said: “This is an unfortunate incident. He has been teaching in the school for the
past two years. We have received similar complaints against him earlier too. The staff
council will meet today and serve a show-cause notice on him immediately. The
matter will be referred to the school’s managing committee too.”

5. The Times of India, May 19,2010: Teacher asks for laptop to leak papers,
held.

Kolkata: The teacher of a well-known English-medium school in Kolkata was

arrested on Tuesday after being accused of extortion by the parent of one of his
students.
Sanjay Smart, the teacher of La Martiniere for Boys, had allegedly demanded a laptop
for illegal favours like leaking question papers. The child’s father lodged a complaint
a few weeks back, following which Smart surrendered at Shakespeare Sarani police

75
station on Tuesday. He was produced before the chief metropolitan magistrate and
remanded in police custody till May 28. The teacher though claimed he has been
framed. The SMSs that the student's father produced as evidence while lodging the
police complaint are more than a year old. Smart's lawyer Subhojit Das said under the
Information Technology Act, such evidence is not admissible after a month of their
being sent. Smart had earlier moved Calcutta HC, seeking anticipatory bail. His
prayer was rejected last Thursday by a division bench. The complaint against Smart
was filed at Shakespeare Sarani police station by Partha Pratim Baneijee, whose son
studies in Class IV of the school. Baneijee said he engaged Smart, who was his son's
class teacher, for private tuition in 2008. Though Smart was friendly and caring at
first, as the days progressed, he allegedly started demanding more money and other
items, Baneijee claimed. According to the complaint, matters came to a head when
the teacher demanded a laptop and even promised to leak question papers in return.
Baneijee alleged that when he turned Smart down, the teacher threatened to ruin his
son's career and throw him out of the school. According to the complaint, Baneijee
buckled under pressure and gifted Smart a second-hand desktop instead of a laptop.
The teacher was not satisfied though. He allegedly continued to threaten Baneijee and
his wife, telling them that he was close to the principal of the school. At the end of the
2008-09 school term, Baneijee found that his son had not been promoted. He tried to
meet the principal but was reportedly not granted an appointment. The child failed
once again in the 2009-10 session. This time round, the school authorities informed
him of their decision to throw the child out of the school. Baneijee alleged in his
complaint that Smart colluded with the school principal to cheat him and subject him
to extortion and criminal intimidation.

6. The Times of India, May 22,2010: Student injured, FIR lodged against
teacher.

Patna: A Class I student, Himanshu Raj, 6, sustained head injury when a teacher
threw a duster at him in the classroom on Friday. Patna City SDPO Sunil Kumar said
that boy’s father Harishanker Rai has lodged a written complaint against the teacher
with the Khajekallan police station in this connection. Police said that Raj, a resident
of Tulsi Mandi locality, is a student of Rose Well School at Umashanker Lane under

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KhajekaUan police station. Sources said that during the classes on Friday, Raj was
talking with another student and this infuriated the teacher Sweety, who threw a
duster on Raj, which hit him on the head causing injury. Bomb recovered: The police
recovered a live bomb at an isolated place behind a school under Khajekallan police
station on Friday. Khajekallan police station SHO B.K. Singh Chouhan said that a
local informed the police station that a ball like substance was lying behind the
school.

7. The Times of India, June 1, 2010: Teacher thrashes student, mother dies of
shock.

Mohali: The mother of a 13-year-old boy died of shock after she learnt that her son
was thrashed and humiliated by his teacher during a school trip to Manali, the family
said Tuesday. Rattanpreet Singh's mother died Friday after learning that her son had
been beaten up for no fault of his. The Class 8 student of Yadavindra Public School
here had gone on a week-long school trip with 56 others to Manali in Himachal
Pradesh May 23. School teacher Harish allegedly collected Rs.500 from Rattanpreet
and Rs.200 from another boy as students were not allowed to carry more than Rs.500
each with them. When Rattanpreet demanded the money back on their return Friday,
the teacher beat him up. Alerted about the beating, his doctor-parents reached the
school where the mother, Gurpreet Kaur, suffered cardiac arrest and died. “Sir had
taken the money from me. When I told other classmates about it, he repeatedly
slapped me and hit me with a stick. He said he wanted to teach me a good lesson,”
Rattanpreet told IANS here at his house Tuesday. The dead woman's husband,
Barinder Singh, said: “My wife became very anxious about our son. The school
authorities are responsible for my wife's death. We want strict action against the
guilty.” The school has sacked the guilty teacher, said vice principal Anita Kashyap.

8. The Telegraph, June 13,2010: Drunk teacher.

Dibrugarh, June 12: Nine students had to be hospitalised after the headmaster of a
school in an Assam village allegedly beat them up in an inebriated state today. He has
been absconding since. Local sources said Chandreswar Miri Baruah, the headmaster

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of Guradev Middle English School at Bordeori village in Lakhimpur district beat up
several students of Class VI around noon after they allegedly failed to reply to some
of his questions. One of the students said, “The teacher who was supposed to take our
class was not present and we were just sitting in class talking when our headmaster
suddenly entered and started asking questions. When we could not answer, he started
beating all of us with a big stick. As the students cried out in pain, teachers came out
from other classes and took him away.” The student alleged that Baruah could hardly
stand and also used abusive language as he beat them up indiscriminately. The injured
students were admitted to Narayanpur primary health centre, a source said. They were
released late this afternoon. Since the children are from a backward village, about 390
km from Guwahati, their parents did not lodge any complaint either in the school or
with police.

9. The Times of India: DNA (Daily News and Analysis): Tuesday, December 28,
2010: 73% school teachers in Mumbai work under stress: Study.
(By Puja Pednekar)

Mumbai: While Maharashtra state is busy introducing reforms to reduce student

stress, a recent study has expressed concerns about the mental health of teachers in the
city.
An empirical study by SNDT University has found that nearly 73% school teachers
enter the classroom with emotional baggage, frustration, and other issues. The study
asserts that teacher stress affects their attitude towards teaching and influences their
relationships with students.
The study establishes the importance of teachers’ social and emotional competence in
relation to student outcomes. It points out that since teachers play an integral role in
the cognitive, social, and emotional development of children, they have a considerable
amount of contact time with children.
“The influence that teachers have on children is colossal. It is, therefore, paramount
that we recognise that a teacher’s ability to form meaningful relationships with
children, to make them feel a sense of belonging in the classroom, and help them
enter each learning experience with confidence is as important as his or her content

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knowledge,” said Arundati Chavan, president of Parent-Teacher Association United
Forum and education development, SNDT.
The study maintains, “To be effective, teachers must connect with and care for
children with warmth, respect, and trust”. It states that too often, our children enter the
classroom with fear of the teacher or under the impression that the teacher does not
care for him or her as a person. Children do not learn when they are afraid.
“Despite the efforts of principals and the central government, it is with dismay that we
hear of teachers who continue to verbally, emotionally, and physically abuse children
in the classroom,” she added.

10. The Telegraph, July 21,2011. Boy faints after hit on the head.

Siuri, July 20: A Class X student fell unconscious after a teacher hit him and all his
classmates yesterday. Sandip Chakraborty was hit on the head. A student had
mimicked a dog’s bark, angering Tirthamoy Saha, a biology teacher at Kotasur High
School in Birbhum Saha asked who was behind the mischief but no one owned up.
He then started hitting all the students with a stick. When Saha hit Sandip on the head,
he slumped to the ground. “As he crouched in pain, we raised an alarm and Saha Sir
stopped hitting us. Some of us rushed to the headmaster,” said Rajib Saha, a
classmate. Headmaster Kalpataru Chatteijee rushed Sandip to a primary health centre.
He was later admitted to Suri Sadar Hospital, about 260 km from Calcutta. Students
locked up the school office and stalled classes today. Chatteijee sent an SOS to block
development officer Koushik Sinha and Sandip Chattaraj, the officer in charge of the
local Mayureswar police station. Guardians were called to the meeting. The students
were pacified only after Chatteijee assured them that the managing committee would
discuss the charge against the teacher. “Saha would be punished if found guilty,” the
headmaster promised.

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 2.1.4. Coping Strategies Employed by Teachers to Peal with Stress:

2.I.4.I. International Perspective:

1. Punch, K.F. & Tuetteman, E. (1996) investigated the effects of the level of
support teachers received on the reduction of stress which they experienced associated
with 4 factors in the work environment. The 4 factors, or stressors, were inadequate
access to facilities, the intrusion of school work into out-of-hours time, student
misbehaviour and excessive societal expectations. The 2 aspects of support were the
support teachers received from colleagues, including the principal, and the amount of
praise and recognition they received. These 2 variables were potential de-stressors.
The hypothesis tested here was that, while the 4 stressors promoted levels of teacher
distress, the build-up of stress could be reduced or countered by supportive
relationships within the work environment, and by teachers receiving
acknowledgement of the work they did. The research used a comprehensive mailed
questionnaire with a large and representative sample of Western Australian teachers.
Of the initial 789 secondary teachers in the study who returned the mailed
questionnaire, only those with completed responses to all variables were included in
the research. Furthermore, all but full-time classroom teachers, without senior
master/mistress status or ‘support teacher’ function, were eliminated. This left 574
teachers-335 males and 239 females-who were full-time classroom teachers only.
35% of the sample were teaching in rural secondary schools, while the remaining
majority were secondary school teachers in the Perth metropolitan area. The results
indicated that 26% teachers (24% males and 29% females) reported frequent student
misbehaviour. 49% of all teachers (48% males and 51% females) reported that society
asked teachers to do too much for students. Colleaguial support ameliorated
teacher distress associated with inadequate access to facilities, the intrusion of
school work into out-of hours time, student misbehaviour and excessive societal
expectations, and in most cases the effects were strong and clear for both sexes.
Praise/recognition had a similar, though slightly less clear-cut, ameliorating
effect on teacher distress associated with these factors, and there was some
fluctuation in its effect between the sexes.

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2. Lewis, R. (1999) examined teachers’ estimations of the stress that arose when they
were unable to discipline students as they would ideally prefer. More importantly, the
way teachers coped with any stress which arose was documented using the Coping
Scale for Adults. A total of 294 teachers participated in the study. The mean age of
respondents was 39.5 years (standard deviation = 9.4), and 60% were women. These
teachers represented 78% of a randomly chosen sample, representing half of all
teachers in 377 in 15 metropolitan schools in Melbourne, Australia. The high response
rate was taken as an indication of the relevance of the research to the teachers
sampled. Questionnaires were administered to half of all teachers in a convenience
sample of 15 government secondary schools in metropolitan Melbourne. To assess
teachers’ level of concern about discipline, they were first asked about their current
approach and also about their preferred approach. Lewis’ characterization of 3
competing discipline models of Control, Group Management, and Influence was
employed for this purpose. Within the questionnaire there were brief descriptions of
each of these three alternatives.
First, the model of Control was defined in the following terms: Teachers choose to
control the students’ behaviour at school. They ensure that students act in their own
best interests. Therefore, teachers determine a clear system of rules, rewards, and
consequences which they apply to the students. The second model, Group
Management, was characterized as an approach whereby: Teachers manage
classrooms by organizing students to make their own decisions. They choose to allow
power to reside with the students and teacher as a group, where all have equal rights
to contribute toward the determination of behaviour standards. Rules and
consequences are defined at classroom meetings during which the teacher is a group
leader. The teacher, however, chooses not to employ more power than any other
group member to decide classroom policy. Once the policy is established, the teacher
carries it out. The final model, that of Influence, was described as follows: Teachers
influence each student so that he or she decides to behave well. They encourage
students to learn their own way of behaving with minimum adult control and
negotiate with students on a one-to-one basis but choose not to force their views on
them. They allow students to experience the natural consequences of their behaviour
so that they can choose to modify the way they behave. The teachers surveyed were
invited to reflect on these three models and to identify the extent to which they were

81
currently using, and would prefer to use, each approach in their present school at
either year-level 7 (students aged 12-13 ), year-level 9 (ages 14-15) or year-level 11
(ages 16-17). Teachers were then asked to reflect on their answers to these questions
and to indicate if any inability to discipline classrooms exactly as they would prefer,
was, for them, a major issue, a minor issue, or not an issue. Having indicated the level
of their concern, teachers were asked to indicate the way in which they coped with it.
The Coping Scale for Adults (CSA) was used for this purpose. The CSA provided for
measurement of 19 coping strategies and 4 coping styles. The Long Form of this
instrument comprised of 73 items which formed the basis of 19 scales, each
containing between 3 and 7 items. These scales, derived from factor analytical
procedures, had internal consistency indices (Cronbach’s Alpha) averaging 0.79. The
test-retest reliability coefficients averaged 0.81. Overall, the findings indicated less
teacher preference for a model of Control and more support for both Group
Management and Influence than was the self-reported current practice. This
suggested that these teachers’ ideas of best discipline practice involved
significantly more empowerment of students than was currently the case in their
classrooms. In summary, teachers who professed more of a desire to involve
students in classroom decision making and less of a desire to control them were
the ones who reported most concern about their inability to discipline classes in
the way they would want. Associated with increased concern was a greater use of
Worry, Self-Blame, Tension Reduction, Wishful Thinking and Keep to Self. The
most concerned teachers also expressed a greater tendency to get sick as a result
of the stress. Turning the focus of the investigation to coping strategies, the data
indicated that the most common responses of teachers to any stress associated
with an inability to discipline classrooms as they would like were to put more
time into their work and to seek support from others. The least commonly used
strategies, according to respondents, were seeking professional help and those
which have been described elsewhere as dysfunctional. These data suggested the
need for professional development curricula for teachers to assist them in effectively
sharing power with students and in reflecting upon a range of more productive coping
strategies.

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3. Wang, Z., Lan, Y. & Wang, M. (2001) conducted a study on the resources for
coping with occupational stress in teachers in West China. Occupational Stress
Inventory revised edition (OSI-R) was used to measure their occupational stress,
strain and psychological coping resources for 1,460 teachers in primary and secondary
schools and 319 non-teacher intellectuals. Analyses were focussed on coping
resources of teachers. Results indicated that the higher the level of coping resource
of teachers, the lower the personal strain in them, with an inverse correlation.
Further, coping resource in the teacher group was significantly higher than that
in the non-teacher group, and coping resource in teachers decreased with the
increase in age. Coping resource in the female teachers was significantly higher
than that in the male teachers. Finally, coping resource in the primary school
teachers was significantly higher than that in the secondary school teachers. The
research suggested that it was necessary to enhance teacher's coping resource,
especially for the male teachers in the secondary schools, for improving their teaching
efficiency.

4. van Dick, R. & Wagner, U. (2001) conducted two studies to measure the stress
and strain in teaching through a structural equation approach. The first aim of the
study was to test the theoretical model of teacher stress on a large sample using
structural equation statistics (study I). The results were then to be cross-validated and
the model enlarged by additional operationalisations (study II). A total of 356 German
teachers (female-208 and male-148) participated in the research. The sample was
representative regarding age, sex and the distribution of age and sex within the school
types (primary school, secondary school, high school, and special schools). In study I,
standardized questionnaires were used to measure workload and mobbing as stressors,
physical symptoms as stress reactions, and social support and self-efficacy as
moderating variables. In addition to these concepts, coping strategies, burnout and
absenteeism were assessed in study n. The structural equation modelling in study I
revealed that the predications of the stress model held true: Workload and mobbing
led to stress reactions, whereas principal support reduced the perception of
workload and mobbing. Global support and self-efficacy moderated the
relationships between the variables. These results were confirmed in study II and
the model was enlarged by burnout and coping strategies.

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5. Mearns, J. & Cain, J.E. (2003) conducted a study in California, with a cross-
sectional self-report design, focussing on teachers' negative mood regulation (NMR)
expectancies as predictors of their coping, burnout and distress, in response to
occupational stress. NMR expectancies were people's beliefs that they could control
the negative moods they experienced. Participants were 86 primary and secondary
school teachers, who filled out questionnaire measures of teacher stress, NMR
expectancies, coping, burnout, and distress. Simultaneous regression analyses showed
that higher stress on the job did indeed predict greater burnout and distress.
Additionally, stronger NMR expectancies predicted more active coping. NMR
expectancies also predicted less burnout and distress, independent of stress level
and coping. Believing one could control one's negative moods was associated with
more adaptive outcomes for teachers. Results argued for the value of examining
individual difference variables in research on occupational stress, in particular
negative mood regulation expectancies.

6. Patterson, J.H., Collins, L. & Abbott, G. (2004) conducted a qualitative research

study to investigate strategies used by urban teachers to build their personal resilience.
16 resilient teachers from 4 urban districts that reported student achievement equal to
or higher than the state average on standard tests of reading and mathematics were
interviewed. The definition of resilience was “using energy productively to
achieve school goals in the face of adverse conditions”. A 3 cycle interview process
included pre-interview and review by the respondents for accuracy. Standard
qualitative, methods were used in the analysis. Results revealed 4 key findings.
Resilient teachers acted from a set of values that guided their professional
decision-making. They also placed a high premium on professional development
and found ways, often outside the school district, to get what they needed. They
provided mentoring to others and stayed focussed on students and their learning.
A teacher candidate who gave evidence of resilience, of taking charge to solve
problems and finding opportunities might add to the school in important ways
that bolstered (supported or strengthened) student achievement and school
success.

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7. Evelengelia, G. (2004) conducted a study to investigate children’s perceptions (i.e.
expectations) of the interventions that teachers should implement to deal with their
loneliness. A random sample of 180 second, fourth and sixth grade students from
Athens, were individually interviewed. Qualitative analysis using the ‘concept-
indicator model’ showed that school-age children had an adequate understanding
of the loneliness alleviation strategies that teachers could and should use. The
strategies might be distinguished into the 2 already known broad categories of
coping, i.e. problem focussed or active coping strategies (i.e. manifestation of
interest and care, intervention in the peer group, encouragement to approach
peers and make friends, consultation for personal improvement, informing
parents), and emotion-focussed or avoidance coping strategies (i.e. emotion
regulation, encouragement to engage in activities and inability to cope). The
results provided significant implications for the role of the teachers in alleviating
loneliness, for school-based interventions with this purpose.

8. Brown, D.F. (2004) conducted a qualitative research study to determine if the

classroom management strategies that teachers used reflected the research on
culturally responsive teaching. 13 urban educators teaching from 1st through 12th
grade selected from 7 cities across the United States were participants who were
interviewed. Participants revealed using several management strategies that
reflected culturally responsive teaching: development of personal relationships
with students, creation of caring communities, establishment of business-like
learning environments, use of culturally and ethnically congruent
communication processes, demonstrations of assertiveness, and utilization of
clearly stated and enforced expectations. This study gave rise to questions
concerning the ability of teacher education programmes to effectively prepare pre­
service teachers for successful classroom management in urban schools.

9. Arikewuyo, M.O. (2004) conducted a study which provided empirical evidence for
the management of stress by teachers of secondary schools in Nigeria. A total of 3466
teachers, drawn from secondary schools in Ogun State of Nigeria, responded to a
questionnaire for the study. Data were analysed using simple percentage and chi-
square. The findings indicated that teachers frequently used the active behavioural

85
and Inactive (escape) strategies in managing stress. This was an indication that
the average Nigerian teacher preferred to organize him/herself in such a way
that his/her pedagogic duties would not be hampered by domestic chores. It also
implied that, whenever the teacher was stressed, he/she consoled him/herself with
the fact that work was not everything and thereby felt less stressed. The active
cognitive strategies were never used by the teachers. Their feeling was that
nothing probably could be challenged in stressful situations. The teachers also
expressed mixed feelings about the adoption of inactive behavioural strategies.
While the majority of the teachers never engaged in physical exercises or
watched films in order to manage any stressful situation, they preferred to keep
away from any situation that could cause stress, as well as tried to separate
themselves from people who caused stressful situations.

10. Mokdad, M. (2005) carried out a study to determine occupational stress in

Algerian teachers. A sample of 126 teachers was randomly chosen from Biskra
govemorate (Algeria) primary schools to answer an occupational stress questionnaire
developed comprising of three major areas: sources of stress; symptoms of ill-health;
and coping with stress strategies. The first area (Sources of stress) contained nine
dimensions (9 items about teaching, 8 items about the teaching environment, 5 items
about administration, 7 items about the curriculum, 4 items about work colleagues, 4
items about parents, 5 items about pupils, 4 items about supervision, and 4 items
about society as a whole). The other two areas (symptoms of poor health and
strategies for coping with stress) each contained eight. The questionnaire was
designed as a Likert scale, with five alternative responses. The alternatives were
marked as follows: 4 = very high experience of stress; 3 = high experience of stress; 2
= moderate experience of stress; 1 = weak experience of stress; 0 = very weak
experience of stress. A test-retest method was used to ensure reliability. The reliability
coefficient was 0.78. With regard to validity, the content validity was adopted.
Results indicated that 62% of teachers watched TV programmes, 59% talked with
their friends, and 54% prayed and made Du’a to cope with occupational stress.

11. Austin, V., Shah, S. & Muncer, S. (2005) conducted a pilot study in 2 schools to
investigate teachers’ symptoms of stress and their coping strategies. Measurements of

86
‘stress levels’ and ‘coping strategies’ used were acquired by constructing a
questionnaire made up of 4 individual standardized questionnaires. The data were
analysed by a series of correlational analyses that highlighted significant relationships
between ways of coping and levels of distress. Differences between the stress-related
areas were measured using the Friedman test and Wilcoxon signed rank test for
hierarchy. The findings implied that ‘escape avoidance’, ‘accepting responsibility’
and ‘uncontrolled aggression’ were used as negative coping strategies and only
one strategy, ‘exercise’, was indicated to be an effective way of coping.

12. Jeffrey, H., Schneider, K.T., Jenkins-Henkelman, T.M. & Moyle, L.L.(2006)
investigated whether the relationship between the contents of emotional social support
and job burnout among high-school teachers was spurious because of the role of
dispositional positive and negative affectivity. A national sample of 339 teachers was
surveyed via a web-based procedure. Hierarchical regression analyses did not support
spuriousness; emotional social support was uniquely predictive of 3 dimensions of
burnout controlling for affectivity. As positive emotional social support
increased, emotional exhaustion and cynicism decreased, and professional
efficacy increased. As negative emotional social support increased, emotional
exhaustion and cynicism also increased.

13. Betoret, F.D. (2006) investigated the relationships among teachers’ occupational
stressors, self-efficacy, coping resources, and burnout in a sample of 247 Spanish
secondary school teachers. Concretely, 2 specific aims were formulated in order to
examine the effect of teaching stressors on teacher burnout and the role of self-
efficacy and school coping resources as mediators or moderate variables in the stress
burnout relationship. The teachers reported that when their pedagogical practice
in the school setting was being interfered with or hindered by a set of factors
from the multiple contexts involved in students’ learning, problems of burnout
occurred. In addition, teachers with a high level of self-efficacy and more coping
resources reported suffering less stress and burnout than teachers with a low
level of self-efficacy and fewer coping resources, and vice versa.

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14. Davidivitch, N. & Milgram, R.M. (2006) investigated the correlation between
creative thinking and teacher effectiveness defined as real-life problem solving.
Creative thinking was defined as a quantity and quality of ideational fluency68.
58 college level instructors comprised the sample group. The findings suggested the
potential benefits in sponsoring pre-service and in-service workshops to enhance
teachers’ creative thinking ability and including creativity in the evaluation of
faculty.

15. Chang, M. (2009) examined how teachers’ appraisals of classroom disruptive

behaviour and patterns of emotion regulation contributed to their experiences of
unpleasant emotion, coping strategies, and feelings of burnout. Participants in this
study were 555 novice teachers (male=113, female=437) from the Midwest area.
Novice teachers were recruited through e-mail contact lists provided by Ohio
Department of Education. A web-survey was implemented to collect data. Surveys
were completed by teachers from elementary, middle, and high schools in spring
2008. The majority of the participants were Caucasian (94.5%) with teaching
experience ranging from 1 to 5 years (37.4% of the participants were first-year
teachers, 19.6% were second-year teachers, 16.7% were third-year teachers, 26.3%
were teaching for over four years). In order to examine the antecedents of teacher
emotions and the coping strategies teacher employed, the survey included two parts:
general and context-specific measures. General measures were developed to capture
teachers’ general views of emotions in the classroom, teacher sense of efficacy,
emotional regulation patterns, and teacher burnout. In the context-specific measure,
the participants self-identified and described a recent classroom incident in which
they felt emotionally challenged. After describing the incident, participants responded
to the survey items to identify the intensity of the discrete emotions, their emotional
appraisals and coping strategies to the incident. Sub-scales used in the study were:
Teachers’ sense of efficacy scale; Emotion intensity; Teacher emotional appraisal
scale; Teacher emotion regulation scale; Coping scale; and Modified MBI-ES scale.
Exploratory factor analysis revealed the sub-dimensions of each scale were well
established as the theoretical models. The sub-scales were analysed by means of both

68 A creativity trait by which an individual can easily produce ideas to fulfil certain
requirements, for example name objects or write an appropriate title for a given story.

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exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Results revealed that teachers with
higher teacher sense of efficacy experienced lower levels of burnout In addition,
teachers who coped with stress proactively tended to experience lower levels of
burnout as well. Further, teachers who adopted suppression strategies in
regulating emotions were more likely experience burnout And the higher
intensity of unpleasant emotions during the classroom incidents teachers
reported, the more likely they would employ emotion-focussed and problem-
focussed coping strategies. Finally, while teachers judged they had enough
coping resources and they were able to deal with the problem, they might feel
less burnout in the end. The findings from this study warned teachers to become
aware of the kinds of judgments they made about students’ behaviour, and
interpreting/questioning the judgments that underlied their emotions. The study
helped the teachers to understand better - how their emotions were triggered, how to
regulate these emotions; to understand the emotional work of teaching, and become
resilient to the potential stress and emotional exhaustion of teaching jobs.

16. Mundia, L. (2010) conducted a survey to investigate the extent to which Brunei
trainee teachers used the task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented
coping strategies when in stressful situations. Data collection employed the Coping
Inventory for Stressful Situations. Participants consisted of 118 educational
psychology student teachers at the University of Brunei Darussalam. Of these, 89
(75%) were females while 29 (25%) were males. The sample comprised of 71 (60%)
B.Ed and 47 (40%) PGCE students. Overall, the task-oriented strategy was the
most used coping method followed by the avoidance-oriented style. There were
no significant differences between gender and programme of study in the way
participants employed the three coping procedures. Age, gender, and
programme of study were not significantly correlated with the 3 coping
strategies. The coping strategies were found to be distinct ways of reacting to and
relieving stress according to the Brunei sample.

17. Chong, E.Y.L. & Chan, A.H.S. (2010) comprehensively investigated the
occupational health problems among teachers of primary and secondary schools in
Hong Kong. A random sample of 6000 teachers was generated from the database of

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Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (HKPTU) members. A self-administrated
questionnaire was designed and sent by mail to the teachers of primary and secondary
schools in Hong Kong, together with a cover letter and a reply paid envelope. A total
of 1,710 usable questionnaires were returned. The results indicated that comparing
with one year and five years ago, 91.6% and 97.3% of the responding teachers
reported an increase of perceived stress level, respectively. The 4 most frequently
reported stress management activities among school teachers in Hong Kong are
sleeping, talking to neighbours and friends, self-relaxing, and watching
television, whereas the least frequently reported activity was doing more
exercises or sports.

2.I.4.2. National Perspective:

1. Chaturvedi, M. & Purushothaman, T. (2009) investigated the role of certain

demographic variables in determining stress-coping behaviour of female
teachers. The sample consisted of 150 female teachers selected by stratified sampling
method from various schools of Bhopal. Stress-coping behaviour was measured with
the help of a sub-scale of The Occupational Stress Indicator consisting of 28 items
encompassing 6 dimensions of coping strategies i.e. Logics, Involvement, Social
Support, Task Strategies, Time Management and Home and Work Relations. The
scores of the subjects were compared in terms of marital status, age, and level of
teaching with the help of t-test, and ‘F’ test was used for comparing experience.
Marital status, age, and experience were found to be significant determinants of
stress-coping, whereas the scores did not differ significantly on the basis of level
of teaching. Married teachers in the age range of 40-60 years, with higher
experience were found to cope better with the job stress than their counterparts.

2. Kauts, A. & Saroj, R. (2010) conducted a study based on the assumption that
application of emotional intelligence could increase teacher effectiveness and reduce
occupational stress among teachers at secondary school stage. 600 secondary school
teachers were selected as a sample for the study. Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS)
by Anukool Hyde, Sanjyot Pether, Upinder Dhar was used to measure the emotional
intelligence of teachers, Teacher Effectiveness Scale (TES) by Pramod Kumar and

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Dr. D.N. Mutha was used to measure the effectiveness among teachers and
Occupational Stress Index (OS1) by A.K. Srivastava and Dr. A.P. Singh was used to
measure the stress among teachers. After analysis it was found that teachers with
high emotional intelligence were having less occupational stress and more
teacher effectiveness, whereas, teachers with low emotional intelligence were
having more occupational stress and less teacher effectiveness. Thus, emotional
intelligence was found to be helpful in reducing occupational stress of teachers
and enhancing their effectiveness in teaching.

Newspaper Article:

1. The Times of India, September 15,2009: Teachers find ways to de-stress.

When children spend a better part of their days with their teachers in their schools, it
becomes part of a teacher's job to find ways for students to de-stress and relax while
concentrating on their studies. While doing so, it becomes necessary even for the
teachers to find ways to unwind and relax, and to do something beyond teaching.
Asha Kale, a teacher from Abhinava Vidyalaya English Medium High School, said,
“It's very important for everyone, child or adult, to have a hobby or a pastime. It
greatly helps to take one's mind off work and refresh the mind. In my free time, I
enjoy painting, be it oil or nib painting or making greeting cards. I also like to
experiment with new dishes.”
A few of our educationists also have a flare for adventure. Prabhadevi Mankikar, a
teacher from Kendriya Vidyalaya, CME, stated, “Previously, I had a great love for
trekking, and have been to the Himalayas for fifteen years in a row, twice a year, with
students from all over India.”
Most of the teachers also find a common solace in music, with Indian classical and
semi-classical music being the favourite. Be it Asha Bhonsle, A. R. Rehman, or soft
instrumental, teachers swear by the stress-busting power music possesses. Not to be
left behind on the current trends, teachers also enjoy what youngsters consider to be
the in' things.
Mandeep Sodhi, a teacher in St Helena's High School, stated, “Because of my
children, I've actually developed a liking for pop and hip hop, and I like listening to

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singers like Enrique Iglesias, Eminem and Akon, although my all-time favourite is
country music.”
Our educationists also keep themselves abreast of the latest happenings through
newspapers and magazines. “I regularly read newspapers and surf news channels as a
pastime,” said Rajanikant Gaikwad from J N Petit Technical High School. Mandeep
Sodhi added, “I have recently taken a membership in a library, and I read a lot of
magazines on various subjects.”
Not to be left behind in the high-tech arena, teachers find constructive ways to pass
their free time. “I participate in projects on Think.com, which is a portal exclusively
meant for schools, wherein teachers and educationists can communicate on an
international scale,” said Prabhadevi Mankikar.
Exercising is another area which our teachers have explored a great deal. Mankikar
asserted, “Earlier, I enjoyed all kinds of outdoor activities, including trekking and
cycling. Nowadays, however, I compensate with walking in the evenings. Mandeep
Sodhi vouches for the healing powers of yoga, “For me, yoga is my favourite stress-
buster. I also love walking.”
The modem day educationist clearly knows how to balance the best of both worlds,
but nothing beats the rejuvenating experience of being and interacting with children
everyday. Rajanikant Gaikwad concludes, “I have been a teacher for 35 years now.
The profession teaches you to keep your cool, and over a period of time, very few
things stress you out. On the rare occasions if I am stressed out, I spend time with my
students, and that helps me to see the world through the eyes of children. That, for me,
is the best stress-buster in the whole world.”

2.1.5. Interventions suggested for the Teachers

2.I.5.I. International Perspective;

1. Wilde, J. (1992) in his book, Rational Counseling with school-aged Populations:

A Practical Guide proposed the use of RET (Rational Emotive Therapy) or REBT

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(Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy)69 as an intervention to reduce teacher stress.
He said that stress is one of the biggest problems associated with teaching today. If we
could provide teachers with a means of calming themselves and tools to better handle
the stress they experience, they would be able to do their job better. The goals of the
stress reduction programme would be to help teachers understand where their
emotions originated and how they were able to control and limit a majority of
their negative emotions. To do this, an extensive amount of information regarding
the association between beliefs and emotions also would have to be presented. Wilde
commented that RET supported that what was important in stress was a
teacher’s belief and not the event itself. This did not mean that certain events
were not stressful because obviously some were. RET still contended that a
teacher had within his or her skills the ability to think rationally about a given
situation and could therefore significantly reduce stress.

2. Anderson, V., Levinson, E.M. & Kiewra, K. (1999) determined the effect of
meditation on teacher perceived occupational stress, state and trait anxiety, and
burnout. The study employed a pre-test - post-test control group design, and used the
Teacher's Stress Inventory (TSI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the
Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) to assess the effect of a 5 week standardized
meditation class on the perceived occupational stress of 91 full-time teachers from 7
suburban school districts in 3 states. Results were consistent with previous studies,
and offered support for the hypothesis that standardized meditation significantly
reduced teachers' perceived stress, state and trait anxiety, and experienced
burnout. Teachers perceived a reduction in stress using standardized meditation
only 2-5 times per week. The use of standardized meditation by school
psychologists to assist in reducing teacher stress was consistent with the current
trend towards the use of preventive mental health services in the schools.

69 REBT is a comprehensive, active-directive, philosophically and empirically based

psychotherapy which focusses on resolving emotional and behavioural problems and
disturbances and enabling people to lead happier and more fulfilling lives. It is a form of
cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) which focusses on uncovering irrational beliefs that may
lead to unhealthy negative emotions and replacing them with more productive rational
alternatives. REBT was first expounded in the mid-1950s by the American psychotherapist
and psychologist, Albert Ellis.

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3. Ryusuke, M.. Joji, I. & Sakiko, M. (1999) recommended that the first thing to
be listed when considering the school mental health was the importance of the mental
health of school children. However, the mental health of teachers could not be
overlooked either. Since the school children's troubles had diversified lately, teachers
were faced with difficulties in handling those troubles. As a result, mental diseases of
teachers had increased. Under the above-mentioned situation, Kanagawa prefecture
started the “telephone counseling on teachers’ mental troubles” from April 1993
for the purpose of maintaining and promoting the mental health of the public
school teachers. This counselling system is still conducted at present. In this
report, the results of the counselling for five years from April 1993 to March
1998 were presented. The number of teachers who asked for the counselling
during these 5 years was 285, among which the number of counselling asked by
the female teachers accounted for 62%. As to the types of the school, the
frequencies of counselling were made in the order of female teachers of senior
high schools, female teachers of elementary schools, and female teachers of
junior high schools. As for the contents of counselling, school problems,
particularly how to supervise the students, were most often talked about. The
counsellors recommended the teachers to visit doctors or advised them on how to
supervise the students, and favourable results were obtained. The chances that the
teachers received stresses had been increasing lately. Reduction of the stresses of the
teachers ought to be seriously considered from social aspects as well as mental, and it
was desirable to provide substantial and fulfilling education.

4. Yuen, M. & Westwood, P. (2001) conducted a study to assess the attitudes

towards integration exhibited by teachers in a sample of typical Hong Kong secondary
schools. The participants comprised of 345 teachers from 39 secondary schools.
Results suggested that the teachers did not hold particularly favourable or
supportive attitudes towards the policy of integration. While the majority
supported the underlying principle that it was every child’s right to learn in a
regular classroom, most were uncertain about the actual practicalities of such
placement. In particular, negative attitudes were expressed concerning the
feasibility of integrating students with behavioural problems, and those with
severe visual or hearing difficulties or with mental handicaps. More positive

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attitudes were expressed towards integrating students with physical disabilities
and those with mild health or speech problems. When teachers with guidance
training were compared with those without it, the results showed that teachers
with guidance training generally held more positive attitudes towards
integration.

5. Greenberg, L.S. (2001) in his book - Emotion focussed therapy: Coaching clients
to work through their feelings - expressed his view that the therapist is an emotion
coach who helps people develop emotional wisdom - the wisdom to know when
to be changed by emotion and when to change emotion. He described 3 major
principles of emotional change that have been established on the basis of research,
theory, and practice: (a) increasing awareness of emotion, (b) enhancing emotion
regulation, and (c) changing emotion with emotion. These principles act as a
general guide for emotion coaches. They help coaches understand the different goals
of emotion coaching at different times.

6. Gorman-Smith, D. & The Metropolitan Area Child Study Research Group

(2003) tested the effects of the Metropolitan Area Child Study (MACS) classroom
enhancement intervention on teacher behaviour. The teacher intervention consisted
of teacher seminars and individual consultation, and was delivered in all 3
intervention conditions of the MACS study. Subjects for the present study were 287
students at high risk for aggression and 48 teachers randomly assigned by school to
control or intervention conditions Student and teacher behaviour was observed prior
to and following the intervention. Teacher feedback to students was associated with
desirable change in student aggression. Teachers in the intervention condition
provided more academic feedback to students, and used less large group lecture
and more individualized seat work. Intervention teachers also became less likely
than control group to give academic and behavioural feedback to more
aggressive students. Other tests suggested that the intervention increased the
likelihood that praise for positive behaviour would be given to more aggressive
students.

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7. Cheek, J.R., Bradley, LJ., Parr, G. & Lan, W. (2003) conducted a study to
determine the effectiveness of music therapy techniques as an intervention for teacher
burnout. Of the 51 elementary school teachers who participated in the study, 25 were
from a school undergoing comprehensive reform, and 26 were from a school
employing traditional grade-level classrooms and teaching strategies. Each participant
completed pre-test and post-test instruments. In addition, there were two treatment
groups, either cognitive behavioural/music therapy or cognitive behavioural therapy.
Results of the study indicated that teachers who participated in school-based
counselling groups, using music therapy techniques in conjunction with cognitive
behavioural interventions, reported lower levels of burnout symptoms than
teachers in school-based counselling groups using cognitive behavioural
interventions only.

8. Simazu, A., Okada, Y., Sakamoto, M. & Miura, M. (2003) conducted a study to
examine the effects of a stress management programme for the teachers on their
stress responses, social support and coping. 24 teachers were assigned to either an
intervention or a waiting list control group. A five-session programme including
PMR training (Progressive Muscle Relaxation), psycho-education, group
discussion, role playing and relaxation training was conducted for the intervention
group at 2 week intervals. 8 participants from each of the groups responded to pre-
and post-intervention questionnaire surveys. The positive intervention effect was
significant for social support from co-workers, whereas the negative intervention was
significant for proactive coping. No significant effect was observed for stress
responses (vigour, anger, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and somatic stress responses).
The positive intervention effect was marginally significant for social support from co­
workers and anger among those who at first had high stress response scores in the pre­
intervention survey (n=5 and n=4 for the intervention and waiting list control groups
respectively). Results showed that the stress management programme conducted
in this study contributed to increasing social support from co-workers. This
study suggested that a programme the focussed on a particular sub-groups (eg.
those with high stress responses or high job control) might be effective in
enhancing coping, increasing social support, and reducing stress responses.

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9. Carlyle, D. & Woods, P. (2003) in their book, The Emotions of Teacher Stress,
examined the individual psychologies of a group of stressed teachers, their work
patterns, roles and relationships and their steps towards recovery. It also
highlighted the ways the contemporary education system contributed to teacher stress
and indicated how dysfunctional school support systems could be changed so that
teachers worked in a collegiate and supportive environment. The authors' findings
would help to alleviate and even prevent occupational stress among teachers and
others in the caring professions. Stressed teachers here related their experiences,
perceptions and feelings candidly. They described the help and the strategies that
enabled them to recover and the ways in which they renegotiated their lives to move
forward. Their stories threw light on what had become a crucial and increasing
personal, family and societal issue that was increasingly prevalent among educators
and other public service providers.

10. Smith, T.M. & Ingersoli, R.M. (2004) examined whether programmes offering
support, guidance, and orientation for beginning teachers during the transition
into their first teaching job, collectively known as induction, had a positive effect
on the retention of beginning teachers. The data used in the analysis were from the
nationally representative 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey. The results
indicated that beginning teachers who were provided with mentors from the same
subject field and who participated in collective induction activities, such as
planning and collaboration with other teachers, were less likely to move to other
schools and less likely to leave the teaching occupation after their first year of
teaching.

11. Schechtman, Z., Levy, M. & Leichtentritt, J. (2005) evaluated outcomes and
implementation processes of teacher training in the Life Skills Training (LST)
programme in Israel. LST, an education programme that teachers administer to
students, focusses on life skills in 4 major areas: (a) identity development or
purpose in life, (b) problem solving or decision making, (c) interpersonal
relationships, and (d) physical health maintenance. Training teachers in the
programme usually was performed in a group format within the school faculty. On the
basis of the rationale that group training affected relationships, the authors

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hypothesized that such training would lead to improved perceptions of the work
environment and higher levels of self-efficacy for teachers. Participants included 3
groups of teachers (N = 214): (a) teachers who did not receive training, (b) teachers in
their 1st year of training, and (c) teachers in their 2nd year of training. Results
indicated that teachers with 2 years of training had significantly higher scores on
work environment and self-efficacy measures than did teachers with less
training.

12. Selwood, I. & Pilkington, R. (2005) advocated the greater use of information
and communications technology (ICT) to reduce teacher workload, which has
been a recurrent concern in education for a number of years. In the spring of 2002, the
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) launched a 1-year initiative called the
Transforming School Workforce (TSW) Pathfinder Project, and this was
evaluated by a team from the University of Birmingham. One of the ways of reducing
teachers' workload envisaged by the DfES was increased use of ICT. The data
presented in this article came from the afore-mentioned evaluation and concerned
teachers changing perceptions of, and access to, issues relating to training in, and use
of ICT, and their beliefs concerning the use of ICT. Overall, teachers believed the
TSW Project helped to reduce workload, making them more productive as
teachers. Changes likely to have contributed to this included: far greater access
to ICT facilities both in terms of hardware at home, and sole access at school;
increased daily use of ICT by teachers; an increase in teachers' confidence in the
use of ICT and changes in teachers' views on the quality of ICT training
(although their satisfaction with training received was still not high).

13. Snow-Gerono, J.L. (2005) reported that teacher researchers in a Professional

Development School context identified two important shifts in traditional school
cultures in order for teacher inquiry to thrive as a means for teacher development: a
shift to community and a shift to uncertainty. PDS teachers in this study spoke
about their need for supportive learning communities where they might
collaborate and engage in dialogue with colleagues and other professionals.
Professional learning communities created opportunities for dialogue which also
made it safe to ask questions and work in a community where uncertainty was

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not only valued, but supported. The idea of professional learning communities
for teacher development also needed to be analysed for insights they brought to
teacher education, professional development, and educational change.
Recognizing and understanding tensions in collaboration and dialogue and their
connected shifts to community and uncertainty could enhance learning
opportunities for teachers as well as the life of a teacher with an inquiry stance.

14. Dunham, J. & Varma, V.P. (2005) in their book, Stress in Teachers: Past,
Present and Future examined stress in teaching as a multidisciplinary concept broad
enough to include physiological, psychological, organizational and legal perspectives.
The editors saw stress in teaching as an interactionist concept - a complex and
sometimes precarious balance between perceived work pressures, coping strategies
and stress reactions. The early chapters in the book reflected this view and made
contributions to understanding the causes and costs of stress in teaching. The authors
of these chapters came collectively, to the conclusion that there was an alarmingly
low level of job satisfaction in teaching and that turnover intentions appeared to be on
the increase. This pessimistic view was challenged in later chapters by professionals
working in the field of stress management. These contributions highlighted the danger
of focussing stress research and management strategies on the individual rather than
the organization, and reported the authors' “hands on” knowledge of teacher support
teams and workshop and whole-school approaches to diminishing the causes and
costs of teacher stress and improving training and career development. The
concluding chapters demonstrated the editor’s belief that useful insights for workers
in the education service could be gained from studies of workplace stress in other
occupations.

15. Wu, S., Li, J., Wang, M., Wang Z. & Li, H. (2006) evaluated the effectiveness
of the interventions on occupational stress among teachers in middle schools. The
study group consisted of 459 teachers (247 men and 212 women) from 4 middle
schools. The control group consisted of 502 teachers (271 men and 231 women). The
3 dimensions of occupational adjustment (including occupational stress,
psychological strain, and coping resources) were measured with the Occupational
Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R) and the work ability was assessed with the

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Work Ability Index (WAI) among teachers. The integrated interventions (involving
organizational and individual level intervention) were taken to the teachers in the
study group. Results indicated that the scores of some scales of occupational role
questionnaire and personal strain questionnaire decreased significantly and the
scores of some scales of personal resources questionnaire and WAI increased
significantly after intervening. This study suggested that interventions were
efficient in reducing the teachers' occupational stressors, increased their coping
resources and improved their work ability.

16. Kottler, J. & Kottler, E. (2007) in their bestseller Counseling Skills for
Teachers, expertly guided pre-service and in-service teachers to be effective
helpers in the context of the most common contemporary challenges,
highlighting issues related to homelessness, grief and loss, and bullying and
harassment. The book also discussed: Responding to a range of behaviours in
formal and informal school settings; building a culture of tolerance and respect
in the classroom; motivating disengaged students; and communicating effectively
with counselling professionals and parents. Further, with an entirely new chapter
on ‘Counseling Yourself,’ the book also offered teachers surefire techniques for
taking better care of themselves and the students in their schools.

17. Leung, S.S.K., Mak, Y.W., Chui, Y.Y., Chiang, V.C.L. & Lee, A.C.K. (2010)
conducted a study aimed to examine occupational stress and mental health among
secondary school teachers in Hong Kong, and to identify the differences between
those actively engaged in stress management behaviours and those who were not.
Survey design was adopted using validated instruments including Occupational Stress
Inventory (OSI-R), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21), and Health-
Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP) n. The sample was 89 secondary school teachers
who attended a professional development course offered by the University of Hong
Kong in Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China. All 99 students who attended the
professional development course were invited and 89 consented to participate and
returned the completed questionnaires. Results revealed that the majority of
participants (75.3%) reported fair to very low satisfaction with the teaching career,
and 82% of them felt unaccountably tired or exhausted. Results of OSI-R showed that

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 38.6% had experienced strong maladaptive stress due to vocational strain but coping
resource was limited with most deficits on rational and cognitive coping. Analysis of
DASS-21 indicated that 30.3% had severe to extremely severe anxiety and 12.3%
had severe to extremely severe depression. HPLP n revealed that participants paid
little attention to their own health and the management of stress. Those who
exhibited more stress management behaviours showed significantly less physical
symptoms, higher satisfaction with teaching, and lower occupational stress. It
was concluded that secondary school teachers in Hong Kong had high
occupational stress but insufficient stress coping resources. Cognitive-behavioural
programmes to enhance teachers’ stress management resources were recommended.

18. Froeschle, J.G. & Crews, C.R. (2010) examined the effects of RIS treatment
(incorporating the relaxation response, guided imagery, and solution-focussed
brief therapy) on teachers’ emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal
accomplishment. 85 teachers employed in 2 middle schools in Texas participated in
this study. It was hypothesized that teachers involved in a stress management
programme involving a combination of relaxation, imagery, and solution-focussed
techniques would experience less burnout via decreased depersonalization and
emotional exhaustion and increased perceptions of personal accomplishment. These
, hypotheses were examined using multivariate analysis of covariance. Results
indicated that participation in the RIS intervention was associated with
decreased burnout levels. Lower emotional exhaustion and depersonalization
scores and higher personal accomplishment scores for the treatment group as
compared to the control group indicated an improvement in burnout levels.
Thus, the study implied the importance of offering stress management within the
school setting.

19. Leung, S.S.K., Chiang, V.C.L., Chui, Y., Lee, A.C.K. & Mac, Y. (2011)
performed an exploratory study to examine whether the use of online forums by
secondary school teachers in Hong Kong could provide social support to manage
work-related stress. Following 7 days of forum use, content analysis and post­
intervention evaluations were carried out to examine the anonymous communications
of 75 secondary school teachers who participated in one of five online discussion

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forums. Consensus on the coding and categorization of the data was reached among 3
experienced researchers in qualitative analyses. The online forums were well received
by the participants. Most participants reported that they received support from
the forum and considered it useful for stress management. These results
suggested that online support could be used for stress management among
secondary school teachers.

Web Article:

1. Dec 23, 2011, Outreach Activities, SHE: Sesssion on stress management for
teachers of Hiriya School: A session on stress management was held on 3rd July,
2011 for the teachers of Hiriya School in Maldives. The date was chosen as the day
was the day the school was celebrating its Professional Day. The session conducted
was based on Stress. It was facilitated by Shiyama Anwar from the Counselling and
Psychosocial Services of SHE (Society for Health Education). Information was
provided via Power Point Presentations, small exercises and group discussions. In the
session, the participants v/ere explained the types of stress, how to recognize stress,
etc. Through an individual activity and pair work, the teachers were given
opportunities to understand how much job stress they had and identify their sources of
stress. Apart from this they were also explained the importance of recognizing stress
and provided information on the Deep Breathing Technique and Progressive Muscle
Relaxation Technique. A demonstration was given, in which all the teachers
participated and an exercise was also performed well on ‘Visualization’. However,
there was difficulty in carrying out the visualization exercise because of the
environment. There was also difficulty in attending to individuals who wanted to talk
after the session, because only one facilitator was present over there.

2.I.5.2. National Perspective:

1. Ravi, M. (2005) in her book, Teaching through the Heart’. Action Plan for Better
Teaching provided a comprehensive range of guidelines to the teachers for
personality development and life skills training for professional assistance. In the
book she also discussed about stress in teachers and strategies to manage stress. Her

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book included a chapter titled - ‘A Request to Teachers’ where she suggested
teachers to approach professional counsellors for help to reduce stress. She wrote: The
sole aim of giving such a comprehensive list is to help you identify the symptoms,
determine the causes of the stress and then seek help. To repeat, please ask for help. If
you do not give the stress factor its due attention, it is bound to reflect in your
performance as a teacher and the whole purpose would be defeated. ...It is a humble
request to all teachers: kindly put yourself under surveillance, recognize your stress
factor and vent them frequently so that you can manage your emotions healthily. Do
not lose control over yourself. Everyone carries a certain baggage from the past, but if
that baggage is becoming a hindrance to your moving ahead in life and coming in the
way of your enjoying life today, it is advisable to kick that baggage and move on in
life....Talking to a counsellor, on the one hand, would help you unburden the
baggage, and on the other, it would help you have clarity of thoughts.”

2. Bhavanani, A. B. (2006) proposed that integral yoga psychology was an

essential component in the educative process of an educator as it provided a
multi-level understanding of the human nature. It was a ‘must be’ in the modem
stress filled world as educators faced an immense amount of stress in both their
professional as well as private lives. Besides the stress caused by students’ unrest
and behaviour, the educators also felt threatened by the unrealistic expectations of the
parents and management of the parents and management of their institutions. They
not only needed to be prepared to handle such stress but were also expected to counsel
and help their wards to face their own stress. He said that Integral Yoga psychology
prepared us to do the right thing at the right time and in the right way and was
an important aspect of education both for the students as well as the educators
themselves.

Newspaper Article:

1. The Times of India, Kolkata, October 13,2004: Teachers get stress

management tips.
(By Jhimli Mukheijee Pandey)

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Now, the best managers in the country will teach school teachers how to make the
best of stressful conditions. Heads of some of the better known schools of the city —
70 in all — have turned to experts from the Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta,
to learnt to cope with stress. All these schools from in and around the city are non-
Anglo Indian ones, affiliated to the Council for Indian School Certificate Examination
that conducts the ICSE and ISC examinations.
The Management Centre for Human Values (MCHV) of HM-C, which started
management development programmes (MDP) for corporate houses on stress
management last year, is helping out these schools. The first such session got over
recently, where school heads were taken through the basics of stress management by
Sanjoy Mukheqee, professor in charge of MCHV. Among the schools that took the
training are MP Birla Foundation, Julian Day, Grace Ling Liang, Central Modem
School,Aurobindo Institution, Lycee and National Gems HS School. Similar sessions
will follow with batches of teachers and then senior school kids.
“The programme was drawn up keeping in mind the stress-related needs of school
kids that the principals need to address. We have kept in mind the needs of children
from Classes K-XII — the most vulnerable section in schools today. Most principals
confided that they never had to cope with such problems among students earlier. The
situation today demands professional handling of children, and even their parents,”
Mukheqee told TOI. From what causes stress, to how kids should be taught to convert
a stressful situation into challenge — principals were taken through all the nuances of
modem day stress and its alleviation. They were told not to look upon stress as just a
modem phenomenon but as a syndrome that has been with mankind since inception.
Examples from Gita where a stressed out Aquna seeks counselling from his charioteer
were given.
“While curriculum and syllabi are important, kids should be taught to learn from
nature and life itself and most importantly, management of failure. They should be
made to read pieces about how great men like Tagore, Vivekananda, Gandhiji and
Aurobindo dealt with failure,” Mukheijee said. Principals were given tips on
meditation, breathing exercises and strengthening of the will power.
They were told to stop being just principals and turn into mentors whom kids could
trust and not fear; who students would respect. “I have asked each principal to devote
some time every day to kids where nothing related to studies would be discussed,”

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Mukheqee added. Principals said that the stress management module given to them
was scientific and kidfriendly. “We have already started implementing some of what
was taught to us among kids. Simple things like drawing inspiration from the rising
sun or telling the child that he just has to compete with his self for a better self
tomorrow is working wonders,” said Michael Shane Calvert, principal of National
Gems Higher Secondary School.
“Emotional enrichment is missing in the modem curriculum and hence kids are so
stressed out. Thanks to MCHV, we have learnt to incorporate it within our school
system,” said Veronica Ghosh, principal of Julian Day School.

2. The Telegraph, August 17,2010. JU course to stop caning.

Jadavpur University has introduced a compulsory subject in its newly-launched B.Ed.

course in an attempt to discourage corporal punishment in schools. The 50-marks
paper on “mental health and life skill” is aimed at equipping teachers with skills to
maintain child-friendly atmosphere in classrooms. “The subject deals extensively with
the mental health of children and the measures to address problems arising out of
mental health disorders,” said Muktipada Sinha, the head of the education department
at JU. “Designed under the guidance of psychologists and psychiatrists, the subject
will train teachers in understanding students’ mental state. Teachers will also be urged
not to misuse the authority bestowed on them.” Most B.Ed. institutions in the city and
elsewhere now teach “mental hygiene” as an optional paper. The subject does not
cover the “burning issue” — managing students with “abnormal behaviour” without
inflicting “corporal punishment” or “mental torture” on them. Sinha blamed the rising
number of complaints about corporal punishment on the outdated topics being taught
as part of the optional paper and lack of training among teachers to tackle mental
health disorders of students. Satyajit Ash, a city-based psychiatrist whose suggestions
JU had sought to prepare the syllabus of mental health and life skill, has urged other
universities to incorporate the subject in their B.Ed. courses. “There is no point in
organizing seminars and workshops to sensitize school teachers to the effects of
corporal punishment,” said Ash. “Upgrading the BEd course by introducing subjects
like mental health and life skill, which deals with issues related to modem children,
will be more effective in rooting out corporal punishment from campuses.” Another

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psychiatrist said: “Corporal punishment has not stopped because it is impossible for
the secondary education board to sensitize the 1.55 lakh-plus teachers across the state
through workshops and seminars.”

3. The Financial Express, March 31,2012: School hits gym of an idea to beat
stress among teachers.
(By Garima Mishra)

Pune, Tuesday, February 07,2012: A Teacher's workload is fairly punishing. From

taking classes to checking notebooks, handling PTA meetings, conducting cultural
and sports activities, and preparing report cards, it’s a job that is as stressful as it is
unrecognized. However, an unusual initiative by the Sardar Dastur Hoshang Boys
School aims to change that, at least as far as stress is concerned. The school is
offering its teachers free membership to a health club for a year — an effort the
authorities hope will help them keep not only physically fit, but also fight stress.
“A teacher is expected to be on his or her toes all the time. We thought we should do
something that will not only keep them fit, but will also help them to come to work
with a fresh mind every day,” said Lily Patel, principal, Dastur Hoshang Boys School.
The initiative has received a great response from teachers — of the total staff of 19
teachers, 17 have shown a keen interest in availing the facility. “Two teachers have
health related problems, which prevent them from taking up the offer. Otherwise, the
entire staff is thrilled at the prospect, which, incidentally, is not compulsory,” said
Patel, who will also be joining the gang of fitness freaks.
The principal said the teachers would be going to the health club during school hours
only. “As the school has 45 working hours a week, twice a week, I will be sparing
them for an hour at the end of the classes. Working out at the gym is also a
constructive way of using the additional time,” she added.
Last Thursday was the first day when some teachers of the school went to Abs Fitness
Centre at Nucleus Mall, Camp. The teachers began with power yoga and relaxation
exercises on day one. “We will be having a general session with everyone, wherein
we will try to understand the fitness level of each teacher and other physical issues.
Later on, we will be dealing and handling their problem areas on an individual basis,”
said Abhimanyu Sable, Abs Fitness Centre.

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There are other schools, mostly international, that provide similar facilities to their
teachers and staff. “The gymnasium is in the school premises only and was started six
years ago when we started the school. About 70 % of our staff is using it on a regular
basis,” said Narendra Ojha, principal, Symbiosis International School.
Even Vishwashanti Gurukul has a gymnasium, a badminton court and a swimming
pool on its campus. “Around SO % of our staff stays on the campus. Whoever wants to
use the facility is allowed to use it without any fee,” said Rama Shinde, PYP co­
ordinator, Vishwashanti Gurukul.

2.1.6. Teachers’ Attitude Towards Counselling:

2.I.6.I. International perspective:

1. Axelberd, F.J. (1969) carried out a study to determine if teachers employed in

elementary schools that maintained counselling and guidance programme
expressed more favourable attitudes toward counselling and guidance in the
elementary schools than teachers employed in elementary schools which did not
provide this service. Attitude scales were distributed to 566 teachers and 388 were
returned completed. Analysis of Variance revealed a trend in which teachers
employed in elementary schools that maintained a counselling and guidance
programme for at least 2 years expressed more favourable attitudes than
teachers employed in elementary schools that did not provide these services. In
addition, significant differences between counties were found, which indicated that
other factors influenced the teacher attitudes.

2. Freeman, J. (1973) carried out a test of attitudes to the place of counsellors in

schools. It was administered to 100 teachers at secondary schools in Manchester.
The attitudes were generally favourable, though there was evidence of
considerable ignorance about the counsellor's role and also of doubts about
confidentiality. More favourable attitudes were held by arts teachers, teachers
without children of their own, and teachers who had a degree but no further
qualifications.

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3. McPhee, S.A. (1985) in a study, surveyed and compared attitudes and
perceptions toward school counselling and student personnel programmes as
held by educators in the Caribbean. The subjects in the study comprised 275
teachers and administrators employed in public and private, junior and senior high
schools in Nassau, Bahamas. The statistical tests used to analyse the data were the
Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and the Friedman two-way analysis for
repeated measures. The findings indicated that administrators at all levels expressed
significantly more favourable attitudes and perceptions toward counselling and
student personnel programmes in the schools than teachers. Teachers in the
study expressed the following: (a) serious concern regarding the competency of
practising counsellors in their schools; (b) a need for clarification of their role
and function in the guidance process and a clarification of the counsellor's role;
and (c) minimum acceptable standards should be established for school
counselling positions.

4. Gonzalez, J.E., Nelson, J.R, Gutkin, T.B. & Shwery, C.S. (2004) investigated
teachers’ resistance to real-world school-based consultation services delivered by
school psychologists. In two analyses, the predictive power of both proximal and
distal variables was examined with regard to the reported use of consultation over the
course of the 1998-1999 school year by the elementary school teachers. In the primary
findings, factor analysis of survey items yielded 8 proximal variable factors: school
psychologist characteristics, principal support for consultation, personal
teaching efficacy, teacher-school psychologist similarity, classroom
management/discipline efficacy, adequacy of time availability for consulting,
opportunity to reciprocate, and teacher consultation insight. However, stepwise
regression of actual reported teacher consultations on the factors, revealed they
were not significant. In the secondary analysis of distal variables, using stepwise
regression, the number of hours the school psychologist is in the building was the
only variable to make a significant, albeit small, contribution to the prediction of
number of actual reported consultations.

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5. Cooper, M., Hough, M. & Loynd, C. (2005) conducted two independent
questionnaire studies that examined Scottish secondary school teachers' attitudes
towards, and conceptualization of, school counselling. 71 teachers in a first study,
and 33 teachers in a second study, responded to a range of qualitative and quantitative
response-format questions that were designed to elicit their feelings and attitudes
towards school counselling, and their notions of what counselling was. Results from
the two studies confirmed previous findings in this area, suggesting that teachers
were generally positive in their attitudes towards counselling; valuing, in
particular, the independence and expertise of the counsellor. A small minority of
teachers, however, were found to hold strongly negative views towards
counselling. Teachers also expressed concerns that students might abuse the
counselling service, and that the service might not fully integrate with existing
guidance arrangements provided by teachers in schools. The study also found
that a high proportion of teachers conceptualized counselling in terms of advice­
giving.

Newspaper Article:

1. The Independent, Friday, March 24, 2000: Education: Thousands of teachers

seeking help for stress. Burden of responsibility weighing more heavily as
demands of the national curriculum impose new limits on classroom freedom.
(By Judith Judd, Education Editor)

A thousand teachers a month are calling a new helpline and many are suffering from
stress or depression, according to figures released today. Teachers are desperate for
advice about disruptive pupils, ever-growing paperwork, bullying head teachers and
Ofsted inspections. Teacherline, operated by the Teacher Support Network and
funded mainly by the Government, has received 6,000 calls - several hundred from
teachers who are already on anti-depressants - since it opened six months ago.
Increasing responsibilities and government instructions on how teachers should do
their job are partly to blame. Patrick Nash, the network's chief executive, said:
“Studies of workplace stress show that people are more susceptible to it if there is a
big gap between the amount of responsibility they have and their freedom to choose

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how they cope with it. Twenty years ago, before the national curriculum, teachers had
more freedom.” The report points out: “Callers often described feelings of
helplessness in the face of more serious pupil misbehaviour or disruption.” Teachers
believe, it adds, that the Government has made matters worse for them by setting
targets to reduce the number of pupils excluded from school. “While understanding to
some extent, the heads' reluctance to exclude, teachers feel unsupported, vulnerable
and undervalued,” the report says. For other teachers, it is heads, deputies and heads
of department who are the problem. Some want stronger leadership and complain that
heads do not back them up in arguments with parents. Others say their head is
“dictatorial to the point of steam-rolling” their needs and feelings. Mr. Nash said the
common perception that teachers have easy lives, with nine-to-three working days and
long holidays, was a myth. “They speak of transporting mountains of paper between
home and school and of feeling overwhelmed by new initiatives,” he said. Teacherline
(08000 562 561) is a free, independent counselling, support and advice service
available 24 hours a day. Teachers want more training on how to deal with difficult
and argumentative parents, according to a poll of 950 teachers conducted by the
Institute for Public Policy Research and the Association of Teachers and Lecturers.
One teacher said that in the school where she worked parents “either cannot be found
to sort out a problem or are baying for your blood”. The poll also found that 87 % of
teachers thought parents should take the main responsibility for sex education and
personal, social and health education, including citizenship. Ministers are introducing
new legislation to compel schools to teach about the value of marriage and stable
relationships. They are also making citizenship compulsory in secondary schools.

Web Articles:

1. BBC News: Education: Thursday, March 23,2000: Teachers seek stress

counseling.

A helpline for teachers says they are displaying “alarming levels of stress and
depression”. Excessive workload, pupil misbehaviour and long working hours, all
exacerbated by the increased pressure of school inspections, are the main issues of
concern. Teacherline, set up by TBF, the teacher support network, last September to

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help teachers in England and Wales, says 1,000 people a month are calling to seek
support and counselling. “The rapid rate of educational change, coupled with
increasing pressure and rising expectations are evidently taking their toll,” said chief
executive Patrick Nash. “It is an enlightening but disturbing snapshot of the
profession at large.”

‘Mountains of paper’- Teacherline’s Jason Harding said many were leaving it very
late to seek help - until they felt they could no longer cope. “Workload is mentioned
frequently in the calls,” he said. “We have comments such as teachers feeling as if
they are transporting mountains of paper between home and school, the school day
not ending until late and then teachers taking home work again...weekends being a
thing of the past.” Many older teachers described their school as feeling like a
“business” rather than an establishment that was conducive to learning. “This level of
work is having an effect on their personal lives, their health and their ability to
function in an everyday environment,” Mr. Harding said.

Standards -The message to local and national government was that the emphasis on
raising standards in education was regarded by teachers as very important, but they
were struggling. “Their health and well-being is essential,” Mr. Harding said.

Pupil misbehaviour and disruption - Callers often describe feelings of helplessness. A

feeling that appropriate sanctions, such as temporary or permanent exclusion, has
been removed because of the government's “inclusion policy”. Teachers feel
“unsupported, vulnerable and undervalued”.

Conflict with managers and colleagues - Many callers talk of difficulties in managing
relationships with heads, heads of departments and deputy heads. A number of callers
describe insecurity and feel a lack of direction in their work and want stronger
leadership. “Callers feel they do not receive the level of support they desire on
occasions where there is disagreement or conflict with parents. Others feel no shared
ownership in school policies and mention feelings of exclusion from the consultation
process.” Heads have also called the service to complain about governors interfering
in the running of the school.

Ill
Stress due to inspections -Teacherline says there seems to be a great deal of stress
experienced before, during, and after an inspection by the Office for Standards in
Education. “Feelings of being overwhelmed by the amount of paperwork in advance
of an inspection are common.” While teachers accept that monitoring is necessary to
raise standards, “the individual and collective cost can often feel too great”. “Teachers
feel that their professionalism is often being undervalued and undermined and a
number of callers perceive Ofsted as a means of focussing attention on the most
negative aspects in education by naming and shaming a particular school,” it says.

2. One World South Asia, July 08, 2008. Counselling makes them better
teachers:

There are more than 21,000 public primary schools in Nepal - most of them in rural
areas - serving nearly 3.4 million children, according to the Department of Education.
The teacher to student ratio is one to 40, with only 12% women. The government’s
National Planning Commission estimates that nearly 89% of children (nearly 6.5
million) between five and 14 years old are enrolled in school (grades 1-10) but that
dropout rates remain high. According to Child Workers in Nepal (CWIN), a national
NGO, the dropout rate at primary level is more than 40%, due to poverty, lack of
teachers and poorly managed schools. Corporal punishment, which includes physical
and psychological abuse, was a contributing factor to dropout rates, according to the
Centre for Victims of Torture (CVICT), an NGO specializing in the psycho-social
treatment of victims of conflict, rape, sexual abuse and torture as well as corporal
punishment in schools. CVICT says the dropout problem due to corporal punishment
is particularly pronounced in rural public schools where teachers are often frustrated
and suffer from low morale, low salaries and crowded classrooms. On average, the
ratio is one teacher for every 50 students - 100 in many rural villages. Male teachers
use corporal punishment, which causes many students to quit school and undermines
their learning ability, she explained. At the same time, government plans to recruit
more female teachers to government primary schools have yet to be implemented, she
added. Schoolteachers in Nepal are now beginning to understand that resorting to
corporal punishment make poorly performing students drop out of schools. NGOs

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specializing in psycho-social treatment are helping teachers analyse children's
problems and retain students in classes. “In villages, children often quit school due to
the negative attitude of their teachers,” said Lalumaya Gurung, Biswakarma’s psycho­
social counsellor, who convinced her to return to school. Gurung also counselled the
teacher for several weeks; he eventually changed his behaviour after realizing what a
negative effect he was having on students. “Many teachers, especially in the villages,
need counselling,” said Gurung, who has trained several schoolteachers in the district.
CVICT, with the support of Save the Children (Norway), has helped to train local
social workers including Gurung in community-based psycho-social training; they in
return counsel and train local teachers. “It has made a lot of difference, especially for
teachers like us who have to also deal with mentally disturbed children due to the
armed conflict; violence in the home, and their impoverished conditions,” said
Himalaya Prasad Adhikari, a secondary school teacher, who was also trained in
psycho-social counseling. During the training, the teachers are taught how to analyse
the children’s problems, pinpoint their reasons for dropping out and how to motivate
them to return to school. Adhikari explained that thousands of teachers trained by
CVICT counsellors were able to create better environments in schools and were
successful in reducing rate of school dropout in villages. “Due to the psycho-social
training, the teachers have helped to keep a lot of children in schools. The students are
also performing better in their class,” said Dil Maya Biswakarma, a local community
schoolteacher working in Gangabasti village of Bardiya district. Over the past two to
three years, nearly 1,246 school teachers have been trained in several districts of the
western region’s rural areas. “Now we listen to students patiently. I never used to pay
attention to their problems before the training,” said teacher Anil Srivastava of the Sri
Gayatri Primary School in Tapri. He said many of his pupils had been affected by the
conflict, which ended in 2006; domestic violence and food insecurity. Several
students had been orphaned after their parents were killed or disappeared during the
conflict period. “We have changed as teachers due to the psycho-social care training.
Now children no longer fear to come to us,” said teacher Bijaya Ghimire, explaining
that a lack of tolerance on the part of teachers towards their students often undermined
their learning abilities.

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3. Quality Education Fund. Project Title: A Stress Management Tools and
Strategies programme for our teachers (2009) and Final Report of Project

Kiangsu-Chekiang College (Shatin, Hong Kong) organized a stress management

programme for their teachers. 65 teachers and indirectly their family members, 1020
students and 2040 parents were beneficiaries of the programme. The plan was
implemented for a year, between January, 2009 and December, 2009. The objectives
of the programme were to develop stress management tools and strategies (SMTS)
platform to facilitate stress assessment and management training for teachers in a
flexible and convenient way; to provide stress reduction techniques, tools and
methods for teachers via one-to-one counselling services; to provide seminars offering
training on stress management and workshops on conflict resolution; to train “Care
Guardians” to observe signs of teachers’ stress; to reinforce an environment of respect
from students and their parents; and to provide a “Relaxation Area” for teachers to
relax on busy and stressful days.
Over 93% teachers joined the workshop on team building and conflict resolution and
a moderate response was derived on it. And over 95% teachers participated in the
seminar on positive thinking and harmonious relation and a highly positive response
from the teachers was derived on it. The relaxation area of approximately 1000 square
feet was renovated with a pantry, and provided with furniture, apparatus, music CDs,
computers, movie DVDs, etc to create a relaxing environment. All the teachers used
the room repeatedly, and provided a positive response on it. Over 95% teachers
participated in the seminar on teachers’ stress and emotion management and gave a
positive response on it. Eco-tourism stress management and team building workshop
was also highly successful with 98% teachers’ participation. The stress management
tools and strategies (SMTS) platform was uploaded on the school website and helped
teachers to reduce stress. It received a moderately positive response after the teachers’
online participation. Post programme feedback from teachers revealed that they
appreciated the provision of the relaxation area, and provision of stress management
training seminars, team building programmes and counselling services.

Teachers’ attitude towards counselling: In the programme, 60 sessions of counselling

services were proposed, each session for an hour. Counsellors were allowed to hold

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sessions at their office, the teacher’s home, at the school or any other suitable area.
Sessions were to be made through online booking to ensure convenience and privacy.
Each session was meant to help teachers to locate the stressors in teaching position,
and to provide professional assistance to teachers in order to reduce those stressors.
The sessions were to be used by teachers to help resolve problems out of their
professional scopes with the help of a counselling psychotherapist. Teachers could
consult the psychotherapist in personal sessions to learn psychological skills to handle
difficult students or their parents or discuss their own family problems. They could
also attend group sessions on common relevant issues on stress reduction among
themselves with the help of psychological insights from a counselling
psychotherapist. At the end of all the sessions, a final kit was to be given to the school
that would sum up all the findings on the main causes of stress among the teachers
and include methods on how to handle them. But in reality, only 3 out of 60 sessions
available, were actually conducted on teachers’ request. Moderately positive response
on the same was derived from teachers’ interview and survey. It was found that one-
to-one professional counselling was not sought or demanded by the teachers. By June,
2009, the counselling services were not used at all. On investigation, it was found that
teachers preferred more than one counsellor and were more comfortable with one
belonging to their same sex. So the organizers sourced and short-listed a service
provider in accordance with the demands of the teachers. The Hong Kong
Professional Teachers’ Union Clinic (HKPTU Clinic) was finally chosen in July,
2009, to provide the one-to-one service, and the teachers started taking the sessions
from August, 2009. However, although teachers agreed that counselling services
could help teachers in need to reduce their stress and resolve problems with
professional assistance and support, and SMTS counselling service can offer privacy,
flexibility and convenience to users and participants, however, it was found that there
was no great need for one-to-one professional counselling for the teachers.

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2.I.6.2. National Perspective:

Newspaper Articles:

1. The Times of India, December 19,2001: Even teachers need counselling, say
experts.
(By Siddhartha D. Kashyap)

Pune: Last week, an 11-year old boy from pune was humiliated and beaten up by his
teacher in front of other students so badly that his right arm immediately swelled and
was badly bruised, his crime? He had dared to ask the teacher to clarify a portion of
the classwork assigned to the class. A VII standard student of the Maharashtra
Education Society (MES)-run Vimalabai Garware School tried to commit suicide on
December 15 by immolating himself after being 'insulted' by the teacher during a drill
class. A group of school students from the Marathi medium school run by the
Maharashtra Institute of Technology were beaten up by their teachers at an expedition
to a nearby location on November 30. Their fault was that they had burst crackers
well after midnight.
Are teachers turning into bullies? Or are they simply “stressed out?” Or is it that they
are finding gen next kids just too difficult to cope with? An unhappy cocktail of
parental pressures on children to excel at school coupled with pressure on teachers
and the lack of sensitivity of some teachers towards their wards seems to be at the root
of the increasing cases of physical and mental abuse of children in school, as well as
burnout among some unfortunate school children, surprisingly enough. When the state
education department recommended a book on child psychology for teachers and
schools last year, none of the institutions paid heed to the important issue. The book
‘ Understanding Children and their Problems,’ authored by Dr. Indu Bakshi, covers a
range of day-to-day challenges that parents and teachers face, and provides keys to
solving the problem of today's restless generation, while educationists strongly
advocate the idea of equal counselling to students as well as teachers. Psychiatrists
speaking to The Times of India said that the behavorial changes among students was a
result of the widening gap betwen parents and their children, and socio-economic
factors. Referring to the increasing cases of suicide attempts by students, Psychiatrist

116
Dr Bharat Desai said parents and teachers should handle the issue tactfully. Parents
are often seen to be judgemental about academic results or make comparisons, which
is unhealthy, and instil a sense of rejection in the minds of the little ones. “It is
important that parents and teachers eschew any negative comment but the whole
situation should be dealt with more carefully as students have become more sensitive
to petty issues,” he said. Dr. Desai heads the Jeevan Marg Darshan Kendra at the
Garware College campus, which offers counselling to students. The alarming increase
in suicide attempts by school children, said Dr Desai, is due the widening gap
between parents and their offspring, as well as the increasing number of problems
kids are forced to deal with. “With nowhere to turn for advice, these kids find
themselves rejected.” Psychiatrist Dr. Ganesh Menon said the situation is exacerbated
by the fact that a child's sense of self-worth is linked to his or her academic
performance right from primary school. “And this is made worse by unrealistic
parental expectations, the child is constantly reminded of his poor performaee and the
amount of money that goes into his or her education,” he explained. According to Dr.
A.P. Bhupatkar, Director, Institute of Management Development and Research
(IMDR), Deccan Education Society, mounting pressures to perform, combined with
severe competition, makes for a lethal cocktail of anxieties and frustrations. “The
study of guidance and counselling must become an integral part of every professional
training programme, for better awareness of self and others,” he said. “It's not always
easy to handle all the 50 or 60 odd students in a classroom, and the task is all the more
difficult with lack of effective counselling to teachers,” says Netraprakash Bogh, an
educational activist in the city. He, however, added all incidents of beating and abuse
to students should be strictly prevented. Echoing this, Dr. A.P. Bhupatkar, Director,
Institute of Management Development and Research (IMDR), Deccan Education
Society in the Fergusson College campus, said that it equally important that
educational institutions have similar counselling facilities for teachers as well.
“Malhandling or physical torture of students is totally unacceptable but the teachers
can't be blamed always,” he said. He said institutions could perhaps conduct a
“process laboratory” for teachers as well as students like the one in IMDR to allow
more student-teacher interface. “This gives a chance to know each other better,” Dr.
Bhupatkar said. Both the educationists feel that in the present scenario, more often
dominated by stress, the concept of introducing a chapter on behavioural science in

117
the course curriculum has become all the more important. Mr. Bogh feels parents as
well as teachers are not receptive to the childrens problems. “Discussion, games or
bonding activities with the children have been replaced by indiscriminate TV viewing
and computers,” he said.

2. The Telegraph: Wednesday, August 03,2005: Care and counsel - Expert

Guidance Gaining Ground.
(By Nisha Lahiri)

Counselling helps to clear confusion. Sounds simple, but it’s not always that easy if
you are a grown-up. A survey conducted by Sairindhree Sen, a student of the M.Ed
course at Calcutta University, as a special paper for her project, found that youngsters
were keen to receive counselling and guidance, but adults were often not open to the
idea. But the tide is turning. Says Reeta Chatteijee, principal, Apeejay School, Park
Street: “There used to be a stigma attached to counselling. But parents and teachers
are opening up to the idea, and are realising its importance.” She explains: “It’s about
the child talking and someone listening patiently. Both Apeejay schools, Park Street
and Salt Lake, have counsellors. We send out notices to the parents telling them about
it.” Sen set out to study the views of students, parents and teachers, on the need for
guidance and counselling in educational institutions, and talked to 75 of them (25
from each group). The students were in the age group of 15 to 21, and the teachers
and parents taught or had children in this age group. It was conducted under the
supervision of Prof P.K. Chakraborty and Prof Madhumala Sengupta. The lecturer of
English in Vidyasagar College for Women and English method in Jadavpur
University’s B.Ed department unearthed some revealing facts through her survey .
Students were candid about issues on which they would like to consult mental health
experts — from “how to make parents understand our points of view” to “sometimes I
feel that nobody understands me” and sexual harassment. The issues the teachers
came up with included behavioural problems, abusive language and truancy, as well
as family-related issues like broken homes and parental rigidity. Sex education,
failure, addiction and loneliness were some of the other problems for which they felt
youngsters need counselling. The parents were more reticent when it came to their
kids seeking help. But some came up with issues like “too much fiddling with mobile

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phones”, rash conduct with elders, “dream world-kind of notion about things”, and
problems related to love and sex education. Neelkanth Gupta, principal of The
Heritage School, feels: “Counselling enables kids to work out their own solutions to
problems. It provides them with insight into how they think and feel. And all this
happens in a non-judgmental and confidential environment.” Adds Mira Kakkar of
Thoughtshop Foundation, an NGO that provides counselling to the youth: “They need
objective advice from a third person, a professional who can guide them. People are
gradually waking up to the need for counselling.” For students, counselling is
important, if not always helpful. “I was having some family problems, so I went to see
our unofficial counsellor in school, who is a teacher. It didn’t really help me, but
students do need counselling from time to time. I know quite a few for whom it has
been beneficial,” says a Class XII student of Calcutta International School.

Listen & Learn

• Positive attitude to seeking counselling: 40
• Should be made compulsory in educational institutions: 96
• Teaches should get training to counsel students: 58.7
• Mental health experts should be invited for counselling in educational
institutions: 53.3
Students
• Parents and teachers impose their decisions:72
• Received counselling: 48
• Objection from family to seek formal counselling: 12
ISSUES - Academic: 36 %, Emotional: 88, Anxiety/Frustration/Depression: 80.

Teachers
• Guidance & counselling should be compulsory in B.Ed: 100
• Parents objected to student counselling: 24
ISSUES - Academic: 76, Discipline: 76, Motivation: 48, Emotional: 68, Career: 32,
Family: 44, Sexual harassment: 12

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Parents
• Attended counselling session/consulted expert: 16.
ISSUES - Academic: 20, Career: 32, Emotional: 56, Discipline: 20

3. The Times of India. Kolkata, July 6,2010. Teachers' meet on how to beat
stress.

It's time to counsel school teachers. The furore over corporal punishment in the wake
of Rouvanjit Rawla's suicide and rapid change in technology has left them a much-
stressed lot these days. To help its 100-odd members from well-known city schools
deal with the issue of disciplining kids without cracking the whip and adopt newer
technologies, Teachers' Centre is set to organize an open forum to discuss topics that
leave teachers stressed.
The two-hour session will be held at Modem High School on Friday evening by the
teachers' organization, which operates from Loreto House. “We hold workshops,
conferences, training sessions and even publish a magazine. It is a support system for
teachers,” said Devi Kar, principal of Modem High School and president of Teachers’
Centre. Kar, principals of some other city schools and teachers will address members
on stress at their workplace and show them how to cope with it.
“There is a lot of stress on teachers these days. At times, even principals exert undue
pressure on teachers. Principals as well as teachers need to work out a way to reduce
stress,” said Kar.
“Students have various needs and abilities. Teachers should learn how to deal with
them individually. Moreover, they should also be abreast of new systems and
technologies, which have to be introduced in the classroom,” explained Kar.
“We want to discuss ways to discipline a kid. Corporal punishment will not be a part
of the discussion as it has already been banned. We have to find an alternative method
to discipline children,” she said.

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 2.2. COMMENT ON THE REVIEW

Teacher-child relationships play a crucial role in children's ability to acquire the skills
necessary for success in school (Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). A positive connection of
the students with their teachers promotes their desire to learn (Voelp, H.E., 2006).
Children taught by teachers having highly positive attitudes towards mainstreaming
have significantly higher levels of classroom satisfaction and marginally lower levels
of classroom friction than children taught by teachers with less positive attitudes.
(Monsen & Frederickson, 2004). Compared to people in other professions, teachers
have the highest levels of occupational stress. (Kyriacou, 1980) Dunham (1992),
defined stress as a process of behavioural, emotional, mental, and physical reactions
caused by prolonged, increasing or new pressures that are significantly greater than
the availability of “coping” strategies. He advocated three main approaches to
understand the nature of stress in teaching. The first one is equivalent to the
“engineering” model of stress, wherein stress is a set of causes. There are external
pressures exerted on teachers in schools, and teachers have limits to stress. The
second approach is based on the “physiological” model, which focusses on the forms
of reactions taken by teachers in response to these pressures, which may be emotional
and bodily manifestations. The third one is the interactional approach that emphasizes
the need to identify the sources of stress and the behaviour that they adopt to cope
with these demands. Dunham (1984) summarized the most frequent manifestations of
teacher stress as: feeling of exhaustion, irritability, tension, and headache. He (1992)
further identified four kinds of stress effects: (a) behavioural (e.g. heavy smoking,
absenteeism, and turnover); (b) emotional (e.g. nervousness, anxiety, and depression);
(c) mental (e.g. inability to concentrate); and (d) physical (e.g. headache and gastro­
intestinal problems).70

Teachers with a high level of self-efficacy and more coping resources suffer less
stress and burnout. (Betoret, F.D., 2006) While principals think that the teachers are

70 Oi- Ling, S. (1995). Occupational stress among school teachers: A review of research
findings relevant to policy formation. Education Journal, 23(2), 105-124. Retrieved on
20.5.2010. from: http://www.librarv.ln.edu.hk/eresources/etext/caws/cpps 0022.pdf

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motivated by “full appreciation of work done” followed by “job security”, the
teachers generally feel that “good pay” and “good working conditions” motivate
them. (Diamantes.T., 2004). Teachers’ job satisfaction and teacher stress are
interdependent. (Suryanarayana, Himabindu & Sharma, 2009). Kowalski, C. (2002) in
his article presented at the 1st Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference suggested three
ways in which administrators can help to create a more positive working environment
for faculty: a) Treat faculty as an investment; b) Provide clear expectations, feedback,
and rewards; and c) Establish support systems for teachers. Supportive relationships
with co-workers are a teacher's best protection against the sense of isolation that is a
major cause of teacher stress (Griffith, et al., 1999). Good organization and time
management, including concentrating on one task at a time, are keys to reducing
stress, as is a sense of humor and perspective, as well as realistic self-expectations,
which may mean aiming for excellence in one area of faculty responsibility and
competence in others, rather than excellence in all (Gmelch, 1993).

In view of the researches studies cited in the previous section, the following can be
deduced:

Over the last three decades, a wide range of studies have taken place all over the
world to explore the sources of stress in teachers. Experts in a variety of nations like
the U.S.A., Canada, New Zealand, Hong Kong, England, Israel, India, Algeria,
Holland, Iran, Netherlands, Germany, China and Malaysia have tried to identify the
sources of teacher stress. Work load, relationship with students, colleagues,
administration, parents & their expectations, time pressure, school environment,
discipline, salary, job satisfaction, low self-efficacy, rational thinking process,
external locus of control, family, duties other then teaching, teaching different
subjects to the different classes, conveyance problem, etc. were the chief factors
identified as causing stress among teachers. One of the studies reported lack of
suitable training and preparation felt by the participant teachers, particularly in
methods of dealing with sensitive and stressful situations in pupils, and in appropriate
means of reaction to student misbehaviour. It recommended that teacher training
courses should include explicit training in dealing with such situations. In India, few
studies have been conducted in this area. Non-co-operation from the colleagues,

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hastiness to finish the work, being unable to perform duty smoothly, unclear
instructions and insufficient facilities, unclear expectations of higher authority, having
more work load in less time, the monotonous nature of work, ignorance of higher
authority and violation of administrative processes and policies were found to be
significant factors causing occupational stress among the teachers in India. Further,
work experience, tiredness in commuting, freedom of work and impact of work on
family life and marital status were found to influence job stress significantly.
Newspapers both in India and abroad have published many articles trying to identify
the sources of teacher stress.

A number of studies were conducted worldwide on the occupational stress levels in

school teachers. In Zululand, 67.1% of teachers reported an above average level of
occupational stress. Another study in Malaysia revealed that the secondary school
teachers’ had medium level of stress. No significant relationship was found between
stress factors and gender. But significant relationship was found between workload
and teaching experience, age and number of children. The most dominant stress factor
was students’ discipline problem. A study in Nepal revealed that there was no
significant difference in occupational stress among Higher Secondary Level School
Teachers of Nepal in three different types of schools, namely - government, public,
and private schools with particular reference to corporate. In India, a few studies were
noted in this area. In a study conducted in Varanasi on middle-aged female school
teachers, the Psycho Social Stress Scale score showed moderate to high level of stress
in 54% subjects whereas, 18% cases had low scores while, 28% cases were in
between low to moderate level of stress. Anxiety level was observed low in 64%
cases and moderate in 32% cases. Depression level was low in 92% cases. Somatic
symptom score was moderate in 44% cases while, social dysfunction score had been
observed moderate in 80% cases. In a study in Punjab,on secondary school teachers,
the findings reflected that male teachers were more satisfied with their jobs and
occupationally less stressed than the female teachers. And rural school teachers were
less satisfied and under higher level of occupational stress as compared to their urban
counterparts. In another study in Bhopal on higher secondary school teachers, male
teachers showed higher stress than female teachers and teachers belonging to urban
areas experienced higher stress than teachers belonging to rural areas. Male teachers

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of government schools experienced greater stress than their private schools
counterparts, while female teachers of private schools experienced higher stress than
their government school counterparts.

A study of the researches conducted worldwide on teachers’ stress reactions showed

that teaching effectiveness as perceived by teachers and burnout due to intensity &
frequency of emotional exhaustion as well as personal accomplishment were
significantly related. Excessive stress among teachers led to job dissatisfaction,
depersonalization, emotional exhaustion, absenteeism and work turnover. The effects
were psychological, physiological and/or behavioural problems. Even alcoholism and
drag abuse might result. Frustration, impatience, trying to do more than one thing at a
time, feeling uncomfortable wasting time, feeling insecure, vulnerable, being unable
to cope, feeling depressed, anxious, physical exhaustion and weakness, stomach
acidity, and using prescribed drags to counter stress - were found to be some common
stress reactions of stressed teachers. In India, few researches have been carried out in
this area which revealed that teaching effectiveness as perceived by teachers and
burnout due to intensity & frequency of emotional exhaustion as well as personal
accomplishment were significantly related. Prolonged exposure to such stress without
correct coping strategies was found to emerge as a potential risk factor for
hypertension and coronary artery disease. Female teachers were found to be prone to
psychoticism, neuroticism, type-A behaviour, emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, occupational stress due to high bum out. Newspapers often
reported cases of teacher wrath and misconduct mostly caused by stress. Such cases of
violence have been frequent in India and voices have also been raised against use of
corporal punishment.

Coping strategies may be distinguished into the two already known broad categories
of coping, i.e. problem focussed or active coping strategies (i.e. manifestation of
interest and care, intervention in the peer group, encouragement to approach peers and
make friends, consultation for personal improvement, informing parents), and
emotion-focussed or avoidance coping strategies (i.e. emotion regulation,
encouragement to engage in activities and inability to cope). Studies indicated that
teachers with a high level of self-efficacy and more coping resources suffered less

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stress and burnout than teachers with a low level of self-efficacy and fewer coping
resources, and vice versa. Creative thinking, resilience, problem solving skills, and
strong NMR (Negative Mood Regulation) predicted more active coping. Exemplary
teachers were more likely to prefer intuition and thinking. Using several management
strategies that reflected culturally responsive teaching was also found effective, like -
development of personal relationships with students, creation of caring communities,
establishment of business-like learning environments, use of culturally and ethnically
congruent communication processes, demonstrations of assertiveness, and utilization
of clearly stated and enforced expectations. Most teachers in Algeria were found not
to engage in physical exercises in order to manage any stressful situation; they rather
preferred to keep away from any situation that could cause stress, as well as try to
separate themselves from people who caused stressful situations. Otherwise most
teachers watched TV programmes, talk to their friends, and prayed to cope with
occupational stress. As positive emotional social support increased, emotional
exhaustion and cynicism decreased, and professional efficacy increased. As negative
emotional social support increased, emotional exhaustion and cynicism also
increased. Support from the Principal was found to reduce the perception of workload
and mobbing. In India, marital status, age, and experience were found to be
significant determinants of stress-coping among female teachers. Married female
teachers in the age range of 40-60 years, with higher experience were found to cope
better with the job stress than their counterparts. Emotional intelligence was also
found helpful in reducing occupational stress of teachers and enhancing their
effectiveness in teaching. Indian newspapers reported a few cases on teachers
becoming aware of the need to develop coping strategies to deal with stess.

Research studies on interventions revealed that teachers who exhibited more stress
management behaviours showed significantly less physical symptoms, higher
satisfaction with teaching, and lower occupational stress. Studies suggested that
standardized meditation, stress management programmes including PMR training
(Progressive Muscle Relaxation), psycho-education, group discussion, role playing
and relaxation training, greater use of information and communications technology
(ICT), telephone counselling on teachers’ mental troubles, induction for new teachers,
guidance training, rational emotive therapy, school-based counselling, Life Skills

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Training (LST) programme in 4 major areas: (a) identity development or purpose in
life, (b) problem solving or decision making, (c) interpersonal relationships, and (d)
physical health maintenance - could be effective means of dealing with stress.
Professional learning communities could also create opportunities for dialogue and
make it safe to ask questions and work in a community. Teachers might also find help
by reading good books especially written to guide teachers through stress and strain.
Though not much Indian research was found in this area, but some experts suggested
integral yoga psychology, and counselling as ameliorative measures for teacher stress.
Newspapers reported introduction of gymnasium facilities in a school for teachers to
work out, and a developing awareness among teachers to practice stress management
procedures.

Teachers’ attitudes towards counselling are bound to differ from one nation to the
other. Scottish teachers revealed a generally positive attitude towards counselling,
valuing, in particular, the independence and expertise of the counsellor. A small
minority of them, however, held strongly negative views towards counselling. A high
proportion of teachers conceptualized counselling in terms of advice-giving. Teachers
employed in elementary schools that maintained a counselling and guidance
programme for at least 2 years expressed more favourable attitudes than teachers
employed in elementary schools that did not provide these services. However, the
number of hours a school psychologist was present in the school building, to some
extent predicted the number of actual reported consultations. Administrators at all
levels expressed significantly more favourable attitudes and perceptions toward
counselling and student personnel programmes in the schools than teachers. Kiangsu-
Chekiang College (Shatin, Hong Kong) organized a stress management programme
for their teachers which included both personal and group counselling sessions
exclusively for teachers. Though there was overwhelming participation of teachers in
workshop on team building and conflict resolution, seminar on positive thinking and
harmonious relation, seminar on teachers’ stress and emotion management, and eco-
tourism stress management and team building workshop, yet teachers appeared to be
hesitant to receive one-to-one service from a single counsellor and from one of their
opposite sex. Although the teachers agreed that counselling services could help those
in need to reduce their stress and resolve problems with professional assistance and

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support, and SMTS (stress management tools and strategies) counselling service
could offer privacy, flexibility and convenience to users and participants, however, it
was found that there was no great need for one-to-one professional counselling for
the teachers. This discomfiture indicated that lot of prejudices and social inhibitions
are attached with the idea of taking psychological counselling. Though no Indian
research was noted in this area, yet a number of articles in the Indian newspapers and
abroad revealed a gradually developing awareness on the need to counsel teachers to
handle stress and improve qualitatively.

2.2.1. Conclusion:

On the basis of the above studies it can be concluded that the present study is
extremely pertinent from both national and international perspectives. Sources and
levels of teacher stress and stress reactions have been explored worldwide along with
teachers’ coping strategies and interventions. Teachers’ attitude to counselling has
also been an independent research topic in some places abroad, though mostly
exploring teachers’ attitude towards counselling meant for students and not
exclusively for the teachers. However, web articles and newspapers in India and
abroad have shown a rising awareness on the need to counsel teachers to help them
manage stress.

The present study not only tries to knit the three issues together, that is - stress
factors, stress reactions and attitude towards counselling, but also explores the general
trend in the teachers’ attitude towards counselling vis-a-vis their respective levels of
stress.

From the national perspective this study is extremely relevant to the present social
circumstances. In India, teachers need to become aware of the fact that counselling
can help them immensely to overcome their ever mounting stress. It is necessary to
see how far the teachers are aware of their own stress and the benefits of counselling,
and what attitude they have towards the idea of seeking support in the form of
counselling. Indian teachers living and working amidst the nation’s specific socio­
cultural and economic complexities, may have certain exclusive sources of stress and

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particular attitudes towards counselling, that may or may not tally with those in the
teachers of other nations. But stress reactions evident from an individual’s overt and
covert behaviour, are likely to remain almost similar everywhere, though differences
might exist depending on the impact of different socio-cultural milieus. Hence, this
study is likely to reveal some new and interesting facts and data. I am delimiting my
study to frill-time, secondary and higher secondary school teachers as I feel that the
sources of stress and stress reactions are likely to differ in part-time teachers keeping
in view the expectations made from them, their responsibilities and accountabilities,
and in primary school teachers depending on the different age groups of students they
handle.

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