ELECTRICAL

LIGHTING
SYSTEMS &
FIXTURES
PLATE # 4

Submitted to: Engr. Gil Tuban

Submitted by: Linnell C. Alcantara
Course & Yr.: BS Computer Engineering
I. Incandescent Lamp
A. Concept/Principle
An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light
globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high
temperature that it glows with visible light (incandescence). The filament
is protected from oxidation with a glass or fused quartz bulb that is filled
with inert gas or a vacuum. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is
slowed by a chemical process that redeposits metal onto the filament,
thereby extending its life.
The light bulb is supplied with electric current by terminals or wires
embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides
mechanical support and electrical connections.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light
output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They
require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work
equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent
bulb became widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting
such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising
lighting.
B. Construction
The filament is attached across two lead wires. One lead wire is connected to the foot
contact and other is terminated on the metallic base of the bulb. Both of the lead wires
pass through glass support mounted at the lower middle of the bulb. Two support wires
also attached to glass support, are used to support filament at its middle portion. The foot
contact is isolated from metallic base by insulating materials. The entire system is
encapsulated by a colored or phasphare coated or transparent glass bulb. The glass bulb
may be filled with inert gases or it is kept vacuum depending upon rating of the
incandescent lamp.

The filament of incandescent lamps is air-tightly evacuated with a glass bulb of suitable
shape and size. This glass bulb is used to isolate the filament from surrounding air to
prevent oxidation of filament and to minimize convention current surrounding the
filament hence to keep the temperature of the filament high. The glass bulb is either kept
vacuum or filled with inert gases like argon with a small percentage of nitrogen at low
pressure. Inert gases are used to minimize the evaporation of filament during service of
the lamps. But due to convection flow of inert gas inside the bulb, there will be greater
chances of losing the heat of filament during operation. Again, vacuum is a great
insulation of heat, but it accelerates the evaporation of filament during operation. In the
case of gas-filled incandescent lamps, 85% of argon mixed with 15% of nitrogen is used.
Occasionally krypton can be used to reduce filament evaporation because the molecular
weight of krypton gas is quite higher. But it costs greater. At about 80% of atmospheric
pressure, the gasses are filled into the bulb. Gas is filled in the bulb with the rating more
than 40 W. But for less than 40 W bulb; there is no gas used.
C. Operating Characteristics
Power
Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means
the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal.
Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical
power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the
filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament's length, thickness, and material.
For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher-powered bulb gives
more light.
Current and resistance
The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of
tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance when the lamp is
operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit,
but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms).[59][c] Since incandescent lamps are
resistive loads, simple phase-control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness.
Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to
control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-
watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the
lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.

D. Applications
The application in which lamps actually operate is usually different than conditions under
which they are typically tested. Lab life testing is done at rated voltages with lamps
operating in parallel on 60 cycle alternating current from a constant voltage source.
Shortened life can be expected if lamps operate either on direct current, in series, or from
a constant current source, some increase in life performance can be expected if the
voltage across the lamp is below rated voltage. The environment can also have an effect
on lamp characteristics. Shock and vibration, high ambient temperature and helium
atmospheres can all reduce the operating life.

E. Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages:
- It is less expensive due to lower initial cost.
- It is easier to dim with rheostats.
- It produces warmer color compare to fluorescent and thungsten-halogen lamps.
- It generates relatively high light output.
- It can be dimmed or controlled.
- It is easy to install.
- It is available in various shapes, sizes and applications.
- It can be switched ON immediately.

Disadvantages:
- It is energy inefficient.
- It has very short lamp life time i.e. about 1000 hours typically.
- It is warm source of light and hence requires air conditioning to cool the room.
- It has higher operating cost.
 - It is very fragile and hence needs to be handled very carefully.
- It generates low lumen per watt. Ordinary incandescent bulbs produces about 5 to 20
lumens per watt. This means it has lower efficacy.

II. Fluorescent Lamp

A. Concept/Principle
A fluorescent lamp, or fluorescent tube, is a low-pressure mercury-
vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light.
An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces
short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the
inside of the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy
into useful light much more efficiently than incandescent lamps. The
typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100
lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with
comparable light output.
Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because they require
a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically
offsets the higher initial cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same
popular sizes as incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.
Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps
be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions
require recycling of them.
B. Construction
A fluorescent tube light consists of
1. a lime glass tube
2. drop of mercury
3. argon gas
4. phosphor coating
5. electrode coils
6. mounting assemblies
7. aluminum cap

Total set up of a lamp requires two bases and electromagnetic ballast or choke coil with a
starter.
- The electrode mount assemblies are at both the ends of lamp tube.
- This electrode mounting assembly is almost similar to the stem press unit in the
incandescent lamps.
- The electrode is similar to the incandescent lamp filament.
- The filaments of electrodes play both roles as anode and cathode.
- Small plates are attached to the filament to protect the electron bombardment and
reduce the wattage loss at both ends.
- The filament is dipped in a mixture of barium, strontium and calcium carbonate. It is
baked during manufacturing to become oxides and thus it becomes capable of
providing abundance of free electrons easily.
- Liquid mercury is provided inside the lamp bulb.
- Phosphor coating is used on inner wall of the bulb tube.
 - At a certain pressure argon gas is filled up inside the tube.
- Two pins at each end are taken out of the lamp body through the cap.

C. Operating Characteristics
Fluorescent lamps are negative differential resistance devices, so as more current flows
through them, the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lamp drops, allowing for even
more current to flow. Connected directly to a constant-voltage power supply, a
fluorescent lamp would rapidly self-destruct because of the uncontrolled current flow. To
prevent this, fluorescent lamps must use an auxiliary device, a ballast, to regulate the
current flow through the lamp.
The terminal voltage across an operating lamp varies depending on the arc current, tube
diameter, temperature, and fill gas. A fixed part of the voltage drop is due to the
electrodes. A general lighting service 48-inch (1,219 mm) T12 lamp operates at 430 mA,
with 100 volts drop. High output lamps operate at 800 mA, and some types operate up to
1.5 A. The power level varies from 33 to 82 watts per meter of tube length (10 to 25
W/ft) for T12 lamps.
The simplest ballast for alternating current (AC) use is an inductor placed in series,
consisting of a winding on a laminated magnetic core. The inductance of this winding
limits the flow of AC current. This type is still used, for example, in 120 volt operated
desk lamps using relatively short lamps. Ballasts are rated for the size of lamp and power
frequency. Where the AC voltage is insufficient to start long fluorescent lamps, the
ballast is often a step-up autotransformer with substantial leakage inductance (so as to
limit the current flow). Either form of inductive ballast may also include
a capacitor for power factor correction.
Many different circuits have been used to operate fluorescent lamps. The choice of circuit
is based on AC voltage, tube length, initial cost, long term cost, instant versus non-instant
starting, temperature ranges and parts availability, etc.
Fluorescent lamps can run directly from a direct current (DC) supply of sufficient voltage
to strike an arc. The ballast must be resistive, and would consume about as much power
as the lamp. When operated from DC, the starting switch is often arranged to reverse the
polarity of the supply to the lamp each time it is started; otherwise, the mercury
accumulates at one end of the tube. Fluorescent lamps are (almost) never operated
directly from DC for those reasons. Instead, an inverter converts the DC into AC and
provides the current-limiting function as described below for electronic ballasts.
D. Applications
Fluorescents lights can be used in many applications Industrial, commercial, and
residential. Fluorescents provide a shadow free lighting in all applications.
 Fluorescent bulbs can provide high light output to light large areas and are well
suited for detailed task lighting in Industrial applications.
 Fluorescents provide a uniform light level for office space and are also well suited for
detailed task lighting in commercial applications.
 They can also be used in residential applications as up lighting from cabinets, beams
or coves and under cabinet lighting. Fluorescents are effective lighting for kitchens,
valences, comices, and fascias.
 T8 fluorescents are the most common for commercial and industrial use.
 Smaller fluorescent lamps such as T5’s are used in sign and display applications such
as jewelry stores.
  Ceiling fixtures tend use a circline fluorescent light which can be found in
residential applications.
E. Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
- More energy efficient than incandescent lamps
- Longer operational lifespan
- Better light diffusions and distribution
- Less heat emission

Disadvantages:
- More expensive
- Health and environmental issues
- Susceptibility to degradation
- Problems with dimming
- Not a better alternative than LED lamps

III. Compact Fluorescent Lamp ( CFL)

A. Concept/Principle
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent
light, energy-saving light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent
lamp designed to replace an incandescent light bulb; some types fit into light
fixtures designed for incandescent bulbs. The lamps use a tube which is curved
or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a
compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of
visible light, CFLs use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight
to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a higher purchase price than an
incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over
the lamp's lifetime.[1] Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain toxic mercury[2] which
complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have banned the disposal of
CFLs together with regular garbage. These countries have established special collection
systems for CFLs and other hazardous waste.
B. Construction
The most important technical advance has been the replacement of electromagnetic ballasts
withelectronic ballasts; this has removed most of the flickering and slow starting
traditionallyassociated with fluorescent lighting.There are two types of CFLs:

- Integrated
- Non-integrated lamps.
Parts
There are two main parts in a CFL:
- The gas-filled tube (also called bulb or burner)
- The magnetic or electronic ballast
 An electrical current from the ballast flows through the gas (mercury vapor), causing it to
emitultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light then excites a phosphor coating on the inside of
the tube.This coating emits visible light.Electronic ballasts contain a small circuit board
with rectifiers, a filter capacitor and usually twoswitching transistors connected as a high-
frequency resonant series DC to AC inverter. Theresulting high frequency, around 40 kHz
or higher, is applied to the lamp tube. Since theresonant converter tends to stabilize lamp
current (and light produced) over a range of input voltages, standard CFLs do not respond
well in dimming applications and special lamps arerequired for dimming service. CFLs that
flicker when they start have magnetic ballasts; CFLswith electronic ballasts are now much
more common.

Integrarated CFLs
Integrated lamps combine a tube, electronic ballast and either an Edison screw or bayonet
fitting in a single CFL unit. These lamps allow consumers to replace incandescent lamps
easily with CFLs.
Integrated CFLs work well in many standard incandescent light fixtures, which lowers
the cost of CFL conversion.
Non-integrated CFLs
There are two types og bulbs: bi-pin tubes designed for conventional ballasts and quad-
pin tubes designed for electronic ballasts and conventional ballasts with an external
starter.
The bi-pin tubes contain an integrated starter in the base, which obviates the need for
external heating pins, but causes incompatibility with electronic ballasts. There are
different standard shapes of tubes: single-turn, double-turn, triple-turn, quad-turn,
circular, and butterfly. Since the ballasts are placed in the light fixture they are larger and
last longer compared to the integrated ones, and they don't need to be replaced when the
bulb reaches its end-of-life. Non-integrated CFL housings can be both more expensive
and sophisticated.
C. Operating Characteristics
Compact fluorescent lamps are functionally identical to linear fluorescent bulbs.

Both are gas-discharge lamps that use electricity emitted from cathodes to excite mercury vapor
contained within the glass envelope, using a process known as inelastic scattering.

Phosphors and a noble gas such as argon are also contained within the glass envelope.

The mercury atoms produce ultraviolet (UV) light, which in turn causes the phosphors in the
lamp to fluoresce or glow, producing visible light.

D. Applications
Compact fluorescents are being used in residential applications replacing incandescent and
halogen lights. They provide relatively shadow-free lighting in residential applications and
because of their small size can fit nicely into sconces, ceiling lights and table lamps.
 The lumen output of a compact fluorescent bulb is quite high compared to incandescent light
sources that use a lot more energy.

In commercial applications compact fluorescents are extremely popular for hallway sconces in
hotels and condominium associations as well as recessed lights in offices. They have an
average 10,000 hour life compared to an average of 2000 hours for standard halogen lights.

Compact Fluorescent emit a crisp, bright light that is well-suited for detailed task work as well
as ambient lighting.

Many warehouses and outdoor security lights are being retrofitted with large, high wattage
compact fluroescent bulbs that can even replace 250w metal halide bulbs in warehouse
fixtures or parking garage ceiling lights. Compact fluorescent bulbs are now available from as
low as 5 watt mini CFLs to as high as 105 watt large (12 inch) CFLs.

E. Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages:
- They are cost-effective
- They are efficient
- They come with versatility
- They help reduce emissions of carbon dioxide
Disadvantages:
- Not all of them can be used with dimmer switches
- They cannot hold up to frequent switching
- They contain mercury
- They cannot endure outdoors elements

IV. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A. Concept/Principle
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light
source that emits light when current flows through
it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron
holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of
the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is
determined by the energy required for electrons to cross
the band gap of the semiconductor.[5] White light is obtained
by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting
phosphor on the semiconductor device.[6]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light.[7] Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide
variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to
red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with
high light output.
B. Construction
The construction of light emitting diode is so much simple, it is made by depositing the three
layers of semiconductor material on a substrate. These three semiconductor material layers are
made three regions which are called a P-type region which is top one, active region which is
middle one and N-type region which is bottom one. The figure 2 shows all of three
semiconductor material regions.

C. Operating Characteristics
The light LED works on the same principle of simple PN junction diode means when the anode is
connected to positive terminal of dc supply and cathode is connected to the negative terminal of
dc supply then the PN junction is forward biased. When the PN junction is forward biased then
the holes’ form P-type region and electrons from N-type region are recombined then the
conduction band is formed for emitting the light energy in the form of light energy photons. This
whole phenomenon is called electroluminescence phenomena and this light energy depends upon
the amount of current absorbed by the LED. In other words, this light energy is directly
proportional to the absorbing current means when it absorbs more current then the light would be
high similarly when it absorbs low current then the light would be low. All the absorbing current
not converted into light energy some of the portion of this current is converted into heat which is
dissipated by the light emitting diode during light emitting into external environment. This heat is
known as electron dissipate energy and this dissipate energy also depends upon the
semiconductor material of light emitting diode.
When the light emitting diode is forward biased by applying 2 or 3 volts across its terminals then
it emits the visible coloured, invisible infrared or laser light of narrow band width. In this
condition, it shows that the forward current is almost constant at early stage but when it is fully
on then the forward current is increased up constantly shown is figure 3. The light intensity
depends upon this current when this current is high then the intensity of output light would be
high. The voltage at which the current is increased constantly is called forward voltage and is
denoted by Vd in figure 3. In reverse bias condition the reverse current or leakage current is
almost linearly constant but a point is come when its PN junction is breakdown and reverse
current is increased constantly in negative current region. The voltage at which the breakdown is
occurred is called breakdown voltage.
D. Applications
1. These are used in security alarm system such as burglar alarm system.
2. There are used in electronic calculators for showing the digital data.
3. These are used in mobile phones for taking the pictures.
4. These are used in traffic signals for controlling the traffic crowds in cites.
5. These are used for lighting purpose such as in homes lights, factory lights and street lights etc.
Instead of incandescent lamps for saving the energy.
6. These are used in digital computers for displaying the computer data.
7. These are used in digital multimeter for showing the current, voltage and resistance in digital form.
8. These are used in aviation lights for air craft warning signal.
9. There are used in remote control systems such TV or LCD remote.
10. There are also used in digital watches and automotive heat lamps.
E. Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
- Longevity
- They light up faster
- Cost Effectiveness
- Durability
- Less risk of injury
- Color
- Easy installation
- Eco-friendly
- Energy efficient
- Flexible designs

Disadvantages:
- High initial cost
- Temperature sensitive
- Different color perception
- Voltage sensitive
- Light distribution
- Eye strain
- Cold climate issues
- Electric polarity
- Unwanted effects
- Blue light protection