LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER STUDIES, AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING

Hydrology (HYDN02E)

EVAPORATION/TRANSPIRATION
(Energy Method, Aerodynamic Method, Combined Method, Evapotranspiration)

SUBMITTED BY: GROUP 4 (CE 402)

ALARCON, GEORGE RYAN

CASUPANG, HAZEL MAE

LAURON, RIA MAE

TULABOT, EUWENNA

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. DREXLER B. SIBAL

WHAT IS EVAPORATION?

EVAPORATION is a type of vaporization, when a liquid turn into a gas. It can happen
at lower temperatures than the boiling point.

It is also the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water
cycle as atmospheric water vapor.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

1. Wind (e.g. clothes dry faster under a fan)

2. Heat (e.g. in summer, clothes dry faster than in winter)
3. Surface area (e.g. a wet cloth spread out dries faster than when folded)

WHAT IS TRANSPIRATION?

TRANSPIRATION is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots
to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the
atmosphere.

Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. This process is not
exclusive to plants. It also occurs in mushrooms. Stephen Hales (1677-1761) referred to it as
perspiration.

About 10% of moisture found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration.
The remaining 90% is mainly supplied by evaporation from oceans, seas, and other bodies of
water.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION

1. Stomatal Transpiration

This is the most dominant form of transpiration being responsible for most of the water
loss in plants. It accounts for 90-95% of the water transpired from leaves. As the name
suggests, the process involves the participation of the stomata or stomates, microscopic pores
in the epidermis of the leaves.

Liquid water is first absorbed by the plant through its roots from the soil. It is then
translocated via the xylem tissue in a continuous stream towards the mesophyll cells of the
leaves. Either at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells or of the epidermal cells close to stomata,
 liquid water is converted to water vapor. It then escapes through the stomatal pore at the time
when it is open to allow entry of CO2 and release of O2.

FIG. 1. STOMATA OF A LEAF

2. Cuticular Transpiration

This type of transpiration is responsible for the loss of water in plants via the cuticle. Water
vapor directly diffuses through the cuticle on leaves and herbaceous stems and escapes to the
atmosphere.

The cuticle is a waxy or resinous layer of cutting, a fatty substance, covering the outside of
leaves and other plant parts. Except for the interruption by stomates and lenticels, the layer is
continuous. The thickness of cuticle varies with species, but xerophytic plants generally have
thicker cuticles. This layer repels water but has some permeability to water vapor.

This type of transpiration accounts for only about 5-10% of the total water loss from leaves.
However, cuticular transpiration rate can be high and stomatal transpiration insignificant under
extremely dry conditions due to stomatal closure. Likewise, in plants having leaves with thin
cutting cover, loss of water can be significantly high under conditions that favor high rate of
transpiration.

FIG. 2. CUTICLE OF A LEAF

3. Lenticular Transpiration

This type of transpiration is the loss of water from plants as vapor through the lenticels.
The lenticels are tiny openings that protrude from the barks in woody stems and twigs as well
as in other plant organs.

Like cuticular transpiration, escape of water vapor via the lenticels is too low compared to
stomatal transpiration. Similarly, lenticular transpiration tends to become significant in plants
subjected to very dry conditions. Under these conditions, the stomata tend to close thus
severely limiting stomatal transpiration.

But with deciduous trees, lenticular transpiration may become important during winter in
temperate countries. These trees naturally defoliate at the start of the winter season. There
being no leaves, the magnitude of water loss via lenticels may exceed the rate of water uptake
which naturally slows down because low temperature causes water to become more viscous.
This type of transpiration can therefore lead to desiccation of trees.

FIG. 2. LENTICLES OF PLANTS AND TREES

PLANT FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

1. Root-shoot Ratio
 2. Leaf area and number of stomata
3. Leaf structure
4. Stomatal movement

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

1. Light
2. Relative humidity
3. Temperature
4. Soil-moisture availability
5. Wind and air movement
6. Type of plant

I – ENERGY METHOD

Rn
Er =
ρw lv

lv = 2.501x10−6 − 2370𝑇

R n = R i (1 − α) − R e

R e = e𝜎𝑇𝑝 4

where

ρw = density of water Tp = temperature in Kelvin

lv = latent heat of vaporization e = emissivity of surface

T = temperature in Celsius 𝛼 = fraction of radiation

σ = 5.67x10−8 (W/m2 K 4 ) Stefan Boltzman Constant

Other method:

Er = 0.0353R n

L = ρw lv L = latent heat factor

Rn
Er =
L
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1

On 24 January 2013, in the upper Brushy Creek watershed, the net radiation average over
the day from the National Land Data Assimilation System, is 52 W/m2. The average air
temperature through the day is 17°C. Compute the corresponding potential evaporation rate.

Solution: click here

PROBLEM 2

For a particular location, the average net radiation is 185 W/m2, air temperature is 28.5℃,
relative humidity is 55 percent, and wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2 m. Determine the open
water evaporation rate in mm/day.

Solution: click here

II – AERODYNAMIC METHOD

Ea = B(eas − ea )
0.102u2 77.8
B = [ln(z 2 or B = 0.0027(1 + 100 )
2 /z0 )]
 17.27T
eas = 611exp( )
237.3 + T
ea = R h eas

where

u2 – wind velocity measured at height z2 , and z0 is the roughness height above water
surface (0.01-0.06)

T – air temperature at °C

R h – the relative humidity (0≤ R h ≤1)

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1

On 24 January 2013, the observed climate data at Austin Bergstrom Airport data are:
temperature 17°C, relative humidity 83%, and wind speed 0.9 m/s. Determine the potential
evaporation.

Solution: click here

PROBLEM 2

Calculate the evaporation rate from an open water surface with air temperature 25°C,
relative humidity 40 percent, air pressure 101.3 kPa, and wind speed 3 m/s, all measured at height
2 m above the water surface. Assume a roughness z0 =0.03 cm.

Solution: click here

NOTE:

Evaporation may be computed by the aerodynamic method when energy supply is not limiting and
by the energy balance method when vapor transport is not limiting. But, normally, both factors
are limiting, so a combination of the two is needed.
III – COMBINED METHOD
∆ γ
E= Er + E
∆+γ ∆+γ a
4098eas
∆ =
(237.3 + 𝑇)2
Cp K h p
γ =
0.622lv K w
Kh
∗ =1
Kw

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1

For a particular location the average net radiation is 185 W/m2, air temperature is 28.5℃,
relative humidity is 55 percent, and wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2 m. Determine the open
water evaporation rate in mm/day.

Solution: click here

PROBLEM 2

Use the combination method to calculate the evaporation rate from an open water surface
subject to net radiation of 200 W/m2, air temperature 25℃, relative humidity 40%, and windspeed
3 m/s, all recorded at height 2 m, and atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa.

Solution: click here

WHAT IS EVAPOTRANSPIRATION?

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION it is the process of evaporation from the land surface and

transpiration from vegetation.

Two main factors affecting evaporation from an open water surface are the supply of
energy to provide latent heat of vaporization, and the ability to transport the vapor away from the
evaporative surface.

Evapotranspiration is influenced by the two factors described previously for open water
evaporation, and by a third factor, the supply of moisture at the evaporative surface.

As the soil dries out, the rate of evapotranspiration drops below the level it would have
maintained in a well-watered soil.

The potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a well
vegetated surface when moisture supply is not limiting and is calculated similar for open water
evaporation

𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = CV x PET

where

CV = cover factor

PET = potential evapotranspiration or the evapotranspiration over a large, homogenous

vegetation-covered area that never lacks water

0.021Ht 2 et
PEt =
𝑇t + 273

where

Ht = number of daylight hours on a day t

Tt = temperature (deg C) on day 1

 et = saturated water vapor pressure on day t in millibars

and

et = 33.8639[(0.00738𝑇t + 0.8072)8 − 0.000019(1.8𝑇t + 48) + 0.001316]

Tt ≥ 0

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

• In cropland (now dormant)

• Ave. temp, 𝑇t = 69℉

• From Table B9, Ht = 11.2 h

Solution: click here

REFERENCES:

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleevaporation.html

https://www.cropsreview.com/transpiration.html

https://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/CE374KSpr13/Evaporation/EvaporationExample.p
df

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P2kU-hiGJNE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tz1bAgkDKVU

http://ponce.sdsu.edu/Applied_Hydrology_Chow_1988.pdf

http://mgebrekiros.github.io/IntroductoryHydrology/EvaporationAndTranspiration.pdf