HORTICULTURE

VEGETABLE SCIENCE
(Vegetables, Tubers & Spice Crops)

Breeding of Spice Crops

(Black Pepper, Cardamom, Ginger and Turmeric)
K. V. Peter
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur -680 656

P N Ravindran
Centre for Medicinal plants Research, Kottakal, Kerala

K. Nirmal Babu
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut- 673 012

Minoo Divakaran
Providence Women’s College, Calicut -673012

(12.10.2007)

CONTENTS
Black Pepper
Cardamom
Ginger
Turmeric

Keywords
Area, Production, Trade, Origin, Distribution, Botany, Taxonomy, Systematics, Cytology, Collection, Conservation,
Genetic Resources, Cultivar Diversity, Evaluation, Utilization, Crop improvement, Selection, Hybridization,
Polyploidy breeding, Mutation breeding, Biotechnological Approaches, Micropropagation, Synthetic seed,
Protoplast culture, Genetic transformation, mapping population, Plant regeneration, Molecular characterization

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Spices and aromatic plants are mainly used for imparting flavour, aroma, pungency and for
seasoning the food. Many of them are also used in medicines and in perfumery. The International
Standards Organization (ISO) lists about 112 plant species as spices. India is considered as the
magical land of spices. Peninsular India is a rich repository of spices and over 100 species of
spices and herbs are grown in about 2 million hectares with an annual production of 2.2 million
tonnes and accounts for about 47% of the global trade. Black pepper, cardamom, ginger,
turmeric, capsicum, cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, tamarind, and vanilla constitute the major spices.
Seed spices like coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, caraway, anise and herbal spices like
saffron, lavender, thyme, oregano, celery, anise, sage and basil are also important. India is the
native home of many important spices like black pepper, cardamom, tamarind, curry leaf and to
certain extent ginger, turmeric, garcinia and cinnamon where a good variability exists. In fact
there is no state in India that does not grow spices, which in turn play an important role for the
lives of the people and for their own economic sustainability. From the Indian sub-continent
these spices spread over to most of the tropical part of the world.

Black pepper, cardamom, ginger and turmeric are the major tropical spices of the world and
cultivated in many countries in wide variety of geographical regions. Each country has its own
traditional cultivars/ races/ types of these spices.

Black pepper
Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), christened as the ‘King of Spices’, is an important agricultural
commodity of commerce since time immemorial. It is one of the oldest and most important
spices known to man. Black pepper is valued for its characteristic pungency and flavour, as an
ingredient in food preparations and also as a condiment. Black pepper is also very important in
traditional medicine (Ravindran, 2000).

Area, Production and Trade

The total production of black pepper in the world is around 342,625 tonnes from an area of
583,897 ha as per the estimates of the year 2003. During the same period in India pepper was
grown in an area of 225,327 ha and produced around 72,465 tonnes of which 17,787 tonnes was
exported. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the major black pepper producing states in the
country out of which almost 90% is contributed from Kerala. The average pepper productivity in
India is one of the lowest in the world (303 kg/ha). The productivity of pepper per vine is highest
(1kg) in Karnataka and lowest in Kerala (0.6kg). Demand for black pepper and its products in the
world market are increasing at the rate of 3.2% per annum in volume and 8% in value terms.
(Ravindran et al, 2006).

Origin and Distribution

Genus Piper is distributed mainly in Central and South America, accounting for 60% of the
species. The rest of the species are found in India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, China and
other Asian Far East Asian countries. But the black pepper, Piper nigrum L, is a native of humid,
tropical, moist evergreen forests of Western Ghats of India growing from almost sea level to an
elevation of about 1500 m. The northeast and the southwest regions of India are recognized as
two independent centres of distribution of the genus Piper.

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 Fig.1. A field view of Black pepper

Botany, Taxonomy and Systematics

Black pepper is a perennial woody climber, climbs on support trees by means of ivy like roots
for flowering and fruiting (Fig 1). Black pepper is a vigorous vine with thick and rough old stem
bearing numerous flowering plagiotropic branches. Runner shoots arise from the base. Leaves
are of variable shape and size but generally ovate – lanceolate, thick, coreaceous, glabrous with 2
to 3 pairs of lateral ribs. Spike filiform, pendulous with sessile decurrent bracts formed into
shallow cup subtending the anthers and gynoecium stamens 2 with dithecous anthers. The
carperl is single with spherical ovary. The stigma is 3-5 lobed with no style. The fruit is a drupe,
spherical, pungent and red when ripe. Wild forms usually dioecious but most cultivated ones are
bisexual. Many cultivated type’s exhibit protogyny with female phase preceding the male phase
by few days or weeks (Ravindran et al, 2000).

The first description of pepper and few of the related wild species was made by Van Rheede
(1678) in his book ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ (1678). Van Rheede described five types of pepper
including the black pepper and long pepper. The major floristic studies of Indian Piper were
those of Hooker (1886), Rama Rao (1914), Gamble (1925), Rahiman et al. (1979, 1981) and
Ravindran (1990, 1991, 1992 a, b, and 1993), Mathew (1998) and Saji (2006). Ravindran (1991)
and Saji (2006) carried out taxonomic and biosystematic studies on Piper taxa occurring in South
India and suggested a taxonomic key for the piper species occurring in Western Ghats. The
important biosystematical studies carried out in black pepper cultivars as well as Piper spp. were
those of Rahiman and Subbaiah (1984), Rahiman and Bhagavan (1985), Ravindran (1991),
Ravindran et al. (1994), Ravindran and Nirmal Babu (1996), Sebastian et al. (1996), Sebastian
and Sujatha (1996) and Mathew et al. (2001). They used comparative flavanoid analysis,
biometrics using D2 statistics, numerical and chemo taxonomic methods, cluster analysis,
principal component analysis and isozyme study for determining divergence among species and
cultivars. Ravindran (1991) and Ravindran et al. (1997 a, b) reported cluster analysis of 44 major
cultivars and seven wild collections of Piper nigrum using 22 characters. This analysis brought
out the uniqueness of certain cultivars (such as Panniyur 1, Vadakkan, Kuthiravally, Karimunda)
and closeness between certain cultivars (Aimpiriyan – Pulppally, Kalluvally; Poonjaramunda –
Thulamundi, Narayakodi – Kuriyalmundi etc.) giving indications of the ancestry of various
cultivars. This also indicated that domestication of black pepper from the forest grown wild
plant, could have started at many centers isolated in space and time (Ravindran and Nirmal
Babu, 1988; Ravindran, 1991, 2000).

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Cytology
The cultivated black pepper is having the somatic chromosome number of 2n=52. Various
reports indicated the existence of a polyploid series in the genus, Piper, which include 2n=24,
26, 36, 39, 40, 48, 52, 60, 64, 64, 68, 80, 96, 104, 132 and 156. All the species examined from
South India were reported to have common basic number of X = 13, while the North Indian
species, X = 12 and that X = 13 reported consistently for the genus has to be taken as the valid
chromosome number of the genus (Mathew 1958, 1972, Sharma and Bhattacharya 1959,
Dasgupta and Datta 1976, Jose and Sharma 1984, Bai and Subramanian 1985, Rahiman and Nair
1985, Nair et al. 1993, Mathew et al. 1998). Most of the species including the polyploids
exhibited normal meiotic behaviour suggestive of their alloploid nature. The sparse pairing of
chromosomes in the hexaploid P.betle is suggestive of its hybrid origin. The chromosome data
available on the genus show that this is chromosomally a homogeneous group. It was also
suggested that the various Piper spp. represent a homogeneous assemblage where gene mutation
or imperceptible chromosome changes have affected the evolution both at inter and intra specific
levels.

Mathew (1958) reported a heteromorphic bivalent in the male plants of P. longum, which he has
interpreted as ‘x’ and ‘y’ chromosomes with male having ‘xy’ and female ‘xx’. Nair et al. (1993)
found a natural triploid having considerable chromosome number variations, from 2n=52 to
2n=104. Progenies having 2n=55, 65, 72, 73, 76, 82, etc. were found to be very abnormal in
growth. From these, they concluded that the triploids could have originated under natural
condition by hybridization between 2n=104 and 2n=52 forms, and might have survived well
because of the successful vegetative propagation.

Collection and Conservation

Black pepper has originated in the moist evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. Wild
populations of Piper nigrum are found extensively distributed in many forest areas. P. nigrum is
a tetraploid. It was indicated that P. nigrum might have originated through hybridization between
species occurring in Western Ghats. Ravindran (1991) proposed three species viz., P. wightii, P.
galeatum and P. trichostachyon as the putative parents of P. nigrum, based on morphological
and biosystematic studies. All these are woody climbers, having more similar to P. nigrum than
to those of other species. The fruits of all the three have small amount of pungency and flavour.
Of the three, P. wightii and P. galeatum were suggested as the most probable ancestors of P.
nigrum. Systematic surveys were conducted in most of the natural habitats of Piper and the
regions of cultivation to collect and conserve the existing diversity of black pepper and related
species.

Conservation of genetic resources: Conservation of genetic resources is extremely important in

context of rapid gene erosion taking place due to a variety of biotic, abiotic, socio political and
economic factors. The loss of land races and traditional varieties is rapid in certain crops such as
black pepper due to devastating diseases, spread of improved cultivars, deforestation etc. At the
Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR) National repositories have been established for all
major spices. A good number of germplasm collections are also being maintained at the All India
Co-ordinated Research project on Spices (AICRPS) Centers (Table 1). The National Bureau of
Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) also maintains germplasm collections of various spices at its
regional stations. The germplasm of spices is conserved in clonal field repositories and also in in
4
vitro gene banks in vegetatively propagated crop species (Nirmal Babu et al. 1999, Ravindran
and Babu, 1994, Ravindran et al., 2006).

Table 1. Germplasm collections of spices at major canters in India

Crop IISR AICRPS centers Centers of AICRP where these

collections are maintained.

Black pepper 2347 680 Panniyur, Sirsi, Chinthapalli,

Yercaud, Pundibari, Dapoli, NBPGR
Cardamom 436 ≥900 ICRI Myladumpara, Mudigere,
Pampadumpara
Ginger 684 630 NBPGR*, Solan, Pottangi,
Kumarganj, Pundibari, Raigarh,
Dholi and NBPGR
Turmeric 1040 1326 Jagtial, Dholi, Pottangi, Raigarh,
Pundibari, NBPGR

In-vitro Conservation and Cryo preservation

The germplasm collections conserved in clonal field repositories are under constant threat from
various biotic and abiotic stresses. Moreover, conservation of germplasm in seed gene banks is
not practical as pepper is heterozygous in nature and commercially grown through vegetative
propagation. Hence, in vitro conservation becomes important as a safe alternative. Protocols for
slow growth in vitro conservation of pepper and its related species viz. P. barberi, P.
colubrinum, P. betle and P. longum were standardized (Geetha et al., 1995; Nirmal Babu et al.,
1996b, 1999). This is achieved by maintaining cultures at reduced temperatures in the presence
of osmotic inhibitors at reduced nutrient levels and by minimizing evaporation loss by using
closed containers. Cultures of black pepper and related species could be maintained for one year
in half strength WPM supplemented with 15 gl-1 each of sucrose and mannitol with 85%
survival.

Long-term conservation by cryopreservation of black pepper seed has also been standerdised as
the seeds are recalcitrant and looses viability with the decrease in moisture content. Seeds
desiccated to 12 per cent and 6 per cent moisture contents could be stored successfully by
cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen (-196°C) with 45% and 10.5% survival, respectively
(Chaudhury and Chandel, 1994). Recently technology for cryopreservation of pepper shoots was
also developed using encapsulation and dehydration method.

Genetic Resources and Cultivar Diversity

Over 100 named cultivars exist in black pepper. They might have been originated from wild
forms during domestication and selection (Ravindran et al., 2000). Considerable variability
exists among cultivars for plant, leaf and seed morphological characteristics, yield and quality.
Most of the black pepper varieties are named in vernacular, indicating a specific feature of the
vine colour, appearance, leaf shape, spike features or the place from where the vine initially
originated or by suffixing “kodi” (means pepper vine) after the name of a place or person.
Cultivar Karimunda is the most popular and it gives consistent yields under varying agro-
climatic conditions. Others like Aimpirian, Kottanadan, Neelamundi, Balankotta, Chumala,
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Narayakodi, Kalluvally, Kuthiravally, Malligesara and Thommankodi are popular in certain
locations. The hybrid Panniyur – 1 is also as popular as Karimunda. Cultivar Kuching is most
popular variety in Malaysia. Kottanadan, Kumbhakodi and Aimpirian are cultivars with high
oleoresin and essential oil hence gives high quality pepper (Ravindran and Babu, 1994). There is
limited variability in pepper germplasm for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The major
black pepper cultivars available in India are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Major black pepper cultivars available in India

Cultivar Important Characters

Aimpiryan High yielder, high fruit set, excellent in higher elevations, good in
quality
Arakkulammunda Moderate and regular but early bearer, medium in quality.
Balankotta Cultivar with large drooping leaves, moderate but early irregular
bearing medium in quality, bold berries.
Bilimallegesara Moderate yielder, good for Karnataka State.
Chengannurkodi Moderate yielder from South Kerala, medium in quality.
Cheppukulamundi Moderate yielder from central Kerala, medium in quality.
Cheriyakaniakadan Popular in north Kerala, moderate and early bearing variety.
Jeerakamundi Cultivar with small leaves, short spikes with high spiking intensity,
and small berries; alternate bear.
Kalluvally A promising north Kerala cultivar, good yielder, medium in quality,
high dry recovery, drought tolerant.
Karimunda Most popular cultivar suitable for most of the black pepper growing
areas, high yielder, regular bearer, medium in quality.
Kottan A cultivar found in north Kerala, moderate in yield, medium in
quality.
Kottanadan A high yielding, high quality cultivar from South Kerala, drought
tolerant and regular bearer
Kurimalai A cultivar from Karnataka, moderate yielder medium in quality.
Kuthiravally A cultivar with long spikes, high yield and good quality.
Kuttianikodi A moderate yielder from central Kerala with relatively long spikes
and good spiking intensity.
Malamundi A moderate yielder, medium in quality.
Malligesara A common cultivar from Karnataka, relatively good in yield.
Manjamundi A moderate yielder from north Kerala, medium in quality.
Narayakodi Popular in south Kerala, moderate yielder, medium in quality.
Neelamundi A good yielder from central Kerala, medium in quality, tolerant to
Phytophthora .
Nedumchola A cultivar with small leaves and short spikes, poor yielder.
Neyyattinkaramundi A cultivar from central Kerala, medium in quality and yield.
Perambramunda A cultivar from north Kerala, moderate yielder, medium quality.
Perumkodi A cultivar from central Kerala, moderate in yield and quality.
Poonjaranmunda A cultivar originally from central Kerala, sporadically found in
gardens of north Kerala. Moderately good in yield with long spikes
and quality.
Thommankodi A cultivar from central Kerala, good yielder and quality.
Thulamundi A central Kerala cultivar, medium in yield and quality.
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 Uddagara A popular cultivar of Karnataka, good in yield, medium in quality.
Vadakkan A triploid cultivar from north Kerala, medium in quality and yield,
very large berries.
Valiyakaniyakadan A cultivar with larger leaves, medium in yield and quality.
Vattamundi A moderate yielder from central Kerala.
Vellanamban Relatively moderate yielder, medium in quality, characterized by the
white colour of the young shoot tip.
Source: Botany and Crop improvement of black pepper by Ravindran (2000)

Evaluation and Utilization

The shape and size of pepper leaves are highly variable in different cultivars. Still leaf characters
play an important role in cultivar identification. The shape and size of leaves are different in the
orthotropic and plagiotropic shoots. Kanakamany et al. (1985) used the leaf character -
especially the variations in green shades of the abaxial and adaxial surfaces for cultivar
classification.

Much of the germplasm was evaluated for biosystematics, genetic variability, cytogenetical
indexing, quality parameters and reaction to pest and diseases and catalogued. A detailed
descriptor was prepared and published by IBPGR for black pepper characterization and
cataloguing. Good variability was observed between and within the cultivars (Like Karimunda
and Kottanadan). Ratnambal et al. (1985) reported rich intravarietal variability for morphological
and quality characters in cv. Karimunda. Ravindran and Nirmal Babu (1994) reported variability
for morphological characters of black pepper cultivars. As flavour is the most important factor
contributing to the pepper quality and aroma, more emphasis was given to the improvement in
essential oil composition and content. In pepper cultivars the essential oil content reported was
0.4-7 percent and piperine content was from 2-7.4 per cent. Raju et al. (1983) also observed
variability in quality characters among cultivars. Gopalam and Ravindran (1987) have carried
out quality indexing of all important cultivars and categorized them into three classes viz. high,
medium and low. The promising lines selected for various traits are presented in Table 3. The
superior cultivars are being incorporated in the breeding programmes.

Genotypic and phenotypic variability, heritability and genetic advance using 28 lines including
hybrids and open pollinated progenies were studied by Ibrahim et al. (1985 a, b, c, e 1987a,
1988a) and found that spike yield followed by spike number expressed the highest phenotypic
coefficient of variation and the lowest variability by fruit weight. From this study, it is
concluded that for yield improvement of black pepper, characters such as spike yield and spike
number were more important. Heritability values varied from 28 to 81 per cent with the highest
value being for fruit weight followed by spike length. Spike yield and spike number having low
heritability indicated that these characters were highly influenced by environmental fluctuations.
The highest genetic advance was observed with spike yield, which indicates the
advantageousness of this character for selection. However, lowest value of fruit weight indicates
the only marginal improvement on selection for this character.

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 Table 3: Black pepper germplasm having specific traits

Traits Cultivars/accessions/species

1. Tolerant/Resistant to foot rot Balankotta, Kalluvally, Narayakkodi, Neelamundi, Uthirancotta,

(Phytophthora capsici) P24, P1534, P339, Coll: 1041, C 1095, C 847, C 1090, HP 780,
P. colubrinum
2. Tolerant/Resistant to slow decline Pournami (Variety), Acc. No. 4163, 4175, 1090, 334
( Meloidogyne incognita) (Cultivated), Acc. No. 3219, 3286, 3287, 3311 (wild)

(Radopholus similes)
3. Tolerant/Resistant to ‘pollu’
(Longitarsus nigripennis)
4. Adaptable to high elevation
5. Tolerant to drought
6. Medicinal value
7. High quality
Essential oil
Acc. No. 820, 3141, 3200, 3283, 3291, 3299 (wild), HP 305
(Hybrid)
Acc. No. 816, 841, 1084, 1114, 2070 (cultivar); P. barberi, P.
Chaba, P. hymenophyllum, P. longum
HP 34, HP 105, HP 812, HP 728, Coll.1041*; HP 105 & HP
813
KS 51, KS 69, KS 114; Panniyur-5, Acc. No. 4216, 4226, 1343,
1368, 1226
P. longum, P.mullesua, P. betle, P.chaba
Balankotta, Kottanadan, Kumbhakodi, Acc. No. 41, 43, 49,
Culture - 5128

Oleoresin Kottanadan, Kumbhakodi, Acc. No. 41, 164

Piperine Kottanadan, Kumbhakodi, Acc. No.41, 164

8. Ornamental value P. crocatum, P. magnificum

Mathew et al. (1999) studied the genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variations, genotypic
and phenotypic correlation and heritability in respect of 14 quantitative characters in 50 cultivars
of black pepper and suggested little influence of the environment on them. Ravindran et al.,
(1992) studied the inheritance of shoot tip colour in black pepper and suggested that two pairs of
genes having complementary action control the shoot tip colour in black pepper.

Positive and significant relationship between biomass production and economic yield was
established for all the cultivars studied (Mathai and Nair, 1990). Higher photosynthates and
efficient translocation of synthesized sugars are important for higher yield, which in turn depends
on leaf area. The efficient dry matter partitioning capacity of high yielding cultivars was strongly
influenced by their total biomass production. To attain high economic yield in black pepper, the
laterals should have high biomass production. Panniur-1 having more laterals, spikes and
berries, higher mean berry weight, higher rate of photosynthesis and translocation, produced
higher yield than the rest of cultivars (Aravindakshan and Krishnamurthy 1969, Mathai, 1986).

Crop improvement
In the effort to raise production and productivity of spices, primary importance was given for
evolving high yielding varieties with good quality attributes. Evaluation and selection within the
germplasm has led to the isolation of many elite varieties. Most of these varieties were evolved
8
by clonal selections from germplasm, while a few are from seedling selection and very few are
due to recombination breeding (Edison et al., 1991, Ravindran and Johny, 2000).

Pepper is propagated by seeds as well as by cuttings. The asexual method of propagation has
great advantage in breeding programmes for developing superior genotype. The important goals
of crop improvement are higher yield, improvement in quality, higher levels of essential oil,
piperine and oleoresin; resistance to foot rot disease caused by Phytophthora capsici, resistance
to nematodes, Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognita, resistance to insect pests
especially the pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis), resistance to drought, shade tolerance,
responsive low inputs, suitable for for high elevations and mixed cropping. (Ravindran et al
2000).

Black pepper has good variability for various agronomic and quality attributes but variability is
limited for resistance to biotic and a biotic stresses. Various methods of breeding like clonal
selection, hybridization, open pollinated progeny selection, and mutation and polyploidy have
been employed in improving black pepper. More emphasis is given to convergent breeding
programmes of various spice crops to develop high quality lines and resistant line to biotic and
abiotic stresses, in addition to higher yield. A large number of inter cultivar hybrids, open
pollinated seedling progenies and accessions in germplasm are being evaluated for this purpose.
Biotechnological approaches are also being used mainly for developing pathogen resistance. So
far 12 black pepper varieties were released for cultivation in India. Of these only two are hybrids
while others are of clonal selections from germplasm or from open pollinated progenies. PLD 2
is a high quality variety suitable for industrial extraction of oils and oleoresins, while Pournami
is tolerant to root knot nematode. Panniyur 1 has bold berries while Panniyur 5 is suitable for
mixed cropping. The improved varieties released in black pepper along with its salient features
are given in Table 4.
Table 4: Released black pepper varieties and their characteristics
Variety Av. Driage Quality attributes (%) Remarks
Yield- (%)
Piperine Oleoresin Essential
dry oil
(kg/ha)
Panniyur 1 1242 35.3 5.3 11.8 3.5 Spikes are long with large
(Hybrid berries high in oleoresin. Early
between bearing, performs well under
Uthirankotta x open situations. Suitable to all
Cheriyakaniya pepper growing regions. Not
kadan) suited to heavily shaded areas.
Panniyur 2 2570 35.7 6.6 10.9 3.4 Shade tolerant, rich in oleoresin
(Open and piperine. Suited to all pepper
pollinated growing tracts of Kerala.
progeny of
Balankotta )
Panniyur 3 1953 27.8 5.2 12.7 3.1 Vigorous and late maturing,
(Hybrid suitable for all pepper growing
between region, performs well under
Uthirankotta x open situation. Long spikes &
Cheriyakaniya bold berries.
kadan)
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 Panniyur 4 1277 34.7 4.4 9.2 2.1 Stable yielder, performs well
(Clonal under adverse condition
selection from including partial shade.
Kuthiravally)
Panniyur 5 1098 35.7 5.3 12.3 3.8 This is a shade tolerant long
(Open spiked variety better suited for
pollinated mixed cropping in coconut/
progeny of arecanut gardens. Tolerant to
Perumkodi ) nursery diseases.
PLD –2 2475 - 3.3 15.5 3.5 High oleoresin line
(Selection recommended for Trivandrum
from and Quilon districts of Kerala.
Kottanadan)
Subhakara 2352 35.5 3.4 12.4 6.0 Adaptable to all pepper growing
(Selection tracts. High quality line with
from high oleoresin and essential oil.
Karimunda)

Sreekara 2677 35.0 5.1 13.0 7.0 Adaptable to all pepper growing
(Selection tracts. High quality line with
from high oleoresin and essential oil.
Karimunda)

Panchami 2828 34.0 4.7 12.5 3.4 Late maturing variety with
(Selection excellent fruit set.
from
Aimpiriyan)
Pournami 2333 31.0 4.1 13.8 3.4 High yielding variety, tolerant to
(Selection root knot nematode. Suited to all
from pepper growing regions of
Germplasm) Kerala.
Panniyur 6 2127 33.0 4.9 8.3 1.3 Steady and stable yielder
(Clonal tolerant to drought and adverse
selection from climatic conditions. Suitable for
Karimunda) open condition as well as partial
shade
Panniyur 7 1410 33.6 5.6 10.6 1.5 Vigorous, hardy and a regular
(Open bearer, long spike, high piperine
pollinated tolerates adverse climatic
progeny of condition suitable open and
Kalluvally) shaded conditions.

Malaysia and Indonesia have research programmes on black pepper. Malaysia has developed two
important varieties. The variety Semongok Perak was developed by clonal selection and
Semongok Emas by hybridization followed by back crossing. The latter is tolerant to
Phytophthora foot rot disease. In Indonesia two selections – Natar 1 and Natar 2 have been
evolved. In Madagascar selections Sel IV.1 and Sel IV.2 have been developed from cultivars
introduced from Indonesia (Ravindran et al., 2006).

Selection
The selection programmes attempted in black pepper are selection from within germplasm (inter-
cultivar selection), within a cultivar (intra cultivar selection ), and selection in segregating open
10
pollinated or selfed progenies. An elite plant once identified by any of these methods can form
the basis of a new variety, which can be multiplied vegetatively and subsequently released after
evaluation for yield and quality traits.

Selection was carried out in the most popular cultivar of Kerala- Karimunda. Out of 216 elite
plants evaluated for yield and quality and two lines under the name Sreekara and Subhakara were
identified and released for cultivation (Ratnambal et al, 1990). They have high yield potential of
12,000 kg/ha and 12, 640 kg/ha, respectively and are rich in essential oil (Fig 2 ).

Panniyur-4, a clonal selection from cv. Kuthiravally and Panniyur-6, a clonal selection from
local cv. Karimunda were released from Pepper Research Station, Panniyur (KAU) under AICRP
on Spices, while PLD-2 is a selection from cv. Kottanadan by the Central Plantation Crops
Research Institute, Research Centre, Palode.

Selection from Germplasm: Panchami and Pournami are the improved varieties developed
through selection from germplasm. Panchami is a selection of Aimpiriyan with high yield and
good quality and high fruit set, while Pournami was tolerant to root knot nematode –
Meloidogyne incognita. These two cultivars have good yield attributing characters. Panchami
has medium long spikes (11.2-cm mean), high spiking intensity (77 spikes/100 nodes), high
percentage of hermaphrodite flowers (91.5%) and high fruit set (82%). The spikes have the
typical 5-rowed arrangement of fruits and the twisted nature of the spike. It is a late maturing
type, fruits mature for harvesting in about 8-9 months after flowering (Ravindran et al., 1992 b,c
). Pournami was selected based on its good yield potential and tolerance to root knot nematodes.
Coll. 1041, a germplasm accession is found very promising in the experimental trials conducted
at Valparai, at high elevation and this is also field tolerant to foot rot disease. This line was
recommended for release recently for cultivation under the name “IISR Thevam”. It is suitable
for high altitude areas of South India (upto 3000 ft. MSL).

Fig. 2: Subhakara a high yielding high quality selection from cv. Karimunda

Selection from Open Pollinated Progenies: Pepper, being heterozygous segregation is always
expected in the open pollinated (OP) and selfed progenies. Because of the geitonogamous mode
of pollination, the open pollinated progenies are comparable to selfed offsprings. Thus, there is a
fair chance to locate useful genotypes in open pollinated progenies. Ibrahim et al. (1986)
reported comparative genetic variability within the open pollinated progenies of a few varieties
of black pepper.
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At the Pepper research Station, Panniyur, three varieties namely Panniyur-2, 5 and 7 were
developed through selection from OP progenies of cvs. Balankotta, Perumkodi and Kalluvally,
respectively. Panniyur 2 with a yield potential of 2570 kg dry pepper / ha and Panniyur-5, 1098
kg dry pepper / ha have high (35.7%) dry recovery. Panniyur-2 gives pepper of high quality
with 6.6 % piperine and 10.9 % oleoresin and 3.4%oil. Panniyur-2 and 5 have good yield,
medium long spike (12.3 and 13.1 cm), high bisexual flowers (97 and 96%), fruit set (74 and
87%), number of fruits/spike (74 and 103), fruit volume (120 and 104 cc/1000 fruits) and higher
fruit weight (127 and 110g/1000 fruits). Panniyur-7 is characterized by long spikes and high
piperine content.IISR- Shakti, a high yielding variety tolerant to Phytophthora was selected
(P24) from open pollinated progeny of Perambramundi.

Hybridization
Wide variability exists among the cultivars of black pepper for yield and quality attributes.
Hybridization in pepper mainly exploit the inter cultivar variability. For hybridization, cultivars
are taken as parental units and crossings are done among them. Genetic improvement through
hybridization generally involves selection of parents, hybridization and selection of superior
genotypes.
Inter-cultivar Hybridization: Information on the breeding value, general or specific combining
ability of pepper cultivars is not available for selection of parental combinations. In the absence
of such information the available gene pool is used at random for inter-cultivar hybridization with
parents selected based on ossessing one or few good characters.

Fig. 3: Panniyur 1 the most popular black pepper hybrid

Evaluation of progenies of many crosses at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyur led to the
development of Panniyur-1 (Fig 3) which is a selection of a cross between cv. Uthirancotta and
Cheriyakanikkadan. A second variety, Panniyur-3, was also developed from the cross involving
the same parents.

At IISR, a large number of crosses involving many cultivars were made and the progenies tested
for yield in preliminary trials. The promising F1 plants were multiplied and planted for
comparative yield evaluation. Among them three lines (HP-34, HP-105, HP-813) having good
12
yield and adaptability for higher elevation have been identified and are in advanced stages of
evaluation. HP 813 (Cholamundi X Panniyur-1) and HP 105 (Narayakodi X Neelamundi) were
released under the names “IISR Malabar Excel” and “IISR Girimunda”, respectively.

Apart from these, a large number of inter-cultivar hybrids are under different stages of testing for
yield and resistance to Phytophthora. Of the hybrids a few have shown high yield as well as
tolerance to Phytophthora.

Inter-specific Hybridization: In an attempt to bring resistance genes from wild relatives to

cultivated types interspecific hybrids between P. nigrum x P. attenuatum and P. nigrum x P.
barberi was successfully developed (Sasikumar et al. 1999). The hybrids exhibited distinct
morphological and anatomical features but are not useful.

Polyploidy breeding
A natural triploid (2n (3x) =78), Vadakkan bearing large leaves; very bold fruits with low fruit
set was identified by IISR from the germplasm. The progenies of this cultivar exhibited wide
morphological variations and varying chromosome numbers (cytotypes) (2n=52-104), however,
none of these chromosomal variants have any horticulturally useful traits (Nair et al., 1993). An
induced tetraploid (2n=104) was developed by treating the seeds of Panniyur-1 with 0.05%
colchicine (Nair and Ravindran, 1992). This tetraploid has larger and thicker leaves but the
growth was slower than the diploid parents, and is difficult to establish in the field. A tetraploid
variant having an extra bold fruits from Panniyur 1, was also reported by Ibrahim et al. (1987).

Mutation breeding
Attempts were made using gamma rays as source of irradiation. Apart from seeds, rooted
cuttings were also irradiated and raised. Irulappan et al. (1982) and Ravindran et al. (1986) used
1-4 kr gamma rays for inducing variability in Karimunda, Panniyur 1, Kuthiravally, Kalluvally
(Pulpally), Kalluvally (Malabar), Thommankodi and Aimpiriyan. Irradiation adversely affected
the germination of seeds. As the dose increased, germination was delayed. The M1 population
expressed morphological abnormalities such as chlorophyll changes, twinning of seedlings and
rosette leaves. Chandy et al. (1980) did not observe any mutants in the M1 by treating vegetative
buds with EMS and further generations were not studied. Programmes using ionizing radiations
for generation of variability for selection of improved genotypes are in progress in Sri Lanka and
Malaysia with some encouraging results.

Biotechnological Approaches

Micropropagation: Micropropagation has superiority over conventional method of propagation.

It has high rate of multiplication and provide disease free plants. Methods for micropropagation
of black pepper were reported using various explants from both mature and juvenile tissues
(Broome and Zimmerman 1978, Mathew and Rao 1984, Philip et al. 1992, Nazeem et al. 1993,
2004, Nirmal Babu et al. 2007). Multiple shoots can be induced using BA (N6- benzyl adenine)
in the culture medium either alone or in combination with auxins (Fig 4). These shoots could be
easily rooted using growth regulator free basal medium and hardened by transferring into
polybags/ cups containing garden soil, perlite/ retted coir pith and sand in equal proportions and
kept in humid chamber for 20-30 days. Phenolics and endogenous bacterial contamination
13
severely hamper establishment of black pepper cultures (Chua 1981, Raj Mohan 1985, Fitchet
1988). Treating the explants with fungicides prior to routine sterilisation followed by frequent transfer to
fresh medium, use of activated charcoal and antibiotics in the culture media was suggested in reducing
phenolic interference and systematic contamination . A commercially viable protocol for large scale in
vitro multiplication of black pepper was reported by Nazeem et al (2004).

Fig 4 Micropropagation of black pepper and flowering of TC plants in field

Protocols were standardized for micropropagation of other economically and medicinally

important species of Piper viz. Piper longum and P.chaba, P. betle, endangered P. barberi and
P. colubrinum (Nirmal Babu et al, 2005). Preliminary field performance of micropropagated
plantlets of piper species indicated that they are at par with clonally propagated plants (Nirmal
Babu et al 2003).

Field evaluation of Tissue culture propagated pepper: Large scale field evaluation of tissue
culture (TC) plants of Black pepper in about 100 ha in all Pepper growing states of India
involving Department of Biotechnology, Spices Board, Kerala Agricultural University and
Indian Institute of Spices Research (in case of black pepper and cardamom) indicated that the
tissue cultured plants are superior to conventional propagules in field performance. In addition
they also have better field establishment and early flowering (Fig 4) in the case of black pepper.
(Nazeem et al, 2004, Nirmal Babu et al. 2007). The tissue cultured plants are superior to
conventional propagules in field establishment, plant height, internodal length, number of laterals
per unit area, number of spikes for unit area, fruit set, mean yield, dry weight, oil content,
oleoresin contents etc (Nazeem et al ,2004). Morphological characters coupled with RAPD and
ISSR profiling has indicated genetic fidelity among micropropagated plants of Black pepper.

Plant regeneration from callus cultures: Efficient plant regeneration protocol is essential for
genetic manipulation of any crop species. Plant regeneration was reported in black pepper from
shoot tip and leaf with or without intervening callus phase (Nirmal Babu et al 1997; Nazeem et
al 1993, Bhat et al, 1995). Shaji et al (1997) reported variability among genotypes for callus
induction and plant regeneration in Black pepper (Fig 5 A, B). Joseph et al (1997) reported cyclic
somatic embryogenesis from zygotic embryos, while Nair (2001) and Nair and Gupta (2003,
2005) reported similar results from the integument tissues. This cyclic somatic embryogenesis
from maternal tissues like integuments has tremendous potential for automated

14
micropropagation. These systems are useful for transgenic experiments for transfer of
Phytophthora resistance.

Plants were regenerated from leaf and stem explants of other related species of black pepper like
Piper longum, P. betle, P. chaba, P. attenuatum and P. colubrinum through both direct and
indirect organogenesis (Bhat et al. 1992, 1995, Nirmal Babu et al. 1997, Sarasan et al. 1993,
Rema et al. 1995, Madhusudhanan and Rahiman, 1997). Johri et al. (1996) reported
regeneration of betel vine through somatic embryogenesis.

Somaclonal variation and in vitro selection for Phytophthora foot rot tolerance: Attempts
on induction of variability on somaclones for tolerance to Phytophthora foot rot resistance by
Shylaja et al.(1994) and Nazeem et al. (1996) resulted in identification of tolerant somaclones
through in vitro selection of calli as well as somaclones using crude culture filtrate and toxic
metabolite isolated from Phytophthora capsici.

Synthetic seeds: Artificial or ‘synthetic seeds’ is ideal for low cost plant movement,
propagation, conservation and exchange of germplasm. Synthetic seeds are developed by
encapsulating in vitro developed small shoot buds in 3% calcium alginate in black pepper. These
Synthetic seeds could be stored up to 9 months in sterile water with over 80 % viability (Sajina et
al. 1997).

Protoplast culture and development of protoclones: The ‘protoplast’ is a naked cell which is
suitable for a variety of manipulations that are not normally possible with intact cells and hence
protoplast is an important tool for parasexual modification of genetic content of cells (Vasil and
Vasil 1980). Successful isolation and culture of protoplasts were reported in P.nigrum (Sim et al.
1995). Shaji et al. (1998) reported high frequency isolation of viable protoplasts from in vitro

Fig 5 Development of transgenics in Black pepper A. Plant regeneration from leaf tissues,
B. regeneration of somatic embryos from leaf tissues and C. regeneration transgenics from
Agrobacterium treated cultures containing stress resistance gene Osmotin.

15
derived leaves of both P.nigrum and P.colubrinum. Microcallus formation was observed after 2
months in P.nigrum and 1 month in P.colubrinum. Plant regeneration was observed only in
P.colubrinum.

Genetic transformation: Preliminary reports are available on Agrobacterium mediated gene

transfer in P. nigrum (Sasikumar and Veluthambi 1994, 1996 a, b). They obtained primary
transformants for kanamycin resistance in the cotyledons using Agrobacterium tumefaciens
binary vector strains LBA 4404 and EHA 105. Sim et al. (1995) reports Agrobacterium mediated
transfer of GUS to black pepper. Trials are in progress at IISR to transform black pepper leaf
tissues using Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA containing gene for osmotin, a PR protein
known to induce Phytophthora resistance (Fig 5 C).

About 100 putative transgenics were regenerated from the selection medium. PCR testing
indicted the presence of osmotin gene in five of them (Nirmal Babu et al 2005).

Molecular characterization and development of mapping population: In recent times there is

increased emphasis in molecular markers for characterization of the genotypes, genetic
fingerprinting, in identification and cloning of important genes, marker assisted selection and in
understanding of inter relationships at molecular level.

Molecular markers like RAPD, AFLP and ISSR polymorphism was used for assessment of
genetic variability in black pepper and characterize important cultivars, varieties and related
species of black pepper to develop finger prints and to study the inter relationships (Pradeep
Kumar et al., 2001, 2003, Babu et al 2003, Ganga et al 2004, Nazeem et al 2005,
Keshavachandran et al, 2005, Sreedevi et al (2005)). The study indicated that the intra species
divergence in certain species is some times more than that of inter species divergence. This may
be due to fact both vegetative as well as sexual reproduction is in operation in most of piper with
one of them being dominant and the higher divergence is reflective of sexual reproduction being
dominant factor in population build up. Piper nigrum in the wild is cross pollinated and hence,
the progenies are expected to carry high levels of heterozygosity (Pradeepkumar et al 2003).
Selection for high yield from heterogeneous seed derived populations led to selection of forms
much different from the parents.

A mapping population was developed for preparation of genetic map of black pepper (Nirmal
Babu et al., 2003). Johnson et al (2005) used male parent-specific RAPD markers for
identification of hybrids in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.). Johnson et al (2003) reported ISSR-
PCR is a valuable tool for genetic diversity analysis in spices. Ajith (1997) Ajith et al (1997)
used RAPD markers to estimate genetic fidelity of micropropagated Piper longum. Banerjee et
al. (1999) reported male sex associated RAPD markers in Piper longum. Anjali et al (2004)
studied genetic diversity amongst landraces of a dioecious and vegetatively propagated Piper
betle - betelvine using molecular markers. One putative RAPD marker was found to be
associated with Phytophthora resistance in black pepper and the marker was converted in to
SCAR.

Isolation of R gene candidates: Preliminary work on isolation of genes responsible for

agronomically important characters, especially for biotic and a biotic stresses was done. A few
16
putative genomic and cDNA fragments associated with resistance related genes are isolated.
Research work on isolation, cloning and validation of full length genes is in progress (IISR
2005). Johnson et al (2005) reported a method for isolation and reverse transcription of high
quality RNA from Piper species. In an attempt to isolate resistance genes in black pepper,
molecular cloning of a cDNA fragment encoding the defense related protein β-1,3-glucanase in
black pepper (P. nigrum L.) and methyl glutaryl CoA reductase in Piper colubrinum was
reported (Girija et al 2005a , b). Bhat et al (2005) reported isolation and sequencing of CMV
coat protein gene infecting black pepper. Bioprospecting of novel genes from spices is
attempted and the presence of pea lectin genes and tomato protease inhibitor genes was identified
using heterologus probes in black pepper.

Future
With the knowledge gained so far the future breeding strategies in black pepper must focus on
convergent breeding to bring together the various yield and quality attributes distributed in
different cultivars through well planned crossing programme. This can be supplemented by
marker based selection to reduce breeding time. With respect to disease and pest resistance
mobilization of genes from related taxa and species is a good option involving identification,
isolation and genetic transformation if necessary. Spices being what they are form a gold mine
for mining of important genes responsible for various industrial, pharmaceutical and medical
processes. Industrial production of useful secondary metabolites, flavour and colouring
compounds is another area of interest where the compounds are high value in nature.

Cardamom
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) acclaimed as the 'Queen of Spices' is the true
cardamom (Fig 6) belonging to the family Zingiberaceae under the natural order Scitaminae. It is
one of the most important and highly priced spices. Cardamom is commonly cultivated beneath
evergreen forest trees of Western Ghats of South India mainly in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. It is a shade loving plant thriving well in elevations up to 600-1200m above MSL under an
average annual rainfall of 1500-4000mm and temperature range of 10-350C. Humid tropical
climate and soil rich in organic matter is ideal for cardamom cultivation.

Fig 6. A cardamom clump in bloom and fruit set

17
Area, Production and Trade
India has been the world's largest producer of cardamom until 1979-80. Now Guatemala
emerged as world's premier producer and exporter of cardamom accounting for about 90 per cent
of the global trade. Unlike in India, where cardamom is grown largely as a small holder crop it is
grown on plantation scale in Guatemala. No realistic estimates are available for total area and
production of cardamom in the world. In 2004- 2005 cardamom was grown in 655780 ha in
India and production was 10190 tonnes of which 650 tonnes was exported.

The major consumers of cardamom are India, Saudi Arabia, other Arab countries, Europe and
Japan. At present, India is the second largest consumer of cardamom in the world after Saudi
Arabia. According to Spices Board, the domestic consumption of cardamom in India was 9,500
tonnes in 2000 and 12,500 in 2005.

Origin and distribution

India is considered the native home of Elettaria cardamomum though the major centre of
diversity for the genus is the Sarawak (Malaysia) and Borneo region, from where eight species
have been listed (Sakai and Nagamasi, 2001). Natural population’s cardamom now exists only in
the evergreen forests of Western Ghats. In India, genus Elettaria is represented only by one
species (E. cardamomum).

Botany and Systematics

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) belongs to the order Scitaminae under the family
zingiberaceae. The genus Elettaria consists of seven species distributed in India, Sri Lanka,
Malaysia and Indonesia of these only E. cardamomum is with economic importance (Holttum
1950, Willis 1967).

Cardamom is a herbaceous perennial (2-5 m in height) with underground (subterranean)

rhizomes and aerial leafy stems (tillers) made of leaf sheaths (Fig 7). Studies on vegetative
growth indicated that suckers continue their growth for a period of about 18 months from the
time of emergence (Madhusoodanan et al. 2002). The development of reproductive buds
(panicles) takes place in about 10 to 12 months (Krishnamurthy et. al., 1989). Inflorescence is a
long panicle arising from the underground stem, but comes up above the soil. The linear growth
of panicles extends over a period of about seven months. The growth habit of the panicles and
the shape as well as the size of the capsules varies in different cultivated varieties/types of
cardamom. Flowers are arranged in clusters (known as cincinni) subtended by scale leaves.
Flowers are bisexual, bracts linear, oblong and persistent, sepals 3, petals 3, unequal, lip longer
with violet tinge carpels 3, style 1, ovary - trilocular, axile placentation, ovules-numerous in each
carpel. Normally flowering in cardamom could be seen throughout the year on panicles produced
during the current as well as in previous year (Fig 7). The peak flowering is spread over a period
of six months from May to October. The time required to reach full bloom stage from flower/bud
initiation ranges from 26 to 34 days and capsule development takes about 110 to 120 days from
the full bloom stage (Parameswar and Venugopal, 1974).

In general maximum number of flowers open during early hours of the day 3.30 – 8.00 AM
immediately followed by the anthesis. The dehiscence of anthers took place immediately
followed by anthesis with maximum pollen bursting between 5.30 - 6.30 AM (Pattanshetti and
18
Prasad, 1972, KAU, 2001). The pollen grains were round and mostly found in single, measured
on an average 87.6 µ in diameter. Though apparently 85.2 % of the pollen grains appeared
fertile, germination tests showed that the maximum of 70.1% germination in artificial media
containing 20 per cent sucrose and 1 per cent agar solution. Studies on the viability of the pollen
grains indicated only 6.5% viability after 2 hours of storage and 0 % after 6-8 hours of storage
(Pattanshetti and Prasad, 1972). However cardamom pollen can be stored successfully in liquid
nitrogen (Geetha 2002).

Fig 7: A field view of cardamom plantation

The most significant component of cardamom, as spice, is the volatile oil with its characteristic
aroma, described generally as camphory, sweet, and aromatic spicy. This is due the presence of
1, 8 cineole, d- -terphenol, terpinyl acetate, limonene, sabinene and borneol (Guenther 1950).
The dominance of 1, 8- cineole and -terpinyl and linalyl acetates, in the composition, make the
cardamom oil unique (Lewis et al 1966; Salzer 1975; Wijeskera and Jayawardena, 1978).

Pollination
Cardamom has bisexual flowers, self compatible but cross-pollination is moe common. Apis
cerana and Apis dorsata are the predominant pollinators (Fig 8). Cardamom flowers remain in
bloom for 15-18 hours and stigma receptivity and pollen viability were reported to be maximum
during morning hours between 8 AM and 10 AM. Pollination during this time gives about 72%
fruit set. Thereafter, the stigma receptivity decreased gradually resulting in the minimum fruit set
of 24%. The active foraging of bees is seen in the morning hours of the day resulting higher fruit
set in cardamom.

Fig 8: Bee pollination in Cardamom

19
The extent of fruit set recorded in different months indicated that there was high percentage of
fruit set (50 to 59 per cent) during June, July, August and September because of humid
atmosphere that prevailed during this period. However, during the dry season from December to
March, there was practically very little fruit set (Parameswar, 1973, Parvathi et al., 1993,
Belavadi et al. 1997, 1998, 2000).

Cytology
The somatic chromosome number of cardamom is reported to be 2n = 48 (Gregory, 1936;
Sharma and Bhattacharya, 1959). Chakravarti (1948) reported 2n = 52. Variations in
chromosome numbers were observed in Mysore and Malabar varieties of cardamom indicted that
aneuploidy as well as structural alterations in the chromosome have contributed to the varietal
differentiation (Chandrasekar and Sampath Kumar, 1986). Earlier workers have reported that
cardamom is of amphidiploid origin from wild species, which are probably extinct. Allied genera
such as Globa, Balbifera, Phoemaria, Amomum sp. and Alpinia spp also possess 2n=48 and are
considered to be evolved from a common basic number, X=12.

Collection and Conservation

The genetic resource of cardamom is being eroded rapidly with the changes in habitat of the
Western Ghats and needs systematic exploration and collection of germplasm. A good collection
of cardamom is maintained at IISR, Indian cardamom Research Institute, Myladumpara and
various centres of All India Co ordinated Research Project on Spices (Table 1). Cardamom being
a vegetatively propagated crop, germplasm is presently maintained in clonal repositories in the
field which is labour intensive and exposed to hazards such as outbreak of pests, diseases and
drought. Field repositories of cardamom are also vulnerable to diseases such as ‘katte’ and
rhizome rot resulting in considerable loss. Therefore, in vitro conservation of germplasm, in
addition to field gene banks, would provide safety of germplasm collections.

Nirmal Babu et. al., (1999) and Geetha (2002) reported a method of inducing slow growth on
half-strength Ms medium without growth regulators, supplemented with 15 g/L each of sucrose
and mannitol in screw-capped culture tubes and incubation at 22±2oC with photoperiod of 12 h
light/12 h dark and a light intensity of 2500 lux. Cultures maintained under these conditions can
be conserved for one year without subculture. Conserved plantlets multiplied normally and were
planted with high percentage of establishment and normal growth.

Long term storage by means of cryopreservation using liquid nitrogen at - 196oC:

Cryopreservation of cardamom seeds and encapsulated, vitrified shoot tips in liquid nitrogen has
been reported by Chaudhary and Chandel (1995, Ravindran et al 2004).

Genetic Resources and Cultivar Diversity

Based on the adaptability, nature of the panicle, shape and size of fruits, the cultivated cardamom
is grouped into three botanical varieties viz. Malabar, Mysore and Vazhukka (Sastri, 1952). The
characteristic features of these varieties are given in Table 5.

20
 Table 5 Characteristic features of the three varieties of cardamom
Characters var. Malabar var. Mysore var.Vazhukka
Adaptability Lower altitudes 600-900 Higher altitudes 900- Wide range
m MSL 1200 m MSL
Areas of cultivation Karnataka Kerala and parts of Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Plant growth Medium Robust Robust
Panicles Prostrate Erect Semi erect
Capsules Round or oblong Bold,elongated Round to oblong
Leaf petiole Short Long Long
Capsule colour at Pale/golden/yellow Green Green
maturity

Characterization and evaluation

Cardamom germplasm exhibits rich genetic diversity for various agronomic, yield and quality
attributing characters. A detailed descriptor was published by IPGRI for characterization and
documentation of cardamom germplasm (IPGRI, 1994). Prasath et al (2001) reported high
variability for panicle length and yield per plant. Variations have also been reported in important
characters like, branching of inflorescence, fruit (capsule) size, shape, leaf and plant pubescence,
retention of green colour etc. (Madhusoodanan et al., 1994).

Cardamom is valued for its volatile oil which varies from 6.5 to 10.5 per cent. The major
chemical constituents which impart sweet flavour to the oil are terpinyl acetate, linalyl acetate,
linalool etc. ‘Mysore’ type possesses more terpinyl acetate compared to ‘malabar’ while the later
possesses more 1, 8-cineole which impart harsh camphory note to the oil (Sarathkumara et al.,
1985). Rich variability exists in cardamom with regard to essential oil content and the quantity of
1,8-cineole and alpha-terperyl acetate. Evaluation of germplasm has also led to the identification
of two accessions (Acc.221 and Acc.218), which contain 7.8 % essential oil. Its oil has high
concentration of aroma bearing constituents such as alpha terpinyl and linalyl acetates and low
concentration of 1, 8-cineole (Zachariah et al, 1998). The Mysore genotype, PR-107 was found
superior in quality because of high content of esters, such as alpha terpinyl acetate, geranyl
acetate and linalyl acetate (Raj et. al. 2000). Seventeen accessions resistant to mosaic (katte
virus) disease were identified among 134 disease escapes collected from hot spots (Venugopal,
1999).

Crop Improvement
The main focus of Cardamom breeding in addition to high yield are resistance to biotic stress
viz., viral diseases such as ‘katte’ and ‘kokke kandu’ and fungal diseases such as rhizome rot,
clump rot and capsule rot; drought tolerance; plants with bold capsules with more number of
seeds/fruit; Higher percentage of capsule dry recovery (>22%), higher percentage of essential
oils, α -terpenyl acetate which is responsible for the aroma and flavour and varieties with wide
adaptability.

Cardamom breeding depends on selections from germplasm and from open pollinated progenies
of popular cultivars. Twelve high yielding varieties of cardamom were released for cultivation
(Table 6). IISR Vijetha is katte virus tolerant line while IISR Avinash and ICRI 4 are relatively

21
tolerant to rhizome rot. PV 1 has long and bold capsules. The variety CCS 1 has compact growth
habit and is suitable for high density planting. (Fig.9). Hybridization between NKE, RR, extra
bold and Multibranch types are in progress with an aim to evolve desirable types.

A B

C D

Fig 9 Important released varieties of Cardamom, A. CCS I a high yielding short plant type,
B. Green Gold the most sought after farmer’s selection of cardamom, C. IISR Avinash a rhizome
rot resistant variety, D. IISR Vijetha a katte resistant variety

Clonal selection
All the existing improved varieties have been evolved by selection for desirable characters such
as higher yield and superior capsule characters. Selection in cardamom is based on both
qualitative and quantitative characters from preliminary, comparative yield trial and
multilocation trials to confirm the superiority of the selected clone.

Hybridization
Intervarietal hybridization was made between identified superior cultivars for deriving lines with
high yield, ‘katte’ resistance and drought tolerance. On farm trials of these varieties are in
progress (Madhusoodanan et al.,1999).The promising lines from these trials are given in Table 7.

22
 Table 6: Released varieties of cardamom with yield and quality characteristics
Sl. Variety Source Yield Essentia 1,8 α- Capsule Areas
No. (kg/ha) l oil % cineole Terpeny shape recommended
% l acetate for cultivation
%
1. IISR IISR, CRC 409 8.7 42 37 Oblong Kodagu&Hass
Coorg Appangala an districts of
Suvasini Karnataka
2. PV-1 KAU, 260 6.8 33 46 Long All cardamom
Pampadump tracts of
ara Kerala &
Karnataka
3. Mudigere UAS, 275 8.0 36 42 Oval Malnad region
1 Bangalore of Karnataka
4. Mudigere UAS, 476 8.0 45 38 Round Traditional
2 Bangalore cardamom
growing Tracts
of hill zones
of Karnataka
5. ICRI-1 ICRI, 325 8.3 29 38 Round South Idukki
Myladumpar zone of Kerala
a
6. ICRI-2 ICRI, 375 9.0 29 36 Oblong Vandanmettu
Myladumpar &
a Nelliampathi
zones of
Kerela
7. ICRI-3 ICRI, 439 6.6 54 24 Oblong Hill zones of
Myladumpar Karnataka
a
8. ICRI-4 ICRI, 455 6.4 -- -- Globose Lower Pulneys
Thadiyanku in Tamil Nadu
disai
9. IISR IISR, CRC, 847 6.7 30.4 34.6 Oblong Rhizome rot
Avinash Appangala infested areas
10. IISR IISR, CRC, 643 7.9 44.9 23.4 Oblong Moderate to
Vijetha 1 Appangala high shaded
mosaic
infested areas
11. PV-2 KAU, 982 10.45 -- -- Long Cardamom hill
Pampadump reserves of
ara Kerala
12 Njallani Farmers 1600 -- -- -- bold All cardamom
Green Selection growing
Gold regions
Source: Advances in Spices Research, Agrobios, Jodhpur.

Table 7: Promising cardamom hybridization derived lines evolved at ICRI, Myladumpara

Hybrid combinations Projected yield (kg/ha)

MCC 16 x MCC 40 610
MCC 61 x MCC 40 675
MCC 21 x MCC 16 650
MCC 21 x MCC 40 870
MCC 16 x MCC 61 800

23
A large number of crosses have been made to combine high yield and resistance to
rhizome rot and cardamom mosaic diseases, which are currently under evaluation at
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Appangala. Varying degrees of significant positive
heterosis was recorded in both the seedling and pre bearing stage of cardamom crosses
(Padmini et al., 2001). Based on per se performance, heterosis and combining ability, 15
hybrid combinations are short listed for further evaluation. Plant height, total tillers,
bearing tillers and yield per plant were under the influence of non additive gene action
(Prasath and Venugopal, 2001).

Intergeneric hybridization: In an effort to bring Katte resistance from wild relatives to

cultivated cardamom , inter-generic crosses were made using Ammomum subulatum,
Alpinia neutans, Hedychium flavascence and Hedychium coronarium as male parents
(Parameshwar, 1977). Cross with A.neutans set a few fruits and in other cases no fruit
formation was noticed. Compatibility barriers prevented the formation of fruits in these
cross combination (Madhusoodanan et al., 1994).

Mutation breeding
Effort has been made to develop genotypes tolerant to cardamom mosaic (katte) virus,
drought, and better quality through treatment of cardamom seeds and rhizomes with
different mutagens such as γ-rays and Nitrosomethyl Urea (NMU), Diethyl Sulphate
(DES) and Ethyl Methyl Sulphate (EMS) but no desirable mutant could be identified so
far.

Polyploidy breeding
Polyploids were induced in cardamom by treating the sprouting seeds with 0.5 per cent
aqueous solution of Colchicine (Sudharshan, 1989). The polyploidy lines exhibited
increased layer of epidermal cells, thick cuticle and thicker wax coating on the leaves
which are the general characters associated with drought tolerance in nature.

Biotechnological approaches
Micropropagation: Being cross-pollinated crop, micropropagation is ideal for
generating true to type and virus free planting material from high yielding clones.

Fig. 10: Micropropagation of Cardamom

Cardamom is one of the first crops where the micropropagation (Fig 10) was
commercialized (Nadgauda et al 1983, Vatsya et al 1987). Kumar et al (1985) reported

24
successful conversion of immature floral buds to vegetative plantlets and inflorescences
form an excellent source for reducing culture contamination especially since other
sources are prone to high rate of contamination. Field evaluation of tissue cultured plants
of cardamom in about 100 ha area was carried out by Spices Board and the results
showed that the micropropagated plants performed at par (Fig 11) with suckers (Lukose
1993, Sudharshan et al 1997, Chandrappa et al 1997, Kuruvilla et al 2005).

Plant regeneration and somaclonal variation: Successful regeneration of plantlets

from callus of seedling explants of cardamom was reported (Rao et al 1982, Priyadarshan
and Zachariah 1986, Nirmal Babu et al 1993). High frequency plant regeneration from
rhizome and vegetative bud-derived callus cultures was used for development of
somaclonal variation and selection of useful genotypes from them. Good morphological
variation was observed among the somaclones. A few clones tolerant to Katte were
identified (Nirmal Babu et al 1997, Peter et al 2001).

Fig 11: Field performance of TC cardamom

Anther culture: Attempts on anther and microspore culture were made by Ravindran et
al (2002). They reported Callus induction and proliferation from cardamom anthers in
MS medium containing 0.1mgl-1 TDZ and thereafter the swollen anthers on MS medium
containing 0.5 mgl-1 2, 4-D and 0.1mgl-1TDZ. Plant regeneration was obtained from
anther derived callus on MS medium with 0.5 mgl-1 2,4-D, 0.1 mgl-1TDZ, 0.2% Trypton
along with 25% sucrose and 5% glucose or 15% sucrose and 15% glucose.

Protoplast culture: Protoplasts could be isolated successfully from leaf mesophyll

tissues, collected from in vitro grown plantlets and cell suspension cultures of cardamom
with a protoplast yield of 3.5 x 105 / g of leaf tissue. These protoplasts could be
successfully plated on culture media and made to develop to microcalli stage (Geetha et
al, 2000).

Synthetic seeds: In cardamom embryogenic calli and in vitro developed shoot buds were
encapsulated in 5% calcium alginate to develop synthetic seeds which could be stored
upto 9 months in MS medium with 75% survival and germination (Sajina et al 1997).

25
Genetic transformation: A preliminary study on transformation of cardamom was
attempted using biolistic process to study the optimum conditions for gene delivery and
the efficiency of the plasmid vector pAHC 25 and promoter Ubi-1 (maize ubiquitin) for
transformation and gene expression in cardamom embryogenic callus. Transient
expression of GUS gene was noticed in the bombarded callus tissue (Nirmal Babu, 1998).

Molecular characterization: Molecular markers like RAPD, PCR - RFLP and ISSR
polymorphism were used to profile 96 collections comprising important cultivars,
varieties and related genera of cardamom to develop fingerprints and to study the inter-
relationships. The phylogram showed that Elettaria cardamomum is clustered with
Amomum subulatum and A. microstephanum indicating that Amomum is closest to
cultivated cardamom among the genera studied. Among the released varieties, promising
lines and land races the phylogram has indicated that all the genotypes are distinct from
each other and there are no duplicates in germplasm collections. The study showed a
clear divergence in Kerala and Karnataka collections, the two main regions of cardamom
diversity and the comparatively less divergence within a population is because of the
open pollinated seed origin (siblings) of the individual collections. The study also
indicated that controlled breeding rather than selection from open pollinated progeny is to
be preferred in cardamom to bring more variability in germplasm (Jayakumar et al 2005).

One putative RAPD marker was also found to be associated with katte resistance in
cardamom. A protocol for isolation of DNA from market samples of cardamom was
standardized. This can be used to identify different grades of commercial cardamom and
to identify adulterants (IISR 2004).

Future
The future breeding strategies in cardamom need to develop widely adaptable varieties by
bringing together the various yields and quality attributes distributed in different cultivars
which perform well in changed climatic conditions. Developing structured populations to
tag important genes and using them in MAS will increase the efficiency of new varietal
development. Developing virus resistant lines using coat protein genes through
transgenic path way help in mitigating the viral problems.

Ginger
Ginger (Zingier officinal Rocs.) is an ancient and major spice of the world. It is prized for
its flavour and medicinal properties. In addition to its use as spice and condiment, it is
also used to treat liver complaints, flatulence, anemia, rheumatism, piles and jaundice in
Indian systems of medicines (Aired, Sridhar and Unani). Ginger is the third most
important spice originated in South Asia.

Origin and distribution

Ginger is a native of tropical South or South East Asia (Baily, 1961 and Purseglove,
1972). It was brought to Mediterranean region from India by traders during first century
A.D. During the thirteenth century A.D., the Arabs took ginger to East Africa from India.
Later, it was spread to West Africa by Portuguese for commercial cultivation. It is mainly

26
grown in tropical and subtropical countries like India, China, Taiwan, Philippines, Sierra-
Leone, Jamaica, Fiji, Mexico, Brazil and Nigeria on commercial scale.

Area, production and export:

India is the largest producer of dry ginger in the world contributing to the tune of about
30% of the world’s production. In India during 2004- 2005 ginger was grown in an area
of 100,270 ha with a production of 397,990 tonnes out of which 13,000 tonnes was
exported to different ciuntries. In quality, Indian ginger is next to Jamaican ginger, which
is considered to be the best in the world. Ginger products are mainly exported to
countries like USA, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Morocco, etc.

Botany and systematics

Ginger belongs to the family Zingiberaceae of the natural order Scitaminae. The family
Zingiberaceae consists of 47 genera and about 1400 species. Among these, 22 genera and
178 species is endemic to India. The genus Zingiber consists of 80-90 species. Among
these Z. zerumbet and Z. cassumunar are medicinal species and Z. officinale is the
cultivated ginger (Mohanty and Panda, 1994).

The important floristic studies and taxonomic treatments of Zingiber are those of Hooker
(1886), Baker (1894), Gamble (1925), Holttum (1950), Mohanty (1970), Jain and Ved
Prakash (1995), Singh et al. (1998) and Suryanarayana et al. (2001). Ginger is probably a
sterile hybrid between two distant species, but survived because of the successful
vegetative mode of propagation (Sato, 1960).

Ginger is an herbaceous perennial (Fig 12) having underground branched rhizome with
small scales. The inner core of the rhizome is pale yellow to bluish tinge while the outer
is light yellow. Adventitious roots and storage roots arise from among the nodes of these
scales.

Fig 12 A view of ginger plantation

The ancillary buds shoot up as leafy stem known as pseudo stem, which die out annually
but the plant continues to live through its rhizome. Leaves are sheathing arranged
alternatively, linear lanceolate, gradually acuminate and glabrous. Flowers are borne on a
spike produced in a peduncle different from the aerial leafy stem, arising directly from

27
the rhizome. The spike is condensed, oblong and cylindric with numerous imbricate
bracts, persistent and each carrying two flowers. Flowers are many, trimerous bisexual,
irregular, epigenous, yellow in colour with dark purplish spots. Outer periapt is cylindric,
shortly three lobed, inner periapt tube is cylindric, lobes are lanceolate., one stamen
perfect, two combined into a petaliferous leaf, the labellum. Androecium consists of
stamens of which the outer 3 are reduced to stamenoids. The inner lateral stamens are
united and showy to form a deep purple coloured labellum. The posterior stamen of the
inner whorl is the only fertile stamen, which is enclosed by the labellum. The filament is
flat and short with two prominent anther lobes. The style passes through the grove
formed by the anther lobes and ends in a capitate stigma. Anther cells are contiguous,
produced into a long beak. Ovary is inferior, three carpelled, three celled. Ovules are
many on axial placentation. Style is long, delicate, lying in a groove in the stamen.
Stigma is small and sub-globose. Fruit is very rarely produced, which is an oblong
capsule. (Ravindran and Babu 2005; Purseglove 1981). But Zingiber officinale is not
known to set seeds.

Floral biology
The floral biology of ginger was studied at Kasaragod (AICSCIP, 1975). The flowers
open between 14.30 and 16.30 hours and anthesis take place simultaneously. It takes
about 20-25 days from the flower bud initiation to full boom. In an inflorescence
blooming takes place in 23-28 days in an acro-petal sucession. Anthesis takes place
between 1.30 P.M to 3.30 P.M. Anther dehiscence almost coincided with the flower
opening or followed it immediately. Stigma is receptive at the time of anther dehiscence.
Only 46 per cent of the cells showed normal bivalents. Univalents, trivalents and
clumping of chromosomes were observed frequently. Irregular sporads were observed in
55 per cent of the cases. Only 35 per cent of the pollen grains were stainable in
acetocarmine. The pollen grains were heteromorphic and their size varied from 78 to 104
µ with an average 92 µ. Maximum germination of pollen grains observed was 14.5 per
cent. Pollen sterility ranged up to an average of 76 per cent. The nature of sterility in
ginger is not clearly understood. Ramachandran has suggested a chromosomal basis of
sterility (Jayachandran et al 1979). Das et al. (1999) observed that anthesis under
greenhouse and field conditions took place around 13.00-14.00 h and 09.00-10.00 h,
respectively. Flowers were hermaphrodite with pin and thrum type incompatibility, and
dehisced pollen grains did not reach the stigma head. No seed set was obtained by selfing
or crossing.

Cytology
The somatic chromosome number of ginger is 2n = 22 in all species except in Z. mioga
(2n=55). Darlington and Janaki Ammal (1945) reported about 28 chromosomes in certain
types on Z. officinale, in addition to the normal complement on 2n = 22. Normal pairing
of 11 bivalents in species like Z. cassumunar and Z. zerumbet. . The basic number of
Zingiber is X=11. Ramachandran (1969) found evidence for structural hybridity
involving interchanges and inversions in Z. officinale. Thankamma Pillai et al. (1978)
reported that meiosis in ginger varieties was irregular, with the half of pollen mother
cells had eleven bivalents, the rest had univalents, trivalents, quadrivalents and showed
extra fragments. It is presumed a step-wise increase in basic number in the sub-family

28
Zingiberoideae such as x=11 in Zingiber, Kaempferia, 12 in Alpineae, 13 and 14 in
Cienkowrkya, 16 in Globba and 17 in Hedychium and the increase or decrease of
chromosome numbers from the original basic number of 11 has not occurred through
simple loss or gain in chromosome, but through complete structural changes. (Raghavan
and VenkataSubban 1943; Chakravorti 1948, Sato 1960, Ramachandran 1969, Mohanty
1970, Ratnambal and Nair 1981, Ratnambal 1984, Omanakumari and Mathew 1985,
Ravindran et. al. 1985). Beltram and Kam (1984) observed meiotic chromosomes in 9
Zingiber spp. and reported the presence of aneuploidy (2n=24), polyploidy (2n=66) and
B chromosomes (2n = 22 + 2 B) in Z. officinale.

Significant variation in nuclear DNA content at the cultivar level was observed.
Structural alterations in the chromosomes without the changes in the numeric
chromosome number (2n=22) as well as loss or addition of highly repetitive sequences in
the genome caused variations in the DNA amount at cultivar level. (Rai et al. 1997; Das
et al. 1998). Das et al. (1999) observed that the pollen mother cells showed incomplete
homologous pairing at metaphase I and spindle abnormalities at anaphase I, leading to
pollen sterility (60.8%). They also stated that lack of seed set despite selfing and cross-
pollination might be due to non-homology of bivalents, with irregular segregation of
genomic complements leading to sterile gamete formation. Scanning electron
microscopic studies indicated that the failure of germination of pollen in artificial media
was due to the absence of germination pores. Ramachandran and Nair (1992) induced in
ginger autotetraploidy (cvs. Maran and Mananthody) and observed that one or two
association of four chromosomes at first metaphase in diploid (2n=22).

Collection and Conservation

The germplasm collection of ginger in India is maintained at IISR, NBPGR and AICRP
Centers at Pottangi and Solan (Table 1). In addition to indigenous collections some exotic
lines are maintained. These lines include Rio-de-Janeiro (Brazil) – bold rhizome with fair
skin, pungent, flavoured and less fibrous; China (China) – extra-bold rhizome, yellowish
white skin, highly pungent, flavoured and fibrous; Jamaica (Jamaica) – bold rhizome,
white skin, moderately pungent, highly flavoured and fibrous; Sierra-Leone (Sierra-
Leone) – slender rhizome, buff skin, pungent, flavoured and etc were also conserved
(Thomas, 1980). The other exotic collections from Nepal, Jamaica, China, Nigeria, USA,
Brazil, New Zealand and Fiji are also available in the germplasm conservatory of IISR,
Calicut. These accessions are being maintained as clonal repositories of nucleus
germplasm as well as in in vitro genebank. Slow growth methods for short-term
conservation of ginger and its related species are standardized. By this method, ginger
could be stored upto one year without subculture in half strength MS medium 10 g/l each
of sucrose and mannitol in sealed culture tubes with 85% survival (Dekkers et al., 1991;
Geetha et al., 1995; Nirmal Babu et al., 1999, Sasikumar et al., 1999). Technology for
cryopreservation of ginger shoot buds using encapsulation and vitrification was also
developed (Ravindran et al 2004).

Genetic Resources and Cultivar Diversity

Ginger has been under cultivation since time immemorial. There is no natural seed set in
ginger, which resulted in limited variability for different agri- horticultural traits. This

29
phenomenon also limits conventional breeding programmes. Good variability for yield
and quality traits in ginger exists mainly in the north-eastern region and Kerala.
Geographical spread accompanied by genetic differentiation into locally adapted
populations, caused by mutation, could be the main factor responsible for the diversity in
this clonally propagated crop. Several commercial cultivars, land-races and improved
cultivars are available in India, with quality attributes and yield potential. Most of the
varieties are named after their place of origin/domestication or collection. Apart from
cultivated ginger, the other important economic species of the genus are Z. zerumbet, Z.
odoriferum, Z. spectabile, Z. squarrosum and Z. casumunnar, which are used as medicine
and aromatic purposes (Mohanty and Sarma, 1979, Ratnambal et al., 1985, Mohanty et
al., 1990, Ravindran et al., 1994, 1999, Sasikumar et al., 1992, 1999, Suryanarayana et
al., 2001). Some of the important cultivars along with their morphological characters are
given in Table 8.
Table 8: Cultivar diversity of Ginger in India

Cultivar Special features

Assam Rhizome-bold, highly flavoured, pungent and highly fibrous.
Burdwan-1 Rhizome-bold, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Ernad Chernad Rhizome-bold, highly pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Gurubathan Rhizome-bold, buff skin, flavoured, pungent and fibrous.
Himachal Pradesh Rhizome-bold, lemon-flavored and fibrous.
Jorhat Rhizome-bold, pungent, highly flavoured and fibrous.
Karakkal Rhizome-bold, buffed skin, pungent, flavoured and less fibrous.
Kuruppampadi Rhizome-bold, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Mananthodi Rhizome-bold, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Maran Rhizome-bold, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Nadia Rhizome-slender, pungent, lemon flavoured and less fibrous.
Narasapattam Rhizome-bold, buffed skin, pungent, flavoured and less fibrous.
Poona Rhizome-bold, buff skin, flavoured and less fibrous.
Taffingiva Rhizome-extra bold, yellowish white skin, pungent, flavoured and
less fibrous.
Thinladium Rhizome-bold, buff skin, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Thingpuri Rhizome-slender, skin whitish gray, slightly pungent, flavoured and
less fibrous.
Tura Rhizome-slender, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Uttar Pradesh Rhizome-bold, buff skin, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Valluvanad Rhizome-slender, pungent, flavoured and fibrous.
Wynad local Rhizome-bold, buff skin, pungent, flavoured and less fibrous.
Wynad Kunnamangalam Rhizome-bold, pungent and flavoured.
Source: Advances in Horticulture, 1994

Evaluation and Utilization

The agro-climatic conditions have a great influence on expression of morphological
characters and yield. The same variety grown under different conditions produced
marked differences in yield and quality attributes. The characterization and
documentation of ginger germplasm are being carried out at various locations.

Considerable variability exists in ginger germplasm. Highest variation within cultivated

types occurs in northern India, may be due to the geographical spread from its centre of

30
origin in South-east Asia accompanied by genetic differentiation into locally adapted
populations caused by mutations. (Ravindran et al. 1994).

Studies on genetic variability for yield indicated the existence of moderate variability and
heritability in the germplasm of ginger. Little variability exists among the genotypes
being grown in the same area; however a good amount of genetic variability has been
reported among the cultivars being grown in different states. Rhizome yield was
positively and significantly correlated with number of stems, leaves, secondary rhizome
fingers, tertiary rhizome fingers and total rhizome, plant height, leaf breadth, girth of
secondary rhizome fingers and number and weight of adventitious roots and straight
selection was useful to improve almost all characters (Mohanty and Sarma 1979, Rattan
et al. 1980, Sreekumar et al. 1980, Mohanty et al. 1981, Pandey and Dobhal 1993,
Chandra and Govind, 1999, Singh, 2001). Yadav (1999) found that the genotypic
coefficient of variation was high for length and weight of secondary rhizome, weight of
primary rhizome, number of secondary and primary rhizomes and rhizome yield/plant.
Path analysis revealed that the strongest forces influencing yield are weight of fingers,
width of fingers and leaf width (Ratnambal et al.1980, Rattan et al. 1989, Pandey and
Dobhal, 1993, Das et al. 1999). D2 analysis indicated that the major forces for divergence
were rhizome yield per plant, oleoresin and fibre contents Singh et al. (2000). Multiple
regression analysis using morphological characters indicated that the final yield could be
predicted by taking into consideration of plant height, number of leaves and breadth of
last fully opened leaf at 90th and 120th day after planting (Ratnambal et al., 1980, Rattan
et al. 1989, Rai et al. 1999).

Based on yield trials at different locations, promising germplasm accessions were

identified for further evaluation and selection of improved varieties with high yield, dry
recovery, oleoresin, essential oils, crude fibre, resistance to insect-pests and diseases.
Some of the promising cultivars/accessions identified for specific traits in India are listed
in Tables 9, 10 and 11.
Table 9: Important ginger lines promising for different yield attributes and morphgological
traits
Character/ trait Variety /Cultivar/ Accession References
High yield UP, Rio-de-Janeiro, Thingpuri, Mohanty & Panda (1994)
Karakkal, Suprabha, Anamika, Jugijan

SG-646, SG-666 Rattan (1989)

Rio-de-Janeiro, Suprabha, Suruchi, Sasikumar et al. (1994); Sarma et al.
Suravi, Jugijan, Thingpuri, Wynad (2001)
Local, Himachal, Karakkal, Varada,
Maran, Acc. Nos. 64, 117 & 35

Rio-de-Janeiro, Maran, Nadia, Paulose (1973)

Narasapattam

Rio-de-Janeiro, China , Ernad Chernad Thomas (1966)

Wynad , SG-700, SG-705 & BDJR- AICRPS (1999, 2000, 2001)
1226 , V2E4-5 , PGS –43 , SG-876, SG-
882
Bold rhizome China, Taffingiva, SG-35 Sasikumar et al. (1994)

31
 Varada, Gurubathan, Bhaise, China, Sasikumar et al. (1999); Sarma et al.
Acc. Nos. 117, 35, 15, 27 & 142 (2001)

Slender rhizome Suruchi, Kunduli local Mohanty and Panda (1994)

Short duration Sierra-Leone Mohanty and Panda (1994)

Source: Advances in Spices Research, 2006

Table 10: Promising selections of ginger for quality attributes

Character/ trait Variety /Cultivar/ Accession Reference
High dry recovery Tura local , Thodupuzha, Nadia,
(%) Kuruppampadi, Maran, Thinladium,
Jorhat, Vengara, Ernad (Chernad),
Himachal Pradesh, Sierra-Leone,
Suruchi, Assam, China, Mowshom,
Thingpui, Varada, Acc. Nos. 27, 117, 204
& 294, SG-685, Narasapattam, Rio-de-
Janeiro
High Oleoresin (%) Assam , Mananthody, Wynad Local
Kuruppampadi, Rio-de-Janeiro, Maran,
Wynad Kunnamangalam,
Ambalavayalan, Santhing Pui, Himachal,
Varada , China, Santhing Pin (Manipur –
I), Ernad Chernad, Erattupetta,
Tamarassery local, PGS-33 & PGS-1,
Nadan Pulpally, Nadan Acc. Nos. 3, 6,
14,57, 110, 118, 582, 236, 388, 414,
High Essential oil V1S1-8, BDJR-1226, Chanog-II ,
(%) Mananthody, Karakkal , Rio-de-Janeiro ,
Vengara, Valluvanad , Elakallan,
Sabarimala, Acc. Nos. 118 , 14 , 64,418,
399, 389, 205, 110, 236, 104, 296, Nadan
Pulpally, Thodupuzha, BLP-6, SG-723,
BDJR-1054, SG-55, Maran, Shilli, Bangi,
Himgiri, Acc. No., V1E4-4, PGS-23 &
SG-706
Low crude fibre (%) China, UP , Himachal Pradesh, Nadia,
Tura, Ernad-Chernad , Zahirabad,
Kuruppampadi, Mizo, PGS-16, Jamaica,
Acc. Nos.15, 27, 287 , 288, 22, 18, 419,
386, 415, 200, 110, 336, Varada
High gingerol and Wynad Kunnamangalam,
Shogaol Ambalavayalan, Ernad Chernad,
Sawthing Pui, Rio-de-Janeiro, Mizo,
Nadia, Maran, Ernad, Chernad, Kada ,
Narianpara, Santhing Pin (Manipur-I),
PGS-37, S-641, Maran, Erattupetta,
Nadan Pulpally, Jorhat Local, PGS-
16,Baharica & Kunduli
Mohanty (1984), Sreekumar et al.
(1980), Nybe et al. (1980), Nair et al.
(1969), Muralidharan (1972),
Thomas (1966), Sasikumar et al.
(1994 & 1999), Paulose (1973)
Krishnamoorthy et al. (1970);
Natarajan et al. (1972) Muralidharan
(1972), Nybe et al. (1980),
Sreekumar et al. (1980)
Sasikumar et al. (1994, 1999), Sarma
and Sasikumar et al.
(2002),Zachariah et al. (1993, 1999)
Krishnamurthy et al. (1970), Lewis
et al. (1972), Nybe et al. (1980),
Sarma et al. (2001), Sarma and
Sasikumar (2002), Zachariah et al.
(1999)
Thomas (1966),Sreekumar et al.
(1980),Nybe et al. (1980), Sasikumar
et al.(1994, 1999) , Sarma and
Sasikumar et al. (2002), Zachariah et
al., (1999)
Sasikumar et al.(1994,1999); Sarma
et al. (2001) , Zachariah et al. (1993)

High zingiberene and Baharica & Amaravathy Sasikumar et al.(1999)

(6) gingerol

Salted ginger Acc. Nos. 35 , 27 Sasikumar et al. (1999)

Source: Advances in Spices Research, 2006

32
 Table 11: List of ginger germplasm tolerant to pest and diseases

Character Cultivar/ Accession Reaction References

Pests

Shoot borer Rio-de-Janeiro Tolerant Nybe et al. (1980)

Rhizome Wild-2 Least infestation Mohanty (1984)

scale Anamika Sasikumar et al. (1994)

Varada, Acc. Nos. 215 & 212 Resistant Sarma et al. (2001)
Storage pest
Root-knot Valluvanad, Tura, H.P Least infestation Charles and Kuriyan (1980)
nematode
Acc. Nos. 36, 59 & 221 Resistant Sarma et al. (2001)
Diseases

Rhizome rot
(Pythium Jorhat & Sierra- Leone Least incidence (11.25%) AICSCIP (1975a)
sp.) Maran Least infection Nybe and Nair (1979)
Narasapattam Least susceptible (1-20%) Mohanty (1984)
Burdwan-1, Anamika, Poona and Less susceptible Sasikumar et al. (1994)
Himachal
BDJR-1226, Jamaica, BLP-6 Less susceptible AICRPS (1999)

Bacterial V2E5-2, Rio-de-Janeiro Least incidence Pradeep Kumar et al. (2000)

wilt
(Ralstonia
solanacearu
m) Taffingiva, Maran, Bajpai, Nadia Most tolerant Nybe and Nair (1979)

Leaf spot Maran & Kunduli local Less susceptible Sasikumar et al. (1994)
(Phyllosticta
zingiberi)
Source: Advances in Spices Research, 2006

Crop improvement
The crop improvement in ginger is aimed at to develop high yielding varieties with wide
adaptation, high quality parameters (oil, oleoresins) and low fibre, besides resistant to
major pest and diseases such as rhizome rot and shoot borer. In India attempts were made
to develop varieties through introduction, selection mutation and polyploidy breeding.
Hybridization in ginger is not feasible due to sterility.

Selection
For crop improvement, major emphasis was given for augumentation of germplasm from
different localities, their comparative yield evaluation and selection of superior types
based on yield and quality traits. The cultivars differ considerably in their rhizome
characters and production potential which is influenced by various factors. The high
yielding capacity of exotic variety Rio-de-Janeiro was proved in many locations. This
variety possesses a number of quality attributes (Table 10) (Khan 1959, Kannan and Nair
1965, Thomas, 1966, Muralidharan and Kamalam 1973). The yields of Himachal

33
Pradesh, Kuruppampadi, China and Maran are comparable to Rio-de-Janeiro (Jogi et al.
1972, Nybe et al 1980, Kumar et al. 1980, Mohanty et al. 1981, Thangaraj and
Muthuswamy (1983). Varieties like Nadia, Burdwan are high yielders in certain locations
(AICSCIP, 1978, Aiyadurai, 1966, Khan 1959, Nybe et al 1980, Arya and Rana, 1990, Saikia
and Shadeque, 1992, Chandra and Govind, 1999, Gowda and Mehata, 2000). The
varieties popular with farmers include Rio-de-Janeiro, Himachal Pradesh, Kuruppampadi,
Maran, Nadia and Burdwan. Thingpuri has given highest yield in Orissa (Panigrahi and
Patro, 1985). Under Nagaland conditions, Thinladium, Nadia and Khasi Local were the
best (Singh et al., 1999).

( A) Varada (B) Mahima

(C ) Rejitha

Fig. 13: Improved varieties of Ginger

For Quality Attributes- Rio-de-Janeiro and Maran had the highest oleoresins, Karakkal
had the highest essential oil, crude fibre was least in China and Nadia and high in
Kuruppampadi, Maran, Jugijan, Ernad Manjeri, Nadia, Poona, Himachal Pradesh, Tura
and Arippa (Jogi et al. 1972, Nybe et al 1980, Kumar et al. 1980). Most of the improved
varieties of ginger are the result of direct selections from germplasm. Seven varieties
were so far released in ginger (Fig 13). Of these Varada is the most promising. The
released varieties of ginger and their important characters are given in Table 12.

34
 Table 12 : Released varieties of ginger and their salient features

Cultivar Institution/Releas Av. Maturit Dry Crude Oleores Remarks

ed from Yield y (days) recover recover in (%)
(fresh y (%) y (%)
t/ha)
Suprabha Orissa University 16.6 329 20.5 4.4 8.9 Plumpy rhizome,
of Agriculture & wider adaptability,
Tech. Pottangi suitable for both
early and late
sowing
Suruchi Orissa University 11.6 218 23.5 3.8 10.0 Bold rhizome,
of Agriculture & suitable for rainfed
Tech. Pottangi. and irrigated
conditions.
Suravi Orissa University 17.5 225 23.0 4.0 10.2 Plumpy rhizome,
of Agriculture & suitable for rainfed
Tech. Pottangi. and irrigated
conditions.
Himgiri Y.S. Parmar 13.14 230 20.2 6.05 4.29 Best for green
University of ginger, less
Horticulture and susceptible to
Forestry,Solan, H.P rhizome rot,
suitable for rainfed
condition
IISR- Indian Institute of 22.6 200 20.7 3.29-4.5 6.73 Bold rhizome,
Varada Spices Research, tolerant to rhizome
Calicut, (Kerala) rot. Wide
adaptability
IISR- Indian Institute of 23.2 300 23.0 3.26 4.48 Plumpy, bold
Mahima Spices Research, rhizome with low
Calicut, (Kerala) fibre content

IISR- Indian Institute of 22.4 200 20.8 4.0 6.34 Plumpy, round and
Rejatha Spices Research, bold rhizome with
Calicut, (Kerala) low fibre and high
oil content

Mutation breeding
Physical and chemical mutagens are employed for creating variability in the sterile
vegetatively propagated plants. The induced variability, once fixed, can be maintained
through vegetative propagation. Use of chemical mutagen, Ethyl methane sulphonate
(EMS) resulted in reduced growth and increased cytological irregularities (Rattan 1987).
Use of Gamma rays also had similar effects (Rattan,1987). Almost all the induced
changes appearing in the R1 generation were in chimeric form and expressed a stunted or
semi-dwarfing effect, and were inhibitory on production of rhizomes (Giridharan and
Balakrishnan, 1991& 1992, Jayachandran and Mohanachandran, 1992).

Polyploidy breeding
Ramachandran (1982) and Ramachandran Nair (1992) reported successful induction of
stable tetraploids having 2n = 44 in ginger (cv. Maran and Mananthody) by treating the
sprouts with 0.25 per cent aqueous colchicines. The polyploids were more vigorous than

35
the diploids and flowered during the second year of induction. These autotetraploids had
larger rhizomes and high yield (198.71 g/plant). However, oil content of these rhizomes
was lower (2.3%) than the original diploid cultivar (2.8%).

Biotechnological approaches
There is no seed set in ginger leading to limited variability and this hampers crop
improvement programs. Rhizome rot caused by Pythium aphanidermatum, bacterial wilt
caused by Ralstonia solanacearum are the major diseases affecting ginger.
Biotechnology can play an important role in ginger improvement.

Micropropagation: Clonal multiplication of ginger from vegetative buds has been

reported by many workers (Hosoki and Sagawa, 1977; Nadgauda et al, 1980; Nirmal
Babu et al., 1997; Sharma and Singh 1997; Rout et al., 2001). Diseases of ginger are
often spread through infected seed rhizomes. Tissue culture technique would help in the
production of pathogen-free planting material of elite varieties. Field evaluation of tissue
cultured plants indicated that it require at least two crop seasons to develop rhizomes of
normal size that can be used as seed rhizomes for commercial cultivation. Molecular
characterization of micropropagated plants indicated genetic uniformity (Rout et al.1998)
as well as certain polymorphism (Nirmal Babu et al. 2003).

In vitro pollination: In nature, ginger fails to set fruit. However, by supplying required
nutrients to young flowers and in vitro pollination could be effected and develop ‘fruit’
(Fig.14) and subsequently plants could be recovered from the fruits (Nirmal Babu et
al,1992; Valsala et al, 1997). In vitro pollination was successfully attempted by Nazeem
et al 1996 to overcome the pre-fertilization barriers and successful seed set was obtained.

Fig. 14: In vitro development of Fruit in Ginger

Plant regeneration and somaclonal variation: Regeneration of plantlets through callus

phase has been reported from leaf, vegetative bud, ovary and anther explants (Nirmal
Babu et al., 1992, 1995, 1996; Nirmal Babu 1997; Kacker et al., 1993, Rout and Das
1997; Samsudeen 1996, Samsudeen et al., 2001). This system could be used for inducing
somaclonal variation as conventional breeding is hampered by lack of seed set. Field
evaluation of somaclones indicated variability with regard to various agronomic
characters and other yield attributes. A few promising high yielding lines with tolerance
to rhizome rot were identified from the somaclones (Samsudeen, 1996; Nirmal Babu et
al., 1996, Nirmal Babu, 1997). RAPD characterization of these somaclones also indicated
profile variations indicating genetic differences (Nirmal Babu et al., 2003).Kulkarni et al.

36
(1984) reported isolation of Pythium-tolerant ginger by using culture filtrate as the
selecting agent.

Anther culture: Plant regeneration from anther callus was reported from diploid and
tetraploid ginger (Samsudeen et al, 1997, 2000, Nirmal Babu,1997). Callus formation,
development of roots and rhizome like structures were reported earlier from excised
ginger anthers cultured on MS medium containing 2,4-D and coconut milk
(Ramachandran and Chandrashekharan Nair, 1992).

Microrhizomes: In vitro induction of microrhizomes in ginger was reported by many

workers (NRCS, 1991, Bhat et al., 1994; Sharma and Singh, 1995; Nirmal Babu 1997;
Sunitibala et al., 2001; Shirgurkar et al., 2001; Nirmal Babu et al., 2003; Peter et al.,
2002; Ravindran et al., 2004). The microrhizome (Fig. 15) derived plants have more
tillers but the plant height is smaller. They gave fresh rhizome yield ranging from 100-
800 g per plant with an estimated yield of 10 kg per 3 m2 bed. In vitro formed rhizomes
are genetically more stable compared to micropropagated plants an important source of
disease-free planting material ideally suited for germplasm exchange, transportation and
conservation (Nirmal Babu et al., 2003).

Fig. 15 : Micro rhizomes of Ginger and the rhizome derived from micro rhizomes

Protoplast culture: Protoplasts could be isolated successfully from leaf tissues as well as
from cell suspension cultures ginger. A protoplast yield of 2.5 x 105/ g of leaf tissue was
obtained by digesting leaf tissue in an enzyme solution containing macerozyme R10
(0.5%), hemicellulase (3%) and cellulase Onozuka R10 (5%), when incubated for 10
hours at 150C followed by 6 hours at 300C. Seventy two percent of the protoplasts were
viable with a size of 0.39 mm. These viable protoplasts could be successfully plated on
culture media and made to develop up to microcalli stage (Nirmal Babu 1997, Geetha et
al., 2000).

Genetic transformation: Transient expression of GUS was successfully induced in

ginger embryogenic callus (Fig. 16) bombarded with plasmid vector pAHC 25 and
promoter Ubi-1 (maize ubiquitin) callus tissue. (Nirmal Babu, 1997).

37
 Fig 16: Transient expression of GUS in ginger embryogenic callus.

Molecular characterization: Ninety six accessions of ginger were analysed using RAPD
profiling and interrelation ships studied. The polymorphism detected is moderate to low
in ginger as is expected in vegetatively propagated crop which has no sexual reproduction
(IISR 2004, Sasikumar et al).

Candidate Genes: In the absence of sexual reproduction candidate gene approach is

more suitable for Zinger improvement. Isolation of Resistance Gene Candidates for
Pythium resistance is also in progress using primers designed from conserved motifs of
Similar R genes as well as ddRT PCR approach. The differentially expressed fragments
were cloned, sequenced and compared with the known sequences (Blast searches) and
putative R gene fragments identified (George Thomas unpublished). Chen et al (2005)
reported cDNA cloning and characterization of a mannose-binding lectin from Zingiber
officinale Roscoe (ginger) rhizomes.

Future
The breeding programmes in ginger are hampered by the absence of sexual reproduction.
Development of polyploidy lines to increase pollen fertility and use of in vitro technology
for pollination and embryo rescue will open up new possibilities in ginger breeding. Till
then the only possible method is identification and selection of useful natural mutants
which played a major role in development of present day cultivar diversity in ginger. This
can be supplemented by biotechnological approaches like in vitro selection and mutation
and development of disease resistant transgenics.

Turmeric
Turmeric is the dried underground rhizome of perennial herb Curcuma longa L (Syn: C.
domestica Val.) of the family Zingiberaceae. Turmeric is traditionally used in India for
medicinal, religious, culinary purposes and also as a cosmetic and dye (Shah, 1997). In
Ayurveda, turmeric is regarded as aromatic stimulant, tonic, carminative and
antihelminthic. The essential oil of turmeric is antiseptic and it is used in treating gall
stones and gall complaints (Pruthi, 1976). It is geographically distributed in Cambodia,
China, India, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Madagascar, Malaysia, the
Philippines, and Vietnam. It is extensively cultivated in China, India, Indonesia, Thailand
and throughout the tropics, including tropical regions of Africa, America and Australia

38
Area, Production and Exports
India is the single largest producer and exporter of turmeric in the world. In India during
2004- 2005 turmeric was grown in 161,230 ha area and produced 716,840 tonnes of
which 43000 tonnes was exported (Fig 17).

Fig 17 View of turmeric field

Botany and Systematics

The country of origin of turmeric is presumed to be South East Asia. Genus Curcuma has
42 species distributed in India, out of which, C. longa is cultivated turmeric, C.
aromatica is grown for use in toiletry articles and C. amada (Mango ginger) cultivated in
limited area for use as a vegetable.

Turmeric is an erect perennial herb, but it is grown as an annual. The leaves are
alternate, obliquely erect or subsessile, lanceolate, green acuminate with a long leaf
sheaths forming a pseudo stem. The underground stem or rhizome is fleshy at the base of
each aerial shoots consisting of an erect, ovoid or ellipsoid structure (mother rhizome),
ringed with the bases of old scale leaves, bearing when mature several to many horizontal
or curved rhizomes (fingers), which are again branched (secondaries). The rhizomes
show yellow to bright orange yellow colour inside of the rhizome. Rhizomes are rich in
curcumin for which turmeric is valued. Leaf blades usually more or less erect, often with
a purple-flushed strip on either side of the midrib. The inflorescence is terminal and
borne in between the leaf sheaths. Flowers are in cincinni of 2-7, each cicinnus in the axil
of a bract. Flowers are pale yellow in colour, length equalling those of the bracts. Calyx
short unequally toothed and split nearly half way down one side. Corolla tube + staminal
tube, tubular at the base, the upper half cup shaped, the corolla lobes inserted on the
edges of the cup, and the lip, staminodes and stamen just above them. Corolla lobes thin,
translucent white or pink to purplish, the dorsal are hooded and ending in a hollow hairy point.
Staminodes elliptic-oblong, their inner edges folded under the hood of the dorsal petal. Labellum
obovate, consisting of a thickened yellow middle band which points straight towards or in some
what reflexed, its tip slightly cleft, and thinner pale (white or pale yellow) side-lobes up-curved
and overlapping the staminodes. Filament of stamen short and broad, constricted at the top, anther
versatile, the filament joined to its back, the pollen sacs parallel, with usually a curved spur at the
base of each; connective some times produced at the apex into a small crest. Stylodes are
cylindrical, 4-8 mm long. Ovary trilocular; fruit ellipsoid, thin-walled, dehiscing and liberating
the seeds in the mucilage of the bract pouch; seeds ellipsoid; with a lacerate aril of few segments
which are free to the base. (Holttum ,1950).

39
The genus Curcuma consists of about 100 species distributed chiefly in South and South-
East Asia. Some of the floristic studies on the genus are those of Roxburgh (1832),
Hooker (1886), Valeton (1918), Gamble (1925), Holthum (1950), Mangaly and Sabu
(1993) and Velayudhan et al. (1999). In addition to Curcuma longa, the other
economically important species of the genus are C. aromatica, used in medicine and in
toiletry articles; C. kwangsiensis, C. ochrorhiza, C. pierreana, C. zedoaria, C. caesia etc.
used in folk medicines of the South-East Asian nations; C. alismatifolia, C. roscoeana
etc. with floricultural importance; Curcuma amada used as medicine, and in a variety of
culinary preparations, pickles and salads and C. zedoaria, C. malabarica, C.
pseudomontana, C. montana, C. decipiens, C. angustifolia, C. rubescens, C. haritha, C.
caulina etc. all used in manufacturing arrowroot powder ( Sasikumar 2005). The other
important species are C. purpurescens, C. mangga, C. heyneana, C. xanthorrhiza, C.
aeruginosa, C. phaeocaulis and C. petiolata .

Cytology
The reported somatic chromosome the number of C. angustifolia (42), C. longa (62, 63,
64) C. amada (42), C. aromatica (42) and C. zedoaria (63, 64) and C. petiolata (64)
(Raghavan and Venkatasubban 1943, Venkatasubban 1946, Chakravorti 1948).
Ramachandran (1961, 1969) carried out detailed study of the chromosome numbers in
Zingiberaceae which included six species of Curcuma. He also studied meiosis in C.
decipiens (2n=42) and C. longa (2n=63) and reported regular formation of bivalents in
the former and high percentage of trivalent association in the latter. The sterility of C.
longa has been attributed to the triploidy. He suggested that turmeric is a triploid and
might have evolved as a hybrid between tetraploid C. aromatica and diploid C. longa
(having 2n=42) types or one of these is evolved from the other by mutational steps,
represented by these intermediate types that are known to occur. He has also suggested
that the basic chromosome number of 21 might have been derived either by dibasic
amphidiploidy (by combination of lower basic numbers of 9 and 12 found in some genera
in the family) or by secondary polyploidy.

Detailed cytological investigations by Nambiar (1979) revealed that the earlier reports of
chromosome numbers of 2n=32, 62 and 64 for C. longa and 42, 63 and 86 for C.
aromatica were probably exceptional cases and the correct chromosome numbers for
these species are 2n=63 and 84 respectively. In C. longa, meiosis exhibited varying
degrees of chromosome abnormalities and chromosome associations. Quadrivalents,
trivalents, bivalents and univalents were recorded, but their relative frequency varied in
cultivars.In C. aromatica the meiosis was more normal. The abnormalities in meiosis led
to relatively low pollen fertility in C. longa types than in C. aromatica types. Based on
his studies, Nambiar (1979) concluded that turmeric is a natural hybrid between two
species having 2n=42 and 2n=84 chromosomes. Joseph et al. (1999) studied the cytology
of six species of Curcuma (C. aerugenosa, C. caesia, C. comosa, C. haritha, C.
malabarica, C. raktacanta). Three of them (aerugenosa, caesia and raktacanta) possess
triploid somatic chromosome number of 2n=63, while the others are diploids with 2n=42.

40
Floral biology
Flowering in turmeric is reported to vary depending on the cultivars and climatic
conditions. Flowering takes place between 109 and 155 days after planting depending
upon the variety and the environment. In C. aromatica, the flowering period was July-
September, whereas in C. longa, it was September-December. Turmeric inflorescence
takes 7 to 11 days to blossoming after the emergence of the inflorescence. The duration
of flower opening within an inflorescence lasts for 7- 11 days. Opening of the flowers
took place in the morning hours around 6 AM. The anthesis starts from 7 AM and
continues up to 9 AM, maximum occurring around 8 AM. Anther dehiscence takes place
between 7.15 and 7.45 AM. The pollen grains of turmeric were ovoid to spherical, light
yellow in colour and slightly sticky. Pollen grains shows heterogeneity in size between
cultivars. Pollen fertility as well as viability varies with the position of flowers in the
inflorescence. It is high in the flowers in the lower portion and low at middle and upper
portions. Mature capsules were observed in October-November months. The number of
days taken for flowering in C. longa varied from 118 to 143 days, whereas in C.
aromatica it varied from 95 to 104 days. Fruit is a thick walled trilocular capsule with
numerous arillate seeds. The artillate seeds have two seed coats, the outer thick and inner
thin. Seeds are filled with massive endosperm and the embryo is seen towards the upper
side of the ovule. The time taken for maturity of seeds from flowering ranged from 23 to
29 days in aromatica. Seed setting was noticed mainly in aromatic types but very rare in
longa types. Two distinct types of seeds, dark heavy and light brown were extracted from
mature capsules of C. aromatica. Seeds had a white aril, smooth surface and an apical
micropylar ring with a wavy outline. Percentage of germination varied from cultivar to
cultivar and even plant to plant and 70 to 90per cent were recorded in 8 to 20 days after
sowing. No germination was observed after 20 days. The seedling progenies produced
mainly roots, root tubers and rhizomes were very small during first year. Normal
development occurred during the second year. (Pathak et al 1960, Nambiar et al 1982,
Nazeem et al. 1993, Lad 1993, Rao 2000).

Hybridization was attempted using both longa and aromatic types. Fruit and seed set are
high in crosses involving the aromatic types. Seed set percentage is varied among the
crosses and lowest in longa crosses. Results obtained on seed set among the various
crosses revealed the possibility of combining the high curcumin content of selected longa
types with the high curing percentage of selected aromatica types. Turmeric being
vegetatively propagated, any variability obtained through hybridization is fixed
immediately and true to types could be multiplied. The failure of all the types to set seeds
on selfing indicated a self-incompatibility mechanism. Thus, evaluation of the open
pollinated progeny of the aromatica types could be taken up as a breeding method to
select superior types (Nazeem et al. 1993). George (1981) reported variability in the open
pollinated progenies of turmeric (Curcuma longa). Similar report was also given by
Menon et al (1992).

Genetic Resources and Conservation

Genus Curcuma occurs wide spread in the tropics of Asia, Africa and Australia from sea
level to altitude of 2000m msl (Purseglove et al 1981). The genus Curcuma consists of
about 117 species, from India around 40 species are reported (Velayudhan et al., 1999,

41
Sasikumar 2005). India has good diversity in turmeric cultivars. Collection and
conservation of genetic resources of turmeric were given maximum importance in India.
In addition to Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut good collections of
turmeric germplasm are also maintained at various research centers (Table. 1). The
germplasm is usually maintained in field gene banks. But planting in the same field year
after year may lead to mixing and loss of purity. At IISR the nucleus germplasm is
planted in tubs to maintain purity. An in vitro gene bank of important genotypes is also
maintained at IISR and National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi (Tyagi et
al 1998, Geetha, 2002, Ravindran et al 2004).

Cultivar diversity
Curcuma collections and species differ in floral characters, aerial morphology, rhizome
morphology and chemical constituents (Valeton, 1918; Velayudhan et al., 1999). More
than 70 turmeric types are known under cultivation in India belonging to C. longa and a
few cultivars that belong to C. aromatica.

There are many popular turmeric cultivars, which are specific to each region of
cultivation. Duggirala, Armoor, Sugandham, Nandyal, Alleppey, Rajapuri, GL puram,
Bhavanisagar, Gorakhpur, Jobedi etc, are some of the popular local cultivars which are
essentially named after the places where they are grown extensively (Nair et al., 1980).
Existence of wide variability among the existing cultivars in respect of growth
parameters, yield attributes, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and quality characters
was reported by various workers (Gopalam and Ratnambal, 1987; Govindarajan, 1980;
Hazra et al 2000; Hegde et al 1997; Indiresh et al., 1992; Jalgaonkar and Jamdagni, 1989;
Jana and Bhattacharya 2001; Jana et al 2001; Mohanty, 1979; Nambiar et al 1998;
Natarajan, 1975; Panja and De 2000; Panja et al 2001; Palarpawar and Ghurde, 1989;
Pathania et al 1990; Philip and Nair 1981, 1986; Pino et al 2003; Poduval et al 2001;
Prabhakaran, 1991; Pujari et al, 1987; Rakhunde et al 1998; Rao et al 1994; Ratnambal et
al 1986; Raveendra et al 2001; Shridhar et al 2002; Singh and Tiwari 1995; Singh et al
2003; Velayudhan and Liji 2003; Velayudhan et al 1999 and Yadav and Singh 1996).

The cultivars are grouped into short duration ‘kasturi’ types, (Fig 18 A) medium
duration’ kesari’ types (Fig 18 B) and long duration types (Rao and Rao, 1994). Cultivars
Armor, Tekurpet, and Mydukur are long duration crops; Kothapeta is medium duration
crop while Kasturi is short duration crop. There is reasonable variation with regard to
reaction to pests and diseases (Table 13). Cultivars Mannuthy local, Kuchipudi are
tolerant to shoot borer. Cultivars Mannuthy local, Tekurpeta, Kodur are tolerant to leaf
spot while Mannuthy local, Glpuram-2, Kasturi Tanuku and Armoor are tolerant to leaf
blotch. Suguna and Sudarshana were reported to be field tolerant to rhizome rot. Dry
recovery, curcumin and oleoresin contents determine the quality of turmeric and high
variability was observed in turmeric germplasm with respect to these characters (Khader
et al., 1994). Turmeric is affected by foliar as well as rhizome diseases. Among the foliar
diseases, leaf spot caused by Colletotrichum capsici and leaf blotch caused by Taphrina
maculans are serious. Rhizome rot caused by Pythium graminicolum is the most serious
malady of the crop. Identifying disease resistant varieties is an important breeding

42
objective. The various collections of turmeric germplasm also exhibited high variability
for resistance to various pests and diseases.

A B

Fig 18 A. Kasturi (Kasturi Tanuku- aromatica type) and B. Kesari ( Sudarsana – longa type )
Short duration turmeric

Table 13: Popular turmeric cultivars grown in India

Yield (t
No. Popular cultivar ha-) Reaction to pest & diseases
Andhra Pradesh - Kasthuri (aromatica) types
1. Kasturi Kothapeta 15-20 Susceptible to leaf spot
2. Kasthuri Tanuku 12-15 Susceptible to leaf spot
3. Kasthuri Amalapuram 10-12 Susceptible to leaf spot
4. Chaya Pasupu -- --
Andhra Pradesh -Kesari types (C. longa)
1. Kesari Duvvur -- Susceptible to leaf blotch
2. Amruthapani Kothapeta 25 ''
Andhra Pradesh - long duration types
1. Duggirala 32 Susceptible to leaf blotch
2. Tekurpeta -- Tolerant to leaf spot.
3. Mydukur 32 Susceptible to rot and leaf spot
4. Armoor 25 Susceptible to leaf spot, rot and fly
5. Sugandham 20-25 Susceptible to blotch and rot
6. Vontimitta 20 --
7. Nandyal -- --
8. Avanigadda 15-18 --
Tamil Nadu
1. Erode 30-32 --
2. Selam -- --
Kerala
1. Alleppey 25 --
2. Mannuthy Local 24 --
Assam
1. Shillong 40 Tolerant to leaf blotch and rot
2. Tall Karbi 30-40 Tolerant to leaf spot and rot
Maharastra and Gujarat
1. Rajapuri 20 Resistant to leaf spot and susceptible to
blotch and rot
2. Eavaigon 45 --

43
 Orissa
1. Duhgi 10 --
2. Jobedi -- --
3. Katingia 8 --
Uttar Pradesh
1. Gorakhpur 15 --
Source: Advances in Horticulture, 1994

Ratnambal et al (1986) studied variability in quality parameters in over 100 collections of

turmeric collected from India , belonging to both longa and aromatica types, a few exotic
and wild collections and reported wide variability in curcumin, oleoresin, essential oil
contents and dry recovery (Table .14).

Table 14: Cultivar diversity of turmeric for quality parameters

Sl. Cultivar/accessions Dry Oleoresin Oil (%) Curcumin (%)

No. recovery (%)
(%)
Curcuma domestica val. (C. longa L)
1. Maran 26.0 13.5 7.0 8.7
2. Jorhat 21.7 10.8 7.5 6.9
3. Dadra, Gauhati 23.2 16.6 7.0 7.7
4. Kaziranga, Jorhat 24.5 18.2 6.0 10.2
5. Anogiri, Garohills 26.9 13.6 6.0 5.2
6 Nowgong, Assam 20.0 10.0 5.0 4.0
7 Mekhozer 20.0 12.0 5.0 4.0
8. Hajo,Gauhati 21.0 13.0 7.5 5.5
9. Rajasagar 16.6 10.3 6.0 5.0
10 Teliamura, Agarthala 23.5 13.0 7.0 5.5
11. Barhola, Jorhat 25.0 13.3 7.0 5.3
12. Kahikuchi 21.2 12.1 9.5 3.1
13. Along 21.7 13.0 5.0 6.6
14. Besar, along 20.6 11.6 5.0 6.1
15. Gaspani, Nagaland 24.4 11.0 8.0 4.5
16. Singhat, Manipur 19.7 15.0 7.0 7.9
17. Kongpopkri 21.4 13.2 7.5 5.6
18. Aigal 20.0 14.0 5.0 9.0
19. Amampuri, jumpoi Hills 25.7 11.5 5.0 4.0
20. Amkara, Tripura 22.7 12.7 8.0 5.6
21. Torku 19.5 10.9 6.0 6.0
22. Barpather, Galoghat 23.3 12.0 3.0 4.3
23. Rorathong, E. Sikkim 22..8 16.8 4.0 4.7
24. C11 316, Gorakpur 18.7 15.0 6.0 6.0
25. Pusa 13.5 14.5 7.5 7.2
26. PTS 5 20.0 12.7 5.0 6.0
27. PTS 10 22.5 15.0 5.0 7.7
28. PTS 24 23.0 14.1 5.0 7.9
29. PTS 68 22.6 12.9 5.0 5.1
30. Amalapuram 20.2 16.0 8.0 6.0
31. Cls No. 34 23.8 14.0 5.0 5.0
32. Amalapuram II 20.0 13.3 4.0 4.3
33. Cls No. 15 21.8 16.0 5.5 4.8
34. Cls. No. 3 22.3 12.5 6.6 5.0

44
35. Amalapuram Sel. III 30.0 16.5 6.0 5.0
36. Cll 390 Amalapuram 19.4 13.7 7.5 7.0
37. Amrithapani 23.2 19.0 7.0 7.0
38. Amrithapani, Kothapetta 32.4 15.0 4.0 7.0
39. Nandyal Type 22.0 13.5 8.0 4.7
40. Cls No. 13 23.4 16.8 5.0 5.4
41. Vontimitta 18.0 10.5 6.5 5.4
42. Cls No. 11A 21.2 13.0 5.0 4.0
43. Cll 322 Vontimitta 24.5 11.4 6.0 7.4
44. GL Puram II 19.6 13.1 6.0 6.2
45. Cls No. 5A 30.1 13.5 6.0 4.9
46. GL Puram III 21.8 12.9 6.0 5.1
47. Cll 324 Armoor 18.0 15.6 6.5 7.0
48. Cls No.1 25.0 10.8 5.0 6.0
49. Cls No. 1A 24.0 15.8 5.0 6.4
50. Cls No. 1C 20.0 11.1 5.0 6.3
51. Ethamukula 22.5 15.0 5.0 5.5
52 Cls No. 26 24.6 12.0 5.0 5.7
53 Cll 321 Ethamukula 26.2 11.3 6.5 6.0
54 Cls No. 27B 19.9 10.2 5.0 4.0
55. Duggirala 17.6 14.6 5.0 7.5
56 Cls No. 22 18.1 15.4 6.6 5.2
57. CII 325 Duggirala 21.0 11.7 8.0 5.0
58 Kuchipudi 18.6 14.0 7.0 7.5
59 Cls No. 8B 14.7 12.9 5.0 6.0
60 Cls No. 8C 19.4 14.3 6.0 7.9
61. T, Sundar 20.0 16.0 6.0 6.9
62. Sugandham 22.6 12.0 8.5 9.1
63 Cls No. 19 19.0 13.8 6.0 5.4
64. Dindigam 17.0 10.6 6.0 6.4
65. CII 327, Takkurpet 21.0 14.0 6.5 6.1
66. CII 326, Mydukkur 19.4 11.8 6.0 2.8
67 Karhadi Local 18.3 13.0 6.0 4.9
68 Cls No.7 26.9 12.7 7.0 5.0
69. CII 323 Avanigadda 19.4 14.5 7.5 7.0
70 Cls No. 30 22.0 13.0 7.0 6.5
71. CIIs 328 Sugandam 20.00 12.8 6.0 9.0
72 Cls No. 9A 14.5 11.6 4.0 7.9
73 No. 24 23.0 16.0 5.0 5.0
74 Cls No. 24 22.0 14.3 6.0 4.5
75 Cls No. 6 21.0 13.9 4.0 6.7
76 Cls No. 6A 24.0 15.8 5.0 6.4
77 Palani 21.0 16.5 5.0 7.6
78 Kayyam, Gudalur 23.0 16.5 5.0 8.4
79 Pathavayal, Gudalur 25.0 14.0 4.0 3.6
80 Upper Dinamala 24.0 12.0 5.5 7.8
81. Rajpuri Local 16.3 13.8 7.0 7.8
82 Cls No. 14B 18.5 13.5 5.0 6.5
83. CII 390 Rajpuri 18.3 12.2 8.0 6.0
84. Moovattupuzha 20.1 11.5 5.0 7.0
85 Varapetty, Kothamangalam 18.0 10.9 8.0 5.4
86 Pathanapuram 17.0 14.0 8.0 6.7
87 Karimala, Mannarghat 27.0 12.5 8.0 5.5

45
88 Ochira 21.8 12.0 5.0 5.6
89 Cls No. 29 23.5 11.7 4.0 4.0
90. Alleppey 17.2 13.0 8.0 6.0
91 Cls No.21 25.5 12.1 8.0 6.2
92 Valra falls, Adimali 20.0 14.0 6.5 6.0
93 Mundakkayam 23.4 10.5 8.5 3.2
94. Mananthody 22.5 16.5 8.5 9.1
95 Cls No. 16 25.0 18.3 9.0 7.0
96 Vandoor, Nilambur 22.6 10.5 4.0 5.4
97 Manjapally, Perumbavoor 16.4 10.6 6.5 5.6
98 Murangathapally 20.0 13.0 8.5 7.8
99 Puthuppadi, Meenangadi 24.4 11.3 5.9 5.4
100 Edapalayam 22.3 14.5 6.0 10.9
101 Erathupetta 20.0 11.2 5.0 6.0
102 Erathukunnam 21.0 12.0 6.0 10.3
103. Idukki No.1 21.6 10.8 4.0 8.5
104. Idukki No.2 28.5 13.7 4.0 9.0
105. Thodupuzha 21.2 14.8 6.9 9.5
106 Cls No. 28 24.0 13.0 5.0 5.7
107 Palapally, Trichur 21.0 15.3 6.0 10.7
108 Kolathuvayal 20.0 13.5 7.0 4.2
109 Elanji, Idukki 20.0 12.6 7.0 2.7
110 Karuvilangad 21.0 13.9 4.0 6.2
111 Ayur 21.5 12.4 4.6 5.1
112. Kothamangalam 23.5 10.7 5.0 4.2
113 Kakkayam Local 20.5 14.5 9.0 7.5
114 Chamakuchi 26.5 16.9 4.0 7.0
115 Anchal 28.0 12.4 5.0 5.4
116 Muringakalla 23.1 11.8 5.0 7.0
117 Mongam, Malappuram 26.2 12.0 7.0 5.7
118 Maramboor 18.0 13.0 4.0 5.6
119. Ernad 30.5 12.9 9.0 5.2
120. Wynad local 20.0 15.3 7.0 9.4
C. aromatica Salisb
1 Silapather, N. Lekhimpur 21.7 12.5 5.0 3.2
2 Burahazer, Dibrugarh 28.0 11.6 4.0 3.1
3. Tura, Garohills 25.0 13.9 4.0 4.3
4 Dibrugarh 20.3 12.5 6.5 8.0
5 Hahim 27.2 13.0 6.0 2.3
6 Aseemgiri, Garohills 17.8 10.5 7.0 3.5
7 Bahumura, Agarthala 18.0 13.5 4.0 5.0
8 Nagsar, Titasar, Jorhat 18.5 10.5 5.0 2.5
9 Besar, Along 18.8 14.4 5.0 5.0
10 Kanchanpur, Tripura 24.1 12.1 5.5 4.1
11 Namachi 20.0 9.6 8.0 3.5
12 Pakyong 18.7 12.4 6.0 3.7
13 Nayabunglow, Meghalaya 22.4 12.5 5.5 3.9
14. Shillong 26.0 14.0 5.0 4.0
15 Phu, E. Sikkim 23.2 14.0 5.5 4.7
16. Pedong, Kalimpong 20.6 14.6 5.0 4.7
17 Ca 72 Udayagiri 21.0 13.0 5.5 4.0
18 Cas No.57 22.5 12.9 9.0 7.4
19. G L Puram I 21.0 10.9 8.0 4.1

46
20. Ca 66 GL Puram 23.0 11.5 8.5 4.0
21. Armoor 17.8 12.8 9.0 3.5
22. Kodur 20.6 14.5 8.0 4.0
23. Chayapasupu 20.3 14.2 8.0 2.5
24. Ca I Chayapasupu 17.2 16.0 5.0 3.5
25. Ca 69 Dindigam 18.9 12.0 6.0 2.8
26 Ca 68 Dhagi 20.2 12.4 8.0 3.1
27. Katirgia 20.6 13.5 7.0 2.8
28. Jobedi 18.8 13.0 8.5 4.1
29. Kasturi 25.7 12.0 9.0 3.2
30 KasturiTanuku 18.8 10.5 6.5 2.9
31. Ca 73 Amalapuram 19.2 14.0 6.0 3.0
32 Cas No.58 22.0 13.3 8.0 3.8
33 Cas No. 58B 14.0 11.7 8.0 6.0
34. Erode 20.9 12.0 7.0 3.1
35 Nadavayal 25.5 11.5 9.0 4.7
36 Keeranthode 19.8 10.3 5.0 5.0
37 Makkapuzha, Ranni 21.3 12.5 5.0 4.0
38 Konni 26.1 19.2 5.0 5.0
39 Thachanatukara, Mannarghat 24.2 10.7 8.5 6.6
40 Mampad, Nilambur 23.8 11.7 4.0 5.7
41 Chamakuchi 18.5 16.0 5.0 3.0
42 Adimali 18.0 12.0 5.0 2.3
43 Amnicad 20.0 10.3 8.5 4.0
44 Bigmathi, Meenachi 22.0 10.3 8.5 4.0
Exotic types (Solomon Islands)
1 Mamarei 20.0 13.2 6.0 3.0
2 Vatuloro 18.0 10.0 6.0 3.4
3 Vanagobulu 17.5 11.0 5.0 3.1
4 Cokuma - 12.0 6.0 4.1
5 Tsavana - 10.5 6.0 3.9
6 Tuva Vitalio - 12.0 6.0 2.8
Other Curcuma sp.
1 C. angustifolia Rxob. 30.0 7.6 3.0 0.2
2 C. xanthorrhiza Rxob. 25.8 10.0 2.0 1.5
3 C. zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc. 20.5 6.0 2.0 2.0
4 Wild unidentified (1) 22.7 6.4 2.0 0.3
5 Wild unidentified (2) 30.0 7.9 2.0 2.2
6 Wild unidentified (3) from 23.6 7.2 5.0 1.3
Uttar Pradesh
7 Wild unidentified (4) 26.5 8.6 3.0 0.8
8 Wild unidentified (5) 30.8 4.5 4.0 0.2
9 Wild unidentified (6) from 24.0 6.2 1.0 0.5
Nagsar, Titsar, Jorhat
10 Wild unidentified (7) 21.4 5.8 4.0 1.6
(Dergroni, Jorhat)
11 Wild unidentified (8) 31.4 8.6 2.0 0.02
(Kattapana, Idukki)
12 Wild unidentified (9) 30.7 4.0 1.5 2.6
(Taranagar, Agarthala)
13 Wild unidentified (10) 25.0 9.6 3.0 0.05
Sibsagar)
14 C. amada Roxb. 30.0 5.0 1.5 -
Source: Plants Food Human Nutrition, 1986

47
High heritability with appreciable genetic advance was reported for rhizome yield, crop
duration, number of leaves, number of primary fingers, yield of secondary fingers and
height of pseudostem .(Philip and Nair 1986, Subramanyam, 1986, Reddy 1987, Indiresh
et al. 1992, Yadav and Singh, 1996). Singh et al., 2003 suggested superior genotypes
may be obtained through selection based on the number and weight of mother, primary
and secondary rhizomes.

The yield per plant was highly associated with length of primary fingers, mother rhizome
diameter, length and girth of secondary fingers. The correlation coefficients of these
yield components were positive and significant (George, 1981, Subramaniyam, 1986,
Jalgaonkar et al., 1990, Cholke 1993, Rao 2000). Number of leaves, number of primary
fingers and crop duration had shown positive association with rhizome yield at both
genotypic and phenotypic levels (Reddy, 1987; Panja et al., 2002). The quality characters
(curcumin, essential oils and oleoresins) had shown negative correlation. For crop
improvement in turmeric, plant height and number of leaves determines the yield
potential of the genotype (Narayanpur and Hanamashetti, 2003). It is therefore concluded
that plant height is the single most important morphological character on which selection
for yield could be made.

Genetic divergence studies (D2 analysis) with 54 genotypes showed wider diversity
among genotypes studied and were grouped in as many as six clusters (Rao, 2000). PCT-
13 and Lakadong formed solitary groups and were genetically most distant. The land
races of North East region were almost clustered in low to moderate yield groups, while
genotypes from the southern region was scattered among different complexes ranging
from moderate to high yielders (Chandra et al. 1998, 1999). PCT-14, 13 and 10 with
shorter duration, medium yield with good curcumin content were identified as potential
parents for future breeding programme.

Crop improvement
So far twenty four improved turmeric varieties were released for cultivation (Table15)

Selection: The varietal improvement work so far attempted is only through clonal
selection. Most of the improved varieties released so far are selections from germplasm
or clonal selections based on location specific comparative yield evaluation trials mainly
to identify turmeric types with high yield potential, high curing percentage and high
curcumin content. (Table15). Most of the selections have been made from the landraces
collected from various parts of the country. Improved selections were developed mainly
in C. longa and to a lesser extent in aromatica types and C. amada.

Seedling selection:
Though clonal selection is the main breeding procedure to obtain improved lines it has
the limitation of low varability. Hybridisation is very difficult due to sterilityand hence
seed set is rare. This problem is probably compounded by self incompatibility. How ever
rare seed set can be utilized for improvement of genotypes and fixing them clonally.

48
 Table 16: Improved varieties of turmeric and their important characters
S. Variety Pedigree Crop Mean Dry Curcu Oleo Essen Important
No Duratio Yield Recove min resin tial Characters
. n (Fres ry (%) (%) Oil
(days) h (%) (%)
t/ha)
1 CO-1 Mutant (X- 270 30.5 19.5 3.2 6.7 3.7 Bold, bright orange
ray) rhizomes suitable
selection for drought prone
from areas
Erode local
2 BSR-1 Mutant (X- 285 30.7 20.5 4.2 4.0 3.7 Suitable for
ray) drought prone
selection areas
from
Erode local
3 BSR-2 Mutant (X- 245 32.7 — — — — Bold rhizomes
ray) resistant to scale
selection insects
from
Erode local
4 Krishna Clonal 240 9.2 16.4 2.8 3.8 2.0 Moderately tolerant
selection to pests and
from diseases
Tekurpeta
5 Sugand Germplasm 210 15.0 23.3 3.1 11.0 2.7 Moderately tolerant
ham selection to pests and
diseases
6 Roma Clonal 250 20.7 31.0 6.1 13.2 4.2 Suitable for hilly
selection areas areas areas
from
Tsundur
7 Suroma Mutant (X- 253 20.0 26.0 6.1 13. 4.4 Field tolerant to
ray) leaf blotch, leaf
selection spot and rhizome
from scale
Tsundur
8 Ranga Clonal 250 29.0 24.8 6.3 13.5 4.4 Bold rhizomes,
selection moderately
from Rajpuri resistant to leaf
local blotch and
rhizome scales
9 Rasmi Clonal 240 31.3 23.0 6.4 13.4 4.4 Bold rhizomes
selection
from Rajpuri
local
10 Rajendr Local 225 23.0 18.0 8.4 — 5.0 Bold and plumpy
a germplasm rhizomes
Sonia Selection
11 Megha Selection 300– 20.0 16.37 6.8 — — Bold rhizomes
Turmeri from 315
c Lakadong
types
12 Pant Selection — 29.0 18.5 7.5 — 1.0 Resistant to

49
 Peetabh from (pote rhizome rot
germplasm ntial)
13 Suranja Local 235 — 21.2 5.7 10.9 4.1 Tolerant to
na germplasm rhizome rot and
Selection leaf blotch;
resistant to rhizome
scales and
moderately
resistant to shoot
borer
14 Suvaran 200 200 17.4 20.0 4.3 13.5 7.0 Bright orange
a colored rhizome
with slender
fingers
15 Suguna Germplasm 190 29.3 20.4 7.3 13.5 6.0 Short duration
Selection type, field tolerant
to rhizome rot
16 Sudarsh Germplasm 190 28.8 20.6 5.3 15.0 7.0 Short duration
ana Selection type, field tolerant
to rhizome rot
17 IISR Selection 205 37.47 19.5 6.5 15.0 6.5 Rhizomes with
Prabha from Open close internodes
pollinated
seedlings
18 IISR Selection 225 39.12 18.5 6.21 16.2 6.2 —
Pratibha from Open
pollinated
seedlings
19 IISR Selection 210 35.4 19.0 5.55 16.0 — Tolerant to leaf
Alleppe from blotch
y Alleppey
Suprem Finger
e Turmeric

20 IISR Germplasm 210 35.5 18.9 5.9 13.6 — Tolerant to leaf

Kedara Selection blotch
m
21 Kanthi Clonal 240– 37.65 20.15 7.18 8.25 5.15 Big mother
selection 270 rhizomes and bold
from fingers with short
Mydukur internodes
22 Sobha Germplasm 240– 35.88 19.38 7.39 9.65 4.24 Big mother
selection 270 rhizomes and bold
fingers with short
internodes
23 Sona Germplasm 240– 4.02 t 18.88 7.12 10.25 4.4 Field tolerant to
selection 270 dry leaf blotch
24 Varna Germplasm 240– 4.16 t 19.05 7.87 10.8 4.56 Bold rhizome with
selection 270 dry short internodes,
field tolerant to leaf
blotch
Source: Compendium of morphological and agronomic characters of improved varieties of spices in India,
1991 Advances in Spices Research, 2006.

50
Turmeric sets seed only in certain locations and IISR has developed over 100 seed generated
lines and two improved varieties Prabha and Prathibha were released from these seedling
selections (Sasikumar et al 1996).

A B

Fig 19: Improved varieties of turmeric (A) IISR Kedaram a selection from germplasm,
(B) IISR Prathibha - a selection from seed ling progenies.

Mutation breeding
Induced mutations were also tested in turmeric. In Tamil Nadu, two mutants, CO - 1 and
BSR - 1, identified from Erode local, were released for large scale cultivation
(Balashanmugam et al. 1986). BSR-2 is another induced mutant from same Erode local
using x-rays (Chezhiyan and Shanmuga sundaram 2000). Suroma is another mutant
selection from Tsundur after irradiation with X-rays. Preliminary trials using Colchicine,
EMS and MNG at 250, 500, 1000 PPM on cv. Mydukar resulted normal spouting in all
treatments. Plant height and yields were more in colchicine treatments, number of leaves
was more in EMS at 1000 ppm, but yield was poor.

Hybridization
Studies carried out on blossom biology and viable seed set obtained through successful
hybridization have opened the way for recombination breeding programmes (Nambiar et
al., 1982; Nazeem et al., 1993; Sasikumar et al., 1994, 1996).

Biotechnological Approaches
Micropropagation: Protocols for micropropagation of turmeric are available (Nadgauda
et al, 1978, Yasuda et al, 1988, Keshavachandran and Khader 1989, Nirmal Babu et al.,
1997, Meenakshi et al., 2001, Sunitibala et al., 2001, Rahman et al., 2004). This
technique could be used for production of disease-free planting material of elite plants.
Salvi et al. (2000) reported direct regeneration of shoots from immature inflorescence
cultures of turmeric.

Micropropagation in other zingiberaceous taxa: Protocols for micropropagation of

many economically and medicinally important zingiberaceous species like Amomum
subulatum (large cardamom), Curcuma aromatica (kasturi turmeric), C. amada (mango
ginger), Kaempferia galanga, K. rotunda, Alpinia spp. were developed (Barthakur and
Bordoli, 1992; Thomas et al, 1996; Vincent et al, 1992; Ravindran et al, 1996; Geetha et al,
1997; Sajina et al, 1997 b, Chithra et al 2005).

51
Field evaluation and RAPD characterization of somaclones: Tissue cultured plants of
turmeric, kasturi turmeric, mango ginger, Kaempferia galanga etc. behave similar to
those of ginger and hence require at least two crop seasons to develop rhizomes of
normal size that can be used as seed rhizomes for commercial cultivation. Salvi et al.,
(2002) reported that the micropropagated plants showed a significant increase in shoot
length, number of tillers, number and length of leaves, number of gingers and total fresh
rhizome weight per plant when compared with conventionally propagated plants.

Plant regeneration from callus cultures and somaclonal variation: Organogenesis and
plantlet formation were achieved from the callus cultures of turmeric (Shetty et al., 1982.,
Nirmal Babu et al 1997, Sunitibala et al., 2001, Salvi et al., 2001, 2002, Praveen et al
2005). Salvi et al. (2000, 2001) also reported plant regeneration from leaf callus of
turmeric and RAPD analysis of regenerated plants showed variation at DNA level.
Variants with high curcumin content were isolated from tissue cultured plantlets
(Nadgauda et al., 1982). Root rot disease tolerant clones of turmeric cv. Suguna were
isolated using continuous in vitro selection technique against pure culture filtrate if
Pythium graminicolum (Gayatri et al 2005).

Successful plant regeneration and variations among regenerated plants were reported in
Kaempferia galangal (Ajith Kumar and Seeni, 1995), C. domestica var. 'Koova', C.
aeruginosa and C. caesia (Balachandran et al. 1990), Alpinia conchigera, Alpinia
galanga, Curcuma domestica [C. longa], C. zedoaria and Kaempferia galangal (Chan
and Thong 2004) , Curcuma caesia and Curcuma zedoaria Raju et al (2005 ), C.
zedoaria, C. domestica (C. longa) and C. aromatica (Yasuda 1988), C. amada (Prakash
et al., (2004) .

Inflorescence culture and In vitro pollination: Salvi et al., (2000) reported direct shoot
regeneration from cultured immature inflorescences of C. longa cv. Elite. Renjth et al.
(2001) reported in vitro pollination and hybridization between two short duration types
VK-70 and VK-76 and reported seed set and seed development. This reduces the
breeding time and helps in recombination breeding which was so far not attempted in
turmeric.

Micro rhizomes: In vitro micro rhizome formation (Fig. 20) was reported in turmeric
(Raghu Rajan 1997, Nirmal Babu et al 1997., 2003; Sanghamitra and Nayak (2000),
Sunitibala et al., 2001, Shirgurkar et al., 2001, Peter et al., 2002). In turmeric
micropropagation by in vitro microrhizomes is an ideal method for the production of
disease free planting material and also for conservation and exchange of germplasm
(Rajan, 1997; Nayak, 2000 and Sunitibala et al., 2001). Since minimal level of growth
regulators are used and the number of subculture cycles are reduced in micro rhizome
production, the pathway is better suited for the production of genetically stable planting
material. Microrhizomes can be produced in vitro, independent of seasonal fluctuations.
Micro rhizome production depended on size of the multiple shoot used. Micro rhizomes
produced varied in size (0.1-2.0 g) and could be planted directly in the field. Micro

52
rhizomes regenerated plantlets are smaller in size compared with conventional method
but gave reasonably big rhizomes (Nirmal Babu, 2003).

Synthetic seeds: Sajina et al (1997) and Gayatri et al (2005) reported development of

synthetic seeds in turmeric by encapsulating the somatic embryos and shoot buds in
calcium alginate.

Fig 20: Induction of micro rhizomes and micro rhizomes

in comparison with the rhizomes developed from them.

Molecular characterization: Sasaki et al (2004) applied single-nucleotide

polymorphism analysis of the trnK gene to the identification of Curcuma plants.
Sasikumar et al. (unpublished) studied over 96 Indian cultivars and related species of
turmeric using RAPD profiling for establishing their interrelationships. RAPD analyses
showed good polymorphism among the 96 accessions studied. The intra species
polymorphism in curcuma was high as compared to the interspecies polymorphism. (IISR
2003, 2004).

For checking adulteration: An efficient protocol for the isolation of high molecular
weight DNA from dry powdered samples of turmeric including market samples is
described by Remya et al (2004) and Syamkumar et al. (2005). This will help in PCR
based detection of adulteration in marketed turmeric powders. A PCR based method for
detection of extraneous Curcuma species contamination in the powdered market samples
of turmeric was developed by Sasikumar et al. (2004). The study revealed the presence of
Curcuma zedoaria samples mixed with true turmeric (C. longa) samples. Xia et al.
(2005) used molecular (5S-rRNA spacer domains) and chemical fingerprints for quality
control and authentication of Rhizoma Curcumae , a traditional Chinese medicine used in
removing blood stasis and alleviating pain. Rhizomes of three species - Curcuma
wenyujin, C. phaeocaulis and C. kwangsiensis are used.

Early flowering: Pimchai et al. (1999) reported association of a few isozymes markers in
the identification of some of the early Flowering Curcuma species.

Future
Studies carried out on blossom biology and viable seed set obtained through successful
hybridization have opened the way for recombination breeding programmes. This
opportunity must be exploited to the maximum. Somaclonal variation is another
important source. Curcumin is highly prized for its medicinal properties. Better

53
understanding of curcumin biosynthesis and genetic manipulations to increase its
production is a long term goal.

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