Deflection of Steel Structures

Deflection
Owen Brooker
BEng CEng MICE MIStructE MCS
Technical Director
© 2019 Modulus Structural Engineering Ltd 1
Eurocode 2 - Contents
1. General 7. Serviceability limit state
2. Basis of design 8. Detailing – general
3. Materials 9. Detailing – particular rules
4. Durability 10. Precast concrete
5. Structural analysis 11. Lightweight concrete
6. Ultimate limit state 12. Plain concrete
Considerations
1. Deflections calculations are best estimates

• Structural arrangements are idealistic
• Actual loads are not known
• Some materials are affected by creep
• Some materials are not elastic
2. Limits are appear to be based on the load-bearing material
3. The supported elements would be a more logical criteria
4. Acceptance criteria should be assessed on a case-by-case
basis – this is what is stated in EC0 – A1.4.2
Acceptance criteria – sway

(IStructE manual)
Vertical deflection – IstructE
Manual
Which limit state?
Irreversible:
• damage to finishes – e.g. cracking of plasterboard, glass or
wall tiles
• ponding in flat roofs
• damage to masonry
Reversible
• malfunction – e.g. doors/windows
Quasi-permanent
• Appearance
• Vibration
Sway – ULS/irreversible/reversible/quasi-permanent
Deflection in concrete structures
Key learning point
• Deflection design for concrete is all about estimating the

deflection
• It is generally accepted that the actual deflection will be in
the range of +15% to -30% – even when using the most
sophisticated analysis
Outline – deflection in concrete
• Introduction
• Behaviour of concrete
• Section properties
• Material properties
• Long term deflection
• Curvature
• Deflection calculations
• Modelling with FEA
• Accuracy of deflection calculations
• Early age striking of formwork
• Further guidance
Introduction
What affects concrete deflection?

• Slab Depth
• Elastic Modulus
• Magnitude of Loading
• Time of Loading
• Duration of Loading
• Ambient Conditions
• Tensile Strength
• Cracking
• Creep
• Shrinkage
All of the above effect one another
Acceptance criteria for flat slabs
Basic Behaviour
Basic behavior
Idealised
steel stress
Concrete stress Steel stress
S (1 - )S S
Equation for 1/rm
Short term deflections
Deflections can be calculated once the mean curvature is

known at any point along a member. Mean curvatures 1/rm are
calculated in EC2 with the following empirical equation which
interpolates between the curvatures in the uncracked and fully
cracked sections.
1/rm = ζ (1/r2) + (1- ζ )(1/r1)
where:
1/r1 = M /EcmI1 = curvature of uncracked section
1/r2 = M /EcmI2 = curvature of cracked section
Ecm = mean value of the elastic modulus for the concrete in
compression.
I1 and I2 are the second moments of area of the uncracked
and cracked sections respectively
Basic behaviour
•  = ‘distribution coefficient’ allowing for tension stiffening

at a section.
• β = coefficient taking account of the influence of the
duration of the loading or of repeated loading on the
average strain
 = 1 ‐  ( first crack result / cracked analysis result)2
no cracking
Load
MEd Actual
Mcr cracked
Deflection
 = 0.0 For un-cracked sections
Basic behavior
a = (aII) + (1 - )(aI)
a = deformation parameter considered (e.g., strain,

curvature)
aI and aII are values of the parameter calculated for the
uncracked and fully cracked conditions, respectively
Total curvature = sum of cracked curvature + uncracked
curvature for each effect considered
 = 1 for first loading
= 0.5 for long-term loading
But always use 0.5
Loss of tension stiffening
Loss of tension stiffening with time

1. As well as creep effects deflections increase with time due
to:
• additional cracking under sustained loads
• localised bond slip
2. EC2 allows for this effect by introducing a term , so
where  = 1 for short term loading
= 0.5 for repeated or long term loading
3. Tests show that tension stiffening reduces rapidly after
loading and reaches its long-term value within a few
weeks. Therefore,  should be taken as 0.5 in most cases.
Uncracked section properties
The ratio Es/Ec is defined as the modular ratio m.
Calculate uncracked
section properties
1. Transform reinforcement into an equivalent area of
concrete mAs or mAs2
2. Find the position of the neutral axis by taking moments
about the neutral axis to give:
bh (0.5h - x) + mAs(d - x) = mAs2 (x - d2)
Rearranging gives:
x (m (As + As2) + bh) = 0.5 bh2 + mAsd + mAs2d2
x = (0.5 h2 /d + m  d + m 2 d2 ) /(h/d + m  + m 2)
where
 = As/bd and 2 = As2/bd
I1 = 1/12 bh3+ bh (0.5h - x)2 + m As(d - x)2 + m As2(x – d2)2
The curvature is given by: 1/r1 = M /EI1
Fully cracked section properties
Assumptions
1. Plane sections remain plane
2. Stresses in steel and concrete are proportional to strain
3. The concrete is cracked up to the neutral axis and carries no
tensile stress.
Fully cracked section properties
Define  = As /bd and 2 = As2 /bd and rearrange to give

(x /d)2 + 2m ( + 2) x/d - 2m (2d2/d + ) = 0
Solving for x gives
x /d = -m( + 2) + (m2( +  2)2 + 2m ( + 2d2/d))0.5
The second moment of area is given by
I2 = 1/3 bx3 + m As(d - x)2 + m As2 (x-d2)2 or
I2 /bd3 = 1/3(x /d)3 + m  (1 – x /d)2 + m 2((x –d2)/d)2
The curvature is given by
1/r2 = M/EcI2
Section properties
Section properties - summary
Material properties
• Concrete comprises: • Concrete strength is

affected by the following
• Fine aggregate during casting:
• Course aggregate
• temperature
• Water
• workmanship
• Cement
• curing regime
• Un-hydrated cement
• Voids
• Other factors
• Strength increases over time
• Creeps – dependent on duration and age at which
loading applies
Concrete material properties for
deflection calculation
It is only possible to estimate concrete material properties at
the design stage. Actual material properties may differ
significantly from those assumed in design. Therefore, it is
prudent to assume a range of material properties in
deflection calculations.
EC2 relates all the concrete properties required for deflection

prediction to the concrete grade and cement type. In
practice, properties are influenced by the aggregate type,
curing etc.
Mean values should be used for the tensile strength and

elastic modulus of concrete to obtain a best estimate of the
actual deflection.
Material Properties
Eurocode 2 uses only

• Concrete class
• Cement class
to predict material behaviour
Mean values should be used for

• tensile strength
• elastic modulus
to obtain a best estimate of the actual deflection.
In Eurocode 2 Elastic modulus varies by -20% to +30%
Material properties
Flexural tensile strength is greater than pure tensile strength

Assumptions in its derivation as illustrated below
fct
fctm,fl>fct
Strain Stress at Stress assumed in
peak load calculation fctm,fl
Tensile stress distribution is not linear at failure
Material properties
Eurocode 2 defines the flexural strength of concrete as:
fctm,fl = (1.6 - h/1000) fctm > fctm
fctm = 0.3fck2/3 is the mean tensile strength of concrete
It is conservative to use the tensile strength fctm in deflection

calculations.
The How to Leaflet suggests that the design value concrete

tensile strength for a low restraint layout is taken as the
mean of the tensile and flexural strengths.
Restraint
Material properties
Concrete elastic modulus is given as:

Ecm = 22 [fcm/10]0.3
(Ecm in KN/mm2 and fcm= fck+ 8 in N/mm2)
fck 25 30 35 40 45 50
fcu 30 37 45 50 55 60
fctm 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
Ecm 31 33 34 35 36 37
Limestone -10%
Sandstone -30%
Basalt +20%
Long-term deflections
Additional factors to consider in the long term calculation of

deflections.
1. Loading
2. Age of loading
3. Creep
4. Shrinkage
5. Loss of tension stiffening with time due to additional
cracking and bond failure.
Design loads
• deflections increase with time under sustained load

• greater part of the deflection occurs under sustained loads.
• long-term deflections are calculated under a best estimate
of the sustained load during the lifetime of the structure.
The design load for calculating long-term deflections is:
Quasi-permanent load = Gk + 2Qk
Action 0 1 2
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area 0.7 0.7 0.6
(vehicle weight < 30 kN)
Category G: traffic area 0.7 0.5 0.3
(30 kN < vehicle weight < 160 kN)
Category H: roofs 0.7 0 0
Snow (For sites located at altitude H <1000 0.5 0.2 0
m asl)
Wind loads on buildings (BS EN 1991-1-4) 0.5 0.2 0
The effective long-term elastic modulus ELT can be assumed

from:
ELT=Wi/(W1/Eceff1+ W2/Eceff2 + W3/Eceff3 +..)
Where
Wi is the load increment at time ti and
Eceff = Ec28/(1+(ti,t))
ti is the age at application of Wi and
t is the age at which deflections are required
Cracking is irreversible.
• use flexural strength which corresponds to the worst
cracking during the lifetime of the structure.
• frequent load combination should be used to calculate the
deflection affecting cladding.
Frequent load = Gk + 1Qk
Creep and Shrinkage
The compressive strain in concrete under constant

compressive stress increases with time due to creep and
shrinkage.
EC2 definition of 
EC2 defines the creep coefficient in terms of the 28 day

tangent modulus of concrete
Hence
 *=EC2[Ec(t0)/1.05Ec28]
 E ceff= Ec(t0)/(1+ *)
 =Ec(t0)/(1+ EC2[Ec(t0)/1.05Ec28])
For practical purposes Eceff can usually be calculated as
follows:
 Eceff= Ec28/(1+ EC2)
EC2 uses the effective modulus method to model creep in
which creep is modelled as a delayed elastic strain. The
strain at time, t , is given by:
 (t) =  (t0)(1 + )
where
 is the creep coefficient.
 (t0) is the strain at t0 which is given by
 (t0) =  /Ec(t0)
Ec(t0) is the elastic modulus of the concrete at time t0.
Therefore, the strain at time t is given by:
 (t) =  /Eceff
where
Eceff = effective elastic modulus = Ec(t0)/(1+ )
Factors that affect creep
1. Concrete properties. Creep reduces with increasing

concrete strength and as the water to cement ratio is
reduced.
2. Creep increases as the relative humidity reduces (i.e.

greater indoors than outside).
3. Creep is greater in thin members with a large surface area

to volume ratio such as slabs (thinner members dry out
quicker).
4. Concrete loaded at an earlier age creeps more than

concrete loaded at a later age.
Factors that affect creep (cont’d)
5. Approximately 50% of the final creep develops in the first

two to three months and about 90% after 2-3 years.
6. When the sustained stress is less than 0.5fck (generally true

at service loads), creep is proportional to stress.
7. Creep increases with temperature.
EC2 gives the option of either using a chart or an equation

to calculate the creep coefficient. Table 1 gives typical
creep coefficients derived from the design equation in EC2
for normal weight concrete of normal consistency.
Creep is increase in strain under constant compressive stress
t0
1
N R
2 S
3
5 C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
10 C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
20 C55/67
C60/75
C70/85
30 C80/95
C90/105
50
100
7,0 6,0 5,0 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
 (t 0) h 0 (mm)
Creep - calculations
The creep coefficient ϕ(t,t0) may be calculated

from:
ϕ (t,t0) = ϕ0 β c(t,t0) Exp (B.1)
where:
ϕ0 = notional creep coefficient
= ϕRH β(fcm) β(t0)
ϕRH = factor to allow for effect of relative humidity
1  RH /100
1 13
for f cm  35 MPa
0.1h0
  1  RH /100  
 1  1 13  2 for f cm  35 MPa
 0.1h0 
RH = relative humidity in %
β(fcm) = factor to take account of concrete strength

= 16.8/fcm0.5
β(t0) = factor to allow for the effect of creep at
age of loading
= 1/(0.1 + t00.20)
 t  t 0  
0.3
c t ,t 0    
 H  t  t 0  
t = age of concrete in days
t0 = age of concrete at loading in days
βH = coefficient depending on the relative humidity and the

notional member size
= 1.5[1+(0.012RH)18]h0+250 ≤ 1500 for fcm ≤ 35 MPa
= 1.5[1+(0.012RH)18]h0+250 α3 ≤ 1500 α3 for fcm > 35 Mpa
α1 = (35/fcm)0.7
α2 = (35/fcm)0.2
α3 = (35/fcm)0.5
The effect of type of cement on the creep coefficient of

concrete may be taken into account by modifying the age of
loading t0

 9 
t 0  t 0 ,T  1.2
 1   0 .5
 2  t 0 ,T 
t0,T = temperature adjusted age of concrete at loading in days
adjusted according to Expression (B.10)
α = power which depends on type of cement
= -1 for cement Class S
= 0 for cement Class N
= 1 for cement Class R
Where the cement Class is not known:
• generally Class R may be assumed
• Where ggbs exceeds 35% or fly ash exceeds 20% Class N
may be assumed
• Where ggbs exceeds 65% or fly ash exceeds 35%, Class S
may be assumed.
Typical creep coefficients of normal weight concrete
Age at Notional size 2Ac/u in mm (where Ac is the cross-

loading t0 sectional area of concrete and U is the perimeter
days of that area.)
50 150 600 50 150 600
Dry atmospheric conditions Humid atmospheric
(inside) conditions (outside)
1 5.5 4.6 3.7 3.6 3.2 2.9
7 3.9 3.1 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.0
28 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.5
90 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2
365 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
Curvature
• Shrinkage induces curvatures in asymmetrically reinforced

sections
• Up to 25% increase in deflections
• Reinforcement restrains the shortening of the member
• Tension induced in the concrete
• Cracking moment is reduced.
Tensile stress
To balance the system apply a tensile force equal to Es As cs at

the level of the reinforcement.
This induces a curvature that is given by:
1/rcs1 = M /EcI1 = csEsAse /EcI1 = m csS /I1

where S = Ase which is the first moment of area of the
reinforcement about the centroid of the transformed
section
EC2 extends this approach to cover cracked sections by

substituting I2 for I1 and S2 for S1. The extension of the
method to cracked sections is not rigorous but seems
reasonable.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage strain is composed of two components:

• drying shrinkage strain
• autogenous shrinkage strain
εcs = εcd + εca
where:
εcs = total shrinkage strain
εcd = the drying shrinkage strain
εca = autogenous shrinkage strain
Drying shrinkage
The final value of the drying shrinkage strain

εcd,∞ = kh εcd,0
Where
εcd,0 may be taken from Table 3.2 or from Exp (B.11)
kh = coefficient depending on the notional size h0
Eurocode 2 also gives guidance on calculated drying shrinkage
over time
h0 kh
100 1
200 0.85
300 0.75
500 0.7
Table 3.2 – εcd,0
fck/
fck,cube
(MPa) 20 40 60 80 90 100
20/25 0.62 0.58 0.49 0.3 0.17 0
40/50 0.48 0.46 0.38 0.24 0.13 0
60/75 0.38 0.36 0.3 0.19 0.1 0
80/95 0.3 0.28 0.24 0.15 0.08 0
90/105 0.27 0.25 0.21 0.13 0.07 0
Shrinkage with time
Drying shrinkage strain in time can be calculated from:

εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) kh εcd,0
where
t = age of the concrete at the moment considered, in days

ts = age of the concrete (days) at the beginning of drying
shrinkage (or swelling). Normally this is at the end of
curing.
Autogenous shrinkage
The autogenous shrinkage strain follows from:

εca(t) = βas(t) εca(∞)
where:
εca(∞) = 2.5 (fck – 10) 10-6
βas(t) = 1 – e(–0.2t 0.5)
t = time in days given in days
Design aid –
70 year shrinkage strains
Drying Autogenous Total Shrinkage
fck shrinkage x 10-3 Shrinkage x 10-3 x 10-3
20 0.688 0.025 0.713
25 0.651 0.038 0.689
30 0.616 0.050 0.666
35 0.583 0.063 0.646
40 0.552 0.075 0.627
45 0.522 0.088 0.610
50 0.494 0.100 0.594
Notes:
1. The values shown are based on Class R cement (Classes N and S have lower values)
2. The values shown are appropriate when h0 = 150 mm. When h0 > 150 mm the values
will be lower.
Worked example 1
Calculation of short-term
curvature
Calculate the short term curvature of the section shown below
for a moment of 100 kNm.
Use the following material properties:
Es = 200 kN/mm2
Ecm = 32 KN/mm2
fctm = 2.9 MPa
Es = 200 kN/mm2
As = 2 H32 = 1608 mm2
m = 6.25
 = As/bd = 9.7510-3
m = modular ratio
Solution
1. Calculate cracking moment. In this example the effect of

the reinforcement on the cracking moment is neglected
which is reasonable in practice where the material
properties and loading can only be estimated
approximately.
Mr = z fctm  1/6 bh2 fctm = 52.2 kNm < Mapplied = 100 kNm,
hence section is cracked.
2. The mean curvature is given by

1/rm =  (1/r2) + (1-  )(1/r1)
where
1/r1 = M /Ecm I1 = curvature of uncracked section
1/r2 = M /Ecm I2 = curvature of cracked section
 = 1-  (Mr/M)2
 = 1 for first loading.
  = 1- (Mr/M)2 = 1- (52.2/100)2 = 0. 73
and
1/rm =  (1/r2) + (1-  )(1/r1) = 0.73 (1/r2) + 0.27 (1/r1)
The next step is to find the section properties
1. Uncracked section properties
Find x by substituting into equation
x = (0.5 h2 /d + m  d + m 2 d2 ) /(h/d + m  + m 2)
where
 = As/bd and 2 = As2/bd
hence x = 313 mm.
Find I1 by substituting into
I1 = 1/12 bh3 + bh (0.5h - x)2 + m As (d - x)2 + m As2 (x – d2)2
= 6  109 mm4
The curvature is given by
1/r1 = M /EI1 = 100  106 /(32  103  6  109)
= 5.21  10-7 mm-1
2. Cracked section properties

Substituting into the formulae we find
x /d = -m( + 2) + (m2( +  2)2 + 2m ( + 2d2/d))0.5
= 0.294
The second moment of area is given by
I2 = 1/3 bx3 + m As(d - x)2 + m As2 (x-d2)2
= 1.94109 mm4
and the curvature is given by
1/r2 = M/EI2 = 1.61 10-6
3. Find the mean curvature
1/rm =  (1/r2) + (1-  )(1/r1)
= 0.73(1.61 10-6) + 0.27(5.21  10-7) = 1.31 10-6
The effect of tension stiffening is given by
1/r2 - 1/rm = 0.30  10-6 mm-1
Calculation of long term

curvature
The mean curvature is given by:
1/rm = ζ (1/r2) + (1 - ζ)(1/r1)
where
1/rm = mean curvature
1/r1 = M /Eceff I1 = curvature of uncracked section
1/r2 = M /Eceff I2 = curvature of cracked section
where
Eceff = Ecm/(1 + )
z = 1 -  (Mr/M)2
Worked example 2
Calculation of long-term
curvature
Calculate the long term curvature of the section shown below
for a moment of 100 kNm.
Use the following material properties:
Es = 200 kN/mm2
Ecm = 32 KN/mm2
fctm = 2.9 MPa
Es = 200 kN/mm2
cs = 30010-6
 = 3
Solution
2. The mean curvature is given by

1/rm =  (1/r2) + (1-  )(1/r1)
where
1/r1 = M /Eceff I1 = curvature of uncracked section
1/r2 = M /Eceff I2 = curvature of cracked section
Eceff = Ecm/(1 + )
 = 1 -  (Mr /M)2
 = 0.5 for long term loading.
The procedure for calculating the long term mean curvature
is identical to that for calculating the short term mean
curvature, except Eceff is used instead of Ecm
The revised section properties (from Example 1) are
x1 = 346.0 mm, I1 = 7.47109 mm4 and
x2 = 273.58 mm, I2 = 5.15109 mm4
The curvatures are

1/r1 = M /Eceff I1 = 1.69  10-6 mm-1
1/r2 = M /Eceff I2 = 2.45  10-6 mm-1
The mean curvature is

1/rm =  (1/r2) + (1-  )(1/r1)
1/rm = 0.86  2.45  10-6 + (1 - 0.86)  1.69  10-6 = 2.35 
10-6 mm-1
2. Shrinkage curvature
The mean shrinkage curvature is given by
1/rcs = ζ(1/rcs2) + (1- ζ)(1/rcs1)
where
1/rcs1 = m csS1 /I1
S1 = first moment of area of the reinforcement about
the centroid of the transformed uncracked section
S1 = As (d - x) – As2(x – d2)
= 1608  (550 - 346)
= 328  103 mm3
m = Es/Eceff = 25.25
1/rcs1 = 25.25  300  10-6  328  103 /7.47  109
= 0.33  10-6 mm-1
S2 = As (d - x) – As2(x – d2)
S2 = 1608  (550 - 273.6)
= 444483 mm3
1/rcs2= 25.25  300  10-6  444483/5.15  109
= 0.65410-6 mm-1
1/rcs = ζ(1/rcs2) + (1- ζ)(1/rcs1)

1/rcs = 0.86  0.654  10-6 + (1-0.86)  0.33  10-6
= 0.61  10-6 mm-1
Total curvature 1/r = 2.35  10-6 + 0.61  10-6
= 2.96  10-6 mm-1
Note that the curvature has increased by a factor of 2.3 under
long term loading.
Deflection Analysis Methods
Recognised Approaches:
• Span to effective depth ratio
• Deflection calculations
• BS8110
• BS EN 1992 (EC2)
• Finite element analysis
Deflection calculations
To design for deflection we need to know the following:

1. Deflection limits
2. Design loads
3. Material properties
4. Model for predicting behaviour
The deflection may be calculated:

Either
by calculating the curvatures (due to load, shrinkage, creep) at
a number of sections and then double integrating numerically
Or
by the simplified formula:
a = kL2(1/r)
k depends on the shape of the bending moment
diagram.
Double integration of curvature

Divide into 10
equal segments x
i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X/L 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
M

1/r1
1/r2
1/rm
slope * 0 1 i=4
Defl a* a0 a1 ai=4
Procedure for double integration
• Divide beam into N equal segments.

• Evaluate moments and curvatures at beginning and end of
each segment
• Slope θ*I = θ*i-1 + 0.5(L/N)(1/ri-1+1/ri)
where N= number of segments
• Deflection a*i=a*i-1 + 0.5(L/N)(θ*i-1+θ*i)
• The slope θ*i and deflection a*i need to be corrected for
boundary conditions.
Introduction of boundary
condition
The boundary conditions need to be considered for each case
individually
For a symmetrically loaded simply supported beam, the slope

= 0 at midspan.
Hence θi = θ*i- θ*midspan = θ*i- θ*5 for our example
and ai = a*i- (x/L)a*right hand end = a*i- (x/L) a*10
Overall procedure
• Collate input data

• Access whether the element has cracked
• Construction loading
• Frequent loading
• Determine element curvature
• Determine overall deflection
• Repeat calculations to determine deflection at time of
installation of partitions/cladding
• Deflection after installation of partitions/cladding is:
overall deflection less deflection at time of installation
Rigorous method
Rigorous method
 

Rigorous method
Rigorous method
This is the approach used in the “Rigourous” RC Spreadsheets
Simpler method
Simpler method
 
Simpler method
Slide 27
Simpler method
Workshop
Deflection calculation
d = 300
Estimate the long-term deflection for the
beam shown.
Span = 9.5 m
MQP = 200 kNm
d = 600
Concrete class C25/30

h = 700
As = 2450 mm2
xc = 329 mm
Icr = 7976 x 106 mm4
xu = 350 mm (ignoring reinforcement)
Iu = 8575 x 106 mm4 (ignoring rebar) 5 No H25 bars
(∞,t0) = 2.8
εcs = 470 x 10-6
fctm = 2.6 MPa (Table 3.1)
Deflection calculation example
Step 1 – Calculate cracking moment

0.9f ctm I u
M cr 
h  xu
0.9  2.6  8575  10 6

M cr   57.3 kNm
700  350
If uncracked section properties are used, Mcr = 57.3 kNm

Section is cracked, therefore:
ζ = 1 – 0.5(57.3/200)2 = 0.95
Step 2 – Calculate flexural curvature

1 M QP
  
 r u E c ,eff I u
Ec,eff = Ecm/(1 + (∞,t0)) = 31 / (1 + 2.8) = 8.15 kN/mm2
1 200  10 6
    2.86  10  6 / mm
 r u 8.15  10  8575  10
3 6
1 M QP 200  10 6
     3.08  10  6 / mm
r
 c E I
c ,eff c
3
8.15  10  7976  10 6
1 1 1

       (1   ) 
 r n  r c  r u
 0.95  3.08  10  6  (1  0.95)  2.86  10  6  3.07  10  6 / mm
Step 3 – Calculate shrinkage curvature

1   S
   cs e
r  I
where:
Sc = As (d – x) = 2450 (600 – 329) = 664 x 103 mm3
1 470  10 6 (200 / 8.15)  664  10 3
    0.96  10  6 / mm
 r s
6
7976  10
Su = As (d – x) = 2450 (600 – 350) = 612.5 x 103 mm3
1 470  10 6 (200 / 8.15)  612.5  10 3
    0.82  10  6 / mm
 r  su
6
8575  10
1 1 1
       (1   ) 
 r n  r c  r u
 0.95  0.96  10  6  (1  0.95)  0.82  10  6  0.95  10  6 / mm
Step 4– Calculate deflection

Total curvature = 3.07 x 10-6 + 0.95 x 10-6 = 4.02 x 10-6 /mm
For a simply supported beam, k = 0.104
δ = kL2(1/r)
= 0.104 x 9500 2(4.02 x 10-6)
= 37.8 mm
Modelling with FEA
Two approaches:
1. Cracked section analysis in which the plate stiffness is

reduced to account for cracking
2. Elastic analysis with reduced stiffness to allow for

cracking creep and shrinkage.
Modelling with FEA - Approach 1
• Determine cracked section properties
• Icracked ≈ ½ Igross
• Allow for creep ELT = EST /(1 + )
•  is creep factor
• ELT ≈ 1/3 EST for storage loads
• ELT ≈ 2/3 EST for short term loads
• In model EMOD = Icracked x ELT / Igross
• 1/6 EST < EMOD < 1/4 EST
Modelling with FEA – Approach 2
• Is it any more accurate?

• FE Shell elements need to know if they are cracked or
uncracked
• Shells can be cracked in one direction and uncracked in the
other - non isotropic properties are required
• Shells need to know the reinforcement being provided -
over-providing steel delays or even prevents cracking
• Early age cracking or loading (Once cracked, it is always
cracked)
Supports
Point supports have potential errors:

• Moments at interior columns and spans
underestimated
• Moment in slab around edge and corner
columns unreliable
• Calculated moments in columns not accurate
• Shear results not suitable for punching shear
checks
• Deflection increased by up to 10%
Accuracy
Many factors influence the accuracy:

1. Actual loading relative to design loading
2. Actual age of loading relative to assumed age of loading
3. Early age striking and loading from slabs above
4. Differences between actual and assumed material
properties
5. Composite action between floor slabs and floor screeds and
partitions
6. Temperature effects
7. Effects of restraint
Accuracy
Striking of formwork
Research has shown:

• Striking at 24 hrs, not 7 days increases deflection by 25%
• Striking at 3 days, not 7 days increases deflection by 15%
For flat slabs ≤ 300mm

fc ≥ fck,cube (w/wser)1.67 but w/wser ≤ 1.0
where:
fc = required cube strength
fck,cube = design cube strength
w = unfactored construction load
wser = unfactored design service load
• This should ensure that construction loads do not affect

long-term deflections
• Calculate at striking AND when loads from slabs above
applied
The designer should include a method statement indicating

the assumptions regarding construction. This should include:
• sequence of construction
• formwork striking times and back-propping requirements
• breakdown of loading including allowance for
construction loads
• pour sizes assumed
• loading history assumed
• cement type in the concrete, 28 day strength and
the strength of concrete assumed at striking
Further guidance
Solution
Step 1 – Calculate cracking moment

0.9f ctm I u
M cr 
h  xu
0.9  2.6  8575  10 6

M cr   57.3 kNm
700  350
If uncracked section properties are used, Mcr = 57.3 kNm

Section is cracked, therefore:
ζ = 1 – 0.5(57.3/200)2 = 0.95
Step 2 – Calculate flexural curvature

1 M QP
  
 r u E c ,eff I u
Ec,eff = Ecm/(1 + (∞,t0)) = 31 / (1 + 2.8) = 8.15 kN/mm2
1 200  10 6
    2.86  10  6 / mm
 r u 8.15  10  8575  10
3 6
1 M QP 200  10 6
     3.08  10  6 / mm
r
 c E I
c ,eff c 8 .15  10 3
 7976  10 6
1 1 1

       (1   ) 
 r n  r c  r u
 0.95  3.08  10  6  (1  0.95)  2.86  10  6  3.07  10  6 / mm
Step 3 – Calculate shrinkage curvature

1   S
   cs e
r  I
where:
Sc = As (d – x) = 2450 (600 – 329) = 664 x 103 mm3
1 470  10 6 (200 / 8.15)  664  10 3
    0.96  10  6 / mm
 r s
6
7976  10
Su = As (d – x) = 2450 (600 – 350) = 612.5 x 103 mm3
1 470  10 6 (200 / 8.15)  612.5  10 3
    0.82  10  6 / mm
r
  su 8575  10 6
1 1 1

       (1   ) 
 r n  r c  r u
 0.95  0.96  10  6  (1  0.95)  0.82  10  6  0.95  10  6 / mm
Step 4– Calculate deflection

Total curvature = 3.07 x 10-6 + 0.95 x 10-6 = 4.02 x 10-6 /mm
For a simply supported beam, k = 0.104
δ = kL2(1/r)
= 0.104 x 9500 2(4.02 x 10-6)
= 37.8 mm

Deflection of Steel Structures

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Deflection

1. Deflections calculations are best estimates

Acceptance criteria – sway

Which limit state?

Key learning point

• Deflection design for concrete is all about estimating the

What affects concrete deflection?

Concrete stress Steel stress

Equation for 1/rm

Deflections can be calculated once the mean curvature is

•  = ‘distribution coefficient’ allowing for tension stiffening

a = deformation parameter considered (e.g., strain,

Loss of tension stiffening

Loss of tension stiffening with time

The ratio Es/Ec is defined as the modular ratio m.

Fully cracked section properties

Define  = As /bd and 2 = As2 /bd and rearrange to give

• Concrete comprises: • Concrete strength is

EC2 relates all the concrete properties required for deflection

Mean values should be used for the tensile strength and

Eurocode 2 uses only

Mean values should be used for

In Eurocode 2 Elastic modulus varies by -20% to +30%

Flexural tensile strength is greater than pure tensile strength

Tensile stress distribution is not linear at failure

Eurocode 2 defines the flexural strength of concrete as:

fctm,fl = (1.6 - h/1000) fctm > fctm

fctm = 0.3fck2/3 is the mean tensile strength of concrete

It is conservative to use the tensile strength fctm in deflection

The How to Leaflet suggests that the design value concrete

Concrete elastic modulus is given as:

Additional factors to consider in the long term calculation of

• deflections increase with time under sustained load

The design load for calculating long-term deflections is:

Quasi-permanent load = Gk + 2Qk

The effective long-term elastic modulus ELT can be assumed

ELT=Wi/(W1/Eceff1+ W2/Eceff2 + W3/Eceff3 +..)

The compressive strain in concrete under constant

EC2 defines the creep coefficient in terms of the 28 day

Factors that affect creep

1. Concrete properties. Creep reduces with increasing

2. Creep increases as the relative humidity reduces (i.e.

3. Creep is greater in thin members with a large surface area

4. Concrete loaded at an earlier age creeps more than

5. Approximately 50% of the final creep develops in the first

6. When the sustained stress is less than 0.5fck (generally true

7. Creep increases with temperature.

EC2 gives the option of either using a chart or an equation

Creep is increase in strain under constant compressive stress

The creep coefficient ϕ(t,t0) may be calculated

β(fcm) = factor to take account of concrete strength

βH = coefficient depending on the relative humidity and the

The effect of type of cement on the creep coefficient of

Typical creep coefficients of normal weight concrete

Age at Notional size 2Ac/u in mm (where Ac is the cross-

• Shrinkage induces curvatures in asymmetrically reinforced

To balance the system apply a tensile force equal to Es As cs at

1/rcs1 = M /EcI1 = csEsAse /EcI1 = m csS /I1

EC2 extends this approach to cover cracked sections by

Shrinkage strain is composed of two components:

The final value of the drying shrinkage strain

Table 3.2 – εcd,0

Drying shrinkage strain in time can be calculated from:

Hence θi = θi- θmidspan = θi- θ5 for our example

and ai = ai- (x/L)aright hand end = ai- (x/L) a10