200Impor

tantPoi
ntswi
thDefi
niti
onst
o
RememberinGener
alPat
hology

By

Dr
.Ej
azWar
is,
Associ
atePr
ofessorHi
stopat
hol
ogyAMDC

1. Hyper
plasi
aisanincr
easei
nthenumberofcell
sinanor
ganort
issue,usual
l
y
r
esult
ingini
ncr
easedvol
umeoft
heorganort
issue.

2. Hyper
trophyr
eferstoani
ncr
easei
nthesi
zeofcel
l
s,r
esul
ti
ngi
nani
ncr
easei
n
t
hesizeoftheorgan.

3. At
rophyi
stheshr
inkagei
nthesi
zeoft
hecel
lbyl
ossofcel
lsubst
ance.

4. Met
aplasi
ais def
ined as a r
eversi
ble change i
n which one adul
tcel
lty
pe
(
epi
thel
ial
ormesenchymal)i
sreplacedbyanotheradul
tcell
type.

5. Cel
lswel
l
ingi
stheear
li
estsi
gnofar
ever
sibl
ecel
li
njur
y.

6. Fr
eeradi
cal
isachemi
cal
speci
est
hathav
easi
ngl
eunpai
redel
ect
roni
nanout
er
or
bit
.

7. Necrosisi
saspectrum ofmor
phol
ogicalchangest
hatfol
lowcel
ldeat
hinali
vi
ng
t
issuelargel
yresul
tingfr
om t
heprogressiv
edegradat
iveact
ionofenzymeson
t
hel et
hall
yinj
uredcell
.

8. Necrosis has si x major t

ype; coagul
ati
ve, Caseous, Li
quef
act
ive,
f
ibr
inoid,
gangr
enousandFat
.

9. Apoptosis(Greekf
all
ingof f
)isdefinedasapat hwayofprogrammedcel
ldeath
thatis aimed ata hi ghl
yr egul
ated i
ntracel
l
ularpr
ogramme in whi
ch cel
ls
desti
nedt odeathbyact i
vatedenzymet hatdegradet
hecell’
sDNAandnuclear
andcytoplasmicpr
oteins.

10. Morphological
ly an apopt
oti
c cel
lshows:a)cellshri
nkage,b)chr omat
in
condensati
on c)f ormati
on ofcytopl
asmi
c bl
ebs and apopt
oti
c bodi
es,d)
phagocytosisbymacrophages.

11. Apopt
osi
shast wophasesa)I nit
iat
ionphase ext
ri
nsi
candi
ntr
insi
cpat
hway
s
b)
Execut
ionphasec)phagocy
tosisofdeadcel
l
12. Genespr
omotingapoptosi
sare:bax,
bak,bi
m

13. Genesi
nhi
bit
ingapopt
osi
sar
ebcl
2fami
l
y.
14. I
nit
iat
orcaspasear
e8&9,
whi
l
eexecut
ionercaspasesar
emai
nly3&6.

15. Dyst
rophiccal
ci
fi
cati
onisalway
sseeni ndamagedti
ssueswhilemetast
ati
c
cal
cif
icat
ionmayoccuri
nnor
malti
ssueswhenev
ert
her
eishyper
plasi
a.

16. Inf
lammati
onisacompl exreact
iontoinj
uriousagentssuchasmi cr
obesand
damaged,usual
lynecroti
ccell
sthatconsi
stsofv ascul
arresponses,migr
ati
on
andacti
vat
ionofleukocy
tes,
andsy st
emicreacti
ons.

17. Inf
lammator
yresponseconsi
stofTWO maincomponent
s:v
ascul
ar&cel
l
ular
,
anddiv
idedi
ntoTWOmai npat
ter
ns:Acut
eandChr
oni
c.

18. Vasodi
l
atat
ionisoneoft heearl
iestmani
festati
onofacuteinfl
ammat
ion,i
f
fol
l
owsat r
ansi
entv
asoconst
ri
cti
onofart
eri
oleslast
ingf
ewseconds.

19. I
ncreasedvascularpermeabi
li
tyleadi
ngtotheescapeofaprotei
n-r
ichf
lui
d
(
exudate)i
ntotheextr
avascul
arti
ssuei
ntheHALLMARKofacut
einfl
ammati
on.

20. For
mat i
onofendot
hel
i
algapsi
nvenul
esi
sthemostcommoncauseofv
ascul
ar
l
eakage.

21. Leukocy
tesAdhesionmolecul
arf
amil
ieshaveamaj
orcl
asses:
a)Selecti
ns(
E,L&
Pt y
pes),b)I
ntegri
ns,c)Immunogl
obuli
nfamil
yofadhesi
onmoleculesandd)
Mucinli
kegly
coprotei
ns.

22. Sel
ect
insmainl
yinvol
vedinroll
i
ngofleukocy
tes,PECAM i
ntr
ansmi
grat
ionand
i
mmunoglobuli
nfamil
yinadhesi
ons.

23. Chemotaxi
sisdefi
nedasunidir
ecti
onalmi
grat
ionofl
eukocy
test
owar
dst
hesi
te
ofi
njur
yunderchemical
gradi
entact
ion.

24. Mosti
mpor
tantchemot
act
icagent
sar
eC5a,
LTB4andbact
eri
alpr
oduct
s.

25. Majoropsoni
nsare:
C3b&Fcf ragmentofI
gGpr oteins
26. H202-MPO-Hali
desyst
eini
sthemosteffi
cientbacteri
cidal
syst
em i
nneut
rophi
l
s.

27. Chedi
ak-
HigashiSy
ndromeisanaut
osomalr
ecessi
vecondi
ti
onchar
act
eri
zedby
fai
l
ureoff
usionofphagosomewi
thly
sosome.

28. Chroni
cgranul
omat
ousdi
seaseofchi
ldhoodr
esul
tsf
rom i
nheri
teddefect
sint
he
componentsofNAPDH oxi
dasewhichgenerat
essuper
oxide,leadi
ngtobody
i
nfecti
ons.

29. Vasoacti
veami
nesarehi
stami
neandser
otoni
nwhi
char
ethemai
npl
ayer
sof
ear
lyinf
lammat
ion.
30. Plasma Pr ot
eins ar
e:Compl
ement sy
stem pr
otei
ns,cl
ott
ing sy
stem and
fi
brinol
yti
csystem.

31. Pr
ost
agl
andi
nsar
evasodi
l
ator
s.

32. MAC(
C5B6789)i
sthemembr
aneat
tackcompl
ex,
whi
chf
inal
l
yki
l
lst
hebact
eri
a.

33. Activ
ated Hageman fact
ori ni
ti
ates FOUR sy
stems i
nvol
ved i
ninf
lammat
ory
responsesKini
n,Cl
ott
ing,
fibr
inol
yti
candcomplementsyst
em

34. SRS-
A(sl
owr el
easi
ngsubstanceofanaphyl
axis)const
itut
esLTC4,LTD4&LTE4
pr
omotevasoconst
ri
cti
on,
bronchospasm &increasedvascul
arper
meabil
i
ty.

35. Li
poxi
ns ar
e bioact
ive pr
oducts gener
ated from t
ranscel
l
ular bi
osy
nthet
ic
mechani
smsinv
olvi
ngneutr
ophil
sandplatel
ets.

36. I
L-1&TNFar
etwooft
heMAJORcy
toki
nest
hatmedi
atei
nfl
ammat
ion.

37. Majorchemoki
nes i
ncl
ude:I
L-8,MCP-
1,eot
axi
n,MI
P-1,Ly
mphot
act
in and
RANTES.

38. Ni
tr
icoxi
depl
aysmajorr
olei
nproduct
ionofv
asodi
l
ati
onbyr
elaxi
ngv
ascul
ar
smoot
hmuscl
eini
schemi
ccondi
ti
ons.

39. Themaj
ormedi
ator
sofpai
nar
eBr
ady
kini
n&Pr
ost
agl
andi
ns

40. Potentvasodil
atorsar
e: Vasoact
iveAmines,
Prostagl
andi
ns&NO.
41. Acuteinfl
ammat i
onisdef i
nedasar apidresponsetoani nj
uri
ousagentthat
servestodeli
vermediatorsofhostdef
ense–l eukocyt
esandplasmapr
otei
nst o
thesit
eofinjury
.

42. Chr
onici
nflammati
oni sdef
inedasani nfl
ammationofprol
ongeddurat
ion,i
n
whi
ch acti
veinf
lammat i
on,tissue destr
ucti
on and at
tempts atr
epairare
pr
oceedi
ngsimul
taneousl
y.

43. Neutr
ophi
ls ar
et he main cel
l
s of acuteinfl
ammation (exudates) whil
e
Mononucl
earcell
s( wi
thonenucl
eusarethemaincel
lsofchronicinf
lammation
.Mononucl
earcel
lsincl
udeLymphocy
tes,Monocyt
es,
Macr ophagesandPlasma
cel
ls.

44. Macrophagesaret
hepri
madonna( mainworki
ngcel
l
)ofchr
oni
cinf
lammat
ion,
whi
lelymphocyt
esarepr
esenti
nincr
easednumber
.

45. Granuloma i
saf ocus ofchr
oni
cinfl
ammation,consi
sti
ng ofmi cr
oscopi
c
aggregati
on ofmacrophagest
hatar
et r
ansf
ormed int
o epit
hel
i
um l i
kecell
s
surr
ounded by a coll
arofmononucl
earleukocyt
es.Don’tconfuse itwit
h
 Granul
ati
ontissuewhi
chhascapi
l
lar
ies,f
ibr
obl
ast
s,andav
ari
abl
eamountof
i
nflammator
ycel l
s.

46. Cl
assicaltuber
culousgr anulomasiscomposedofepi t
hel
ioi
dcel
ls,Langhan’
s
mult
inucl
eatedgiantcells,caseat
ionnecrosi
sandcoll
arofly
mphocytes.Ther
e
ar
etwot ypesofGr anul
omas: I
mmune&f orei
gnbody
.

47. Ther
eare3typesofcel
lsinthebody:Conti
nousl
ydi
vi
dingl
abi
l
ecel
l
s,Qui
scent
orst
abl
ecel
l
sandPer manentNon-
div
idingcel
ls.

48. Stem cel

l
sar
ecell
scharacter
izedbythei
rpr
olongedsel
frenewalcapaci
tyandby
theasymmet
ri
crepl
icat
ion.Theyareoftwoty
pes:embryonic&adultst
em cel
ls.

49. VEGF&f
ibr
obl
astGr
owt
hfact
orar
emai
nlyi
nvol
vedi
nangi
ogenesi
s.

50. TGF-Bi sagrowthinhi

bit
orformostepit
hel
ialcel
l
sand l
eukocy
tes,pot
ent
fi
brogeni
cagentandastr
onganti
-i
nfl
ammat
oryeff
ect
.

51. Extracel
lualrmatrixi
sf or
medoft hesegr oupsofmol ecul
es:a)fi
bronect
inb)
adhesivegl y
coprotei
nsandc)pr ot
eoglycans&hy al
uronicaci
d.
52. Collagensi st hemostcommon pr ot
eini nt heani malwor l
d,wi
th 27 t
ypes
discoveredsof ar.TypesI
,II
,II
I,V&X)ar efibr
il
larandmostcommonwhi l
etype
IVisnonf ibri
ll
ar.

53. Healngby2nd i
i ntenti
ondiff
ersf
rom 1sti
ntent
ioninthreeways;a)i
nfl
ammator
y
react
ionismoreintense,b)Muchmor egranulat
ionti
ssueformsandc)wound
contr
acti
onphenomenon.

54. Accumulati
onofexcessiv eamountsofcol
l
agenmaygi veri
setoahy per
trophi
c
scarwhi
leifscartissuegrowsbeyondtheboundar
iesoftheor
igi
nalwoundand
doesnotregress,
itiscal
ledkel
oid.

55. Edemaisdefi
nedasaccumul
ati
onoff
lui
dint
hei
nter
sti
ti
alt
issuespacesand
bodycav
iti
es.

56. Locali ncr

easedvol
umeofbl oodinapar ti
cularti
ssueleadstoHyperemi
aand
congest i
on.Hyper
emiai sanact iv
epr ocess,resul
ti
ngfrom augmentedti
ssue
i
nf l
ow because ofar t
eri
olardil
ation whil
e Congesti
on isa passi
ve pr
ocess
result
ingfrom i
mpair
edoutflowfrom ti
ssue.

57. Heartf
ail
ure cel
l
s are hemosi
der
inl
aden macr
ophages seen i
n chr
oni
c
pul
monar
ycongesti
on.

58. Pet
echi
aeareminute1to2mm hemor r
hagesintoski
n,mucousmembranesor
ser
osasurf
aces,whi
le>3mm hemor
rhagesarecall
edPur
puraandmor
el ar
ger>
1to2cm subcut
aneoushemat
omasarecall
edEcchymoses.
59. Vi
rchow’
str
iadincl
ude:a)Endot
hel
i
ali
njur
yb)St
asi
sort
urbul
entbl
oodf
low&c)
bl
oodhyper
coagulabi
l
ity
.

60. Oftheinher
it
edcausesofhy
percoagul
abi
l
ity
,mut
ati
oni
nthef
act
orVgeneand
pr
othrombingenear
ethemostcommon.

61. Li
nesofZahnarel
aminat
edli
nesproducedbyalter
nat
ingpal
elayer
sofpl
atel
ets
admi
xedwithsomefi
bri
nanddarkerl
ayerscont
aini
ngmoreredcell
s.

62. Fat
eoft hr
ombusi ncl
ude:pr
opagat
ionembol
i
zat
ion,di
ssol
uti
on,or
gani
zat
ion
andrecanal
izat
ion.

63. Embol
usisadet
achedi
ntrav
ascul
arsol
id,l
iqui
dorgaseousmasst hati
scarr
ied
byt
hebloodt
oasitedi
stantfr
om i
tspointofori
gin.Thephenomenoniscal
led
embol
i
sm.

64. Inf
arctisanareaofi
schemicnecr
osi
scausedbyoccl
usi
onofei
thert
hear
ter
ial
supplyorthev
enousdrai
nagei
naparti
cul
arti
ssue.

65. Themostdomi
nanthi
stol
ogi
cchar
act
eri
sti
cofi
nfar
cti
oni
sischemi
ccoagul
ati
ve
necr
osi
s.

66. Shockisthesystemi
chy poper
fusi
oncausedbyr educt
ionei
theri
ncar
diacoutput
ori
ntheef f
ecti
vecir
culati
ngbloodvol
ume, andresul
ti
nginhypot
ensi
onfol
lowed
byimpair
edtissueperf
usionandcell
ularhy
poxia.

67. Majortypesofshocki
ncl
ude:car
diogeni
c,hy
pov
olemi
c,sept
ic,neur
ogeni
cand
anaphy
lacti
c.

68. Mut
ati
oni
sdef
inedasaper
manentchangei
ntheDNA.

69. Marf
an’
s sy ndrome is a disor
deroft he connecti
veti
ssue oft he body,
char
act
erizedbychangesintheskelet
on,
eyesandcv s.Mai
nlycausebydefect
s
i
nanextracell
ulargl
ycopr
otei
nFir
bil
l
in-
1.

70. Ehlers-
Danl
os Sy ndr
ome compri
se a cl
i
nical
l
yand geneti
cal
l
yheterogenous
groupsofdisordersthatr
esul
tfr
om somedefecti
nthesynt
esi
sorstr
uctureof
fi
bril
l
arcoll
agen.

71. Amy l
oidisapat hol
ogi
cproteinaceoussubst
ancedeposi
tedbetweencell
sin
var
iousti
ssuesandorgansofthebodyinawidevar
iet
yofcl
ini
calset
ti
ngs.

72. Neoplasm is an abnor malmass,t he growth of which exceeds and i

n
uncoordi
natedwiththatofthenormalt
issueandpersi
stsi
nthesameexcessive
manneraftercessat
ionofthesti
muliwhichev
okedthechange.
73. Tumorhastwobasi
ccomponents:Par
enchy
ma&st
roma,whi
l
etumor
sar
eof
twot
ypes:
Beni
gnandMali
gnant
.

74. Benigntumorsarewel ldi

ff
erenti
ated,growslowl
yanddon’tshowi nvasionand
met ast
ases,whi
l
eMal i
gnanttumor srangefrom wel
ltoundif
ferenti
ated,grow
fastandshowinvasionandmet ast
asis.
75. Singlemostimportantfeat
uret odiff
erent
iat
ebenignfr
om mal i
gnantt umoris
METASTASI S.

76. Carci
nomas mostly use l
ymphat
ic r
out
es and sar
comas most
ly use
hematogenousr
out
esofspr
ead.

77. Fourtypesofgenesarenormal
lywor
kinginhumanbody:a)pr
oto-
oncogensb)
anti
oncogenes,
c)apopt
oti
cgenesandd)DNArepai
rgenes

78. Prot
o-oncogenes ar
e changed t
o oncogenes byt
hree pr
ocesses:mut
ati
on,
tr
ansl
ocationandampli
fi
cati
on.

79. Maj
oroncogenesar
e;RAS,
ERB-
B1,
RET,
KIT,
ABL,
C-MYC&N-
MYC.

80. Maj
orant
ioncogenesar
e:RB,
TP53,
W.-
1,NF-
1,BRCA-
1,APC.

81. Oncogenicvi
rusesincl
ude;
HumanPapil
lomav
irus,
Hepat i
ti
sBvir
us,Epstei
nBar
r
vi
rus,KaposiSarcomaHerpesv
iruses&HumanT- Cel
lleukemi
av i
rus(Theonl
y
oncogeni
cRNAv i
rus).

82. Chemi
calcar
cinogenesi
sis a mul
ti
step pr
ocess,di
vi
ded i
ntoi
nit
iat
ion and
pr
omoti
onphases.

83. Majorchemical
carci
nogensassoci
atedasi
ncl
ude:AsbestoswithMesot
hel
i
oma,
Ani
li
nedy eswi t
hTCC,Ni tr
ates-
Gastr
iccar
cinoma,Aflatoxi
nwithHCC,Viny
l
chl
ori
dewithAngiosar
comaLiver.

84. Radiati
on i
nduced mal
i
gnanci
es i
ncl
ude l
eukemi
as and papi
l
lar
y car
cinoma
thy
roid.

85. Majorparaneoplasti
csy nbdr
omesinclude,Cushi
ngsy
ndr
ome,ADHsecr et
ionby
smallcellcarcinomal ung,Hyper
calcemiabySquamouscellcar
cinomal ung,
hypogly
cemi abyFibrosarcomaandHCC, Pol
ycyt
hemi
abyRCCandhy pert
rophi
a
osteoar
thropathybyCAl ung.

86. Majortumormar kersincl

uded :HCG forChor i
ocarci
noma,calcit
oni
nf or
medull
arycar
cinomat hy
roi
d,al
phaf et
opr
otei
n-HCC and Non-seminomatous
ger
m cellt
umort esti
s,CEA-
CAcolon,PAPForCApr ostat
e,CA-
125f orOvari
an
CA, Ca19-
9forCACol onandpancr
eas,CA15-3forCAbreast
.
87. Maj
orimmunomar kersforepit
heli
alt umorsarecy toker
ati
n,f
ormesenchymal
t
umor–v i
ment i
n,forl
eukocy
teorigintumor–l eukocytecommonant
igen,S100
f
orneur
alori
gintumorsandforskeletalmuscl
et umors–desmin.

88. TypeIhy per

sensit
ivi
ty(“
anaphyl
act
ic”)or“immediatehyper
sensit
ivi
ty”)ist he
resul
tofanti
genbindi
ngtoIgEonthesurfaceofmastcel
lsandbasophils.These
i
nstantl
ydegranul
ateandrel
easeact
ivesubstancesi
ntot
hesurroundi
ngt issue.

89. TypeIIcytot
oxichyper
sensi
ti
vi
ty,ant
ibodi
esatt
achtoant
igensont
hesur
faces
ofacellandthensomethi
nginj
uresordestr
oyst
hecell
.

90. In type II
Iimmune- compl ex hyper
sensi
tivi
tyr eacti
on,“Soluble anti
gens”
preci
pit
atewit
hant i
bodies,usuall
ythi
shappens2- 4hour saft
erexposure.This
sortoft i
ssue i
njur
yi s medi at
ed by ant
igen-ant
ibody complexes (
“i
mmune
complexes”
).

91. Type I
V Hyper
sensiti
vit
yreacti
on i
s call
ed “del
ayed hy
persensi
ti
vi
ty”.I
tis
mediat
ed by sensit
ized CD4+T lymphocyt
es which process anti
gens i
n
associ
ati
onwi
thclassIIHLAmolecul
esandrel
easelymphoki
nes.

92. Immuner eacti

onsaredivi
dedint
ot wobroadcategori
es:A)Humor ali
mmunity
-B-
celll
ymphocy t
emedi at
edv iaproduct
ionofantibodyandOf tendevelopsasa
response to sol
uble anti
gens,and B)Cel l
ulari mmunity-
T-Celll
ymphocyte
mediated.CD4+helperl
ymphocytes:hel
pBcellsmakeant ibodyandalsohel
pt o
generatecyt
otoxi
cTcells.

93. Maj
orhi
stocompat
ibi
l
itycompl
exi
spr
esentonal
lnucl
eat
edcel
l
s.

94. TheHLAsy st
em i
sakeyfact
ori
nmostTranspl
antr
eject
ionr
eact
ions.React
ions
aremedi
atedbyeit
herTl
ymphocyt
esorbyanti
body
.

95. Tol
lliker
eceptor
saremembraneprotei
nsthatrecogni
zeav ari
etyofmicr
obe
der
ivedmolecul
esandst
imul
atei
nnat
ei mmuneresponsesagai
nstthemi
crobes.

96. CD4mol
ecul
eisahi
ghaf
fi
nit
yrecept
orf
orHI
V

97. Majoraut
oimmunediseaseincl
udeHashimoto’
sthy
roi
dit
is,
Rheumat
oidAr
thr
it
is,
Sj
ogren’
ssyndr
ome,ankylosi
ngspondyl
it
is.

98. Gammai nt
erf
eronisoneofthecyt
oki
net
oact
ivat
emacr
ophagesandal
sopl
ay
majorRol
einGranul
omaformati
on.

99. Cy
toki
nesar
emedi
ator
srel
easedf
rom onecel
landmodul
atet
heact
ionsof
 anot
hercel
l
.

100. Squamouscel lcarcinomai scharacter

izedbysheets,groupsandclust
ersof
pleomorphicmal i
gnantepithel
i
alcellswithhighN/Crati
o,hyper
chr
omati
cnuclei
andpal ecy t
oplasm. Ker
ati
nepitheli
alpearl
s,
inter
cel
l
ularbri
dgesandindiv
idual
cellker
ati
nizati
onar eseen.

101. Adenocarci
nomai schar
act
erizedbybacktobackcl
osel
ypackedglandsli
nedby
pl
eomor phi
cmalignantepi
theli
alcel
l
swithhi
ghN/ Crat
io,
hyper
chr
omat i
cnucl
ei
andeosinophi
l
iccytopl
asm.Wallshar
ingi
soft
ennoted.

102. Twoty
pesofvacci
nesincl
ude:Liv
evacci
nes;
Measles,
Mumps,
Rubel
l
a,Var
icel
l
a,
Pol
i
oetcandKil
ledvacci
nes:Rabi
es,
Poli
o,Hepat
it
isA.

103. Pr
otooncogenesar
econv
ert
edi
ntooncogenes.

104. p53wor
ksbyDNAr
epai
randpr
omot
ingapopt
osi
s.

105. RBgeneact
ivat
esandWor
ksi
nhy
pophosphor
ylat
edf
orm.

106. RAS gene pr

otooncogene pr
otei
nis GTP bound and Wor
ks wi
th GAP i
n
coor
idi
nat
ionwit
hGTPase.

107. Gl
i
omasandBCCar
ehi
ghl
ymal
i
gnantbutdontusual
l
ymet
ast
asi
ze.

108. AFBisacidfasebacil
l
us(Mycobacteri
um t
uber
cul
osi
s)andcal
l
edsobecausei
t
resi
stsdecol
ouri
zat
ionbyConcent
ratedAci
ds.

109. Ti
ger
edl
i
pidef
fecti
sseeni
nHer
at.

110. Maj
orcompl
ementpr
otei
nsi
ncl
ude:

OpsonizationbyC3b
Chemot axisbyC5a
AnaphylatoxinC3a,C4a,C5a
Membr anebr eakdownandkil
li
ngC5b,
6,7,
8,
9MACcompl
ex
Enhancementofant ibodypr
oduct
ionC3b

111. FNACandbi
opsyar
ekeyi
nvest
igat
ionst
oear
lydi
agnoseat
umor
.

112. Acti
veImmuni tyisther esistancei nducedaf t
ercontactwit
hf or
eignantigenseg
microorgani
sms,immuni zationwi thliveorkill
edinfect
iousagents,exposureto
microbi
al pr
oducts(toxi
ns, toxoids)
Passiveimmuni t
yisr esistancebasedonant ibodi
espr ef
ormedi nanotherhost
egadmi nist
rat
ionofant i
bodyagai nsttetanus,bot
uli
sm, di
phther
ia,r
abiesetc.
113. Suddendeat
hismaj
orl
yli
nkedwi
thembol
i
sm.

114. 24t
o48hour
spostacut
einf
lammat
ion,
monocy
tesst
artaccumul
ati
ng.

115. ubi
quit
inpr
oteosomepat
hway& aut
ophagi
cvacuol
esar
emai
nlyi
nvol
vedi
n
atr
ophy.

116. Reser
vest
em cel
l
sar
emai
npl
ayer
sinmet
apl
asi
a.

117. Mechani
cal
andt
rophi
cfact
orsar
einv
olv
edi
nhy
per
tophy
.

118. Eosi
nophi
l
sar
epl
ayer
sinal
l
ergi
cinf
ect
ions.

119. Sequenceofevent
sinacuteinfl
ammat ionis:
Transi
entasoconstr
icti
on,
vasodil
ati
on stasi
s,mar
ginat
ion,r
oll
i
ng,adhesi
on,
di
apedesis,
chemotaxisandphagocytosis.

120. Macrophagesseenasapartofr
eti
culoendothel
ialsy
stem i
ncl
ude:
Osteoclasts–bone,
micr
ogl
ia–brain,
kupffercell
s–l i
ver
,al
veol
armacr
ophages
–lung.Sinushi
sti
ocy
tes–ly
mphnodes.

120. Tuber
cul
osi
sist
hel
eadi
ngcauseofgr
anul
omai
nPaki
stan.

121. Maj
orgranul
omat ouscausesi
ncl
ude:sar
coi
dosi
s,l
epr
osy
,catscr
atchdi
sease,
f
ungal
infect
ions.

122. Gr
adi
ngofat
umori
sbasedondi
ff
erent
iat
ion,
aty
piaandmi
toses.

123. St
agi
ngofat
umori
sbasedonTNM –t
umor
,nodes,
met
ast
asi
s.

124. Maj orautosomal domi nantdi

sor dersinclude: Skel
etal
–Mar f
an;sy
ndrome
Ner vous–Hunt i
ngtondisease,neurofibromat osis
Gast roi
ntest
inal–f amili
alpol
y posiscoli
Urinary–pol ycysti
ckidneydisease
Haemat opoi
etic–her edit
aryspher ocytosis
125. Maj orintr
acell
ularaccumul at
ionsar e:
Mel anin–mel anoma, bi
le–chol estasis,
carbon–ant hr
acosi
s,
copper–Wil
son
disease
l
ipof usci
n–agi ng

126. Fat
tychangei
sal
soknownasst
eat
osi
s.

127.Poi
ntmutati
onsareoftencausedbychemicalsormalf
unct
ionofDNA
r
epli
cat
ion, exchangeasinglenucl
eot
ideforanot
here.
gRAS.

128. Gi
antcel
l
sar
ecel
l
scont
aini
ngmor
ethanonenucl
eus.
129.Majorgiantcel
lsare:Langhangi antcel
ls–Tuber
cul
osi
s,Tutongi
ant
cel
ls–xant homaWar thi
nfinkeldeygiantcel
l
s–measles,ReedSter
nber
gcel
l
s–
HodgkinLymphoma
Forei
gnbodygi antcel
ls–foreignbody

130. I
gGf
ixescompl
ementandcr
ossespl
acent
a.

131. I
gM i
sthemostheav
yant
ibody
.

132. I
gEi
stheal
l
ergi
creact
ionpl
ayerant
ibody
.

133. I
gAi
sfoundi
nsecr
eti
ons.

134. ABLgenei
sseent
ransl
ocat
edi
nCML.

135. Li
nesofZahnconf
ir
msat
hrombus.
Theyar
eal
ter
nat
elay
ersofpl
atel
etswi
th
fi
bri
nandRBCs’

136. Psamommabodiesarelamell
atedbodiesofdyst
rophiccal
cif
icat
ionseenin
meningi
oma,
papi
l
lar
ycar
cinomathyr
oidandser
ousovar
ianmali
gnanttumors.

137. Nucl
earchangesinanecr
oti
ccel
li
ncl
ude:py
knosi
s,kar
yol
ysi
s,kar
ryor
rhex
isand
l
ossofnucleus.

138. Macrophages get accumul

ated i
n chr oni
c i
nfl
ammat
ion by cont
inuous
r
ecrui
tment,pr
oli
fer
ati
onandi
mmobil
izat
ion.

139. Ischemicinjuryl
eadstocoagulativ
enecr osi
s.
140. Maj orsensiti
vecellcomponent s: maintenanceofint
egr
it
yofcel
lmembr
ane,
aerobicrespir
ati
on,prot
einsy
nt hesis,
geneticint
egr
it
y

141. Li
quef
activenecr
osis:Usuall
ycausedbyfocalbact
eri
ali
nfect
ions,becauset
hey
canat
tractpol
ymorphonuclearl
eukocy
tes.

142. Coagul
ativ
enecr
osi
sischar
act
eri
sedbyt
hepr
eser
vat
ionofcel
l
ularandt
issue
ar
chit
ecture

143. FatNecr
osis:Ater
mf ornecr
osi
si nfat
,causedeit
herbyr el
easeofpancreat
ic
enzy
mesf r
om pancreasorgut(enzymicfatnecr
osis)orbytr
aumatofat,eit
her
byaphysi
calbl
oworbysur gery(
traumati
cfatnecr
osis).

144. Caseousnecrosis–cheesel i
ke:Adi st
inctf
orm ofcoagul
ati
venecr
osisseenin
mycobacteri
alinfect
ions(e.
g.,t
ubercul
osis)
,orintumornecrosi
s,i
nwhi chthe
coagulat
ed tissue no longer resembles the cel
l
s,but isi n chunks of
unrecogni
zabl
edebr i
s
145. Gangrene("gangr
enousnecr
osis")i
snotaseparatekindofnecrosi
satall
,buta
ter
m f ornecrosi
st hatis advanced and v
isi
ble grossl
y wi
th superadded
putr
efact
ion.

146. Fi
bri
noidnecr
osi
soccursi
nt hewallofbl
oodv
essel
swhenendot
hel
i
um and
smoothmuscl
ecell
sar
einj
uredanddyi
ng.

147. Unlikenecrosi
s,wherethecelldiesbyswelli
ngandbur st
ingitscontenti
nthe
area,whi chcausesani nf
lammat or
yresponse,apopt
osisisav erycleanand
cont r
oll
edprocesswheret hecontentofthecelli
skeptst r
ict
lywit
hinthecel
l
membr aneasiti
sdegraded.

148. Theextr
insi
cpathwayofapoptosi
sisini
ti
atedthr
oughthest i
mulat
ionofthe
tr
ansmembranedeathr
ecept
ors,suchastheFasrecept
ors,l
ocatedonthecel
l
membrane.

149. Incontrast
,theint
ri
nsicpathwayofapopt
osisi
sini
ti
atedt
hrought
her
eleaseof
signal
factorsbymitochondri
awit
hint
hecell

150. I
nmal
esbr
onchogeni
ccar
cinomaandi
nfemal
esbr
eastcar
cinomaar
eatt
het
op.

151. Preneopl
asti
c condi
ti
ons incl
ude:Ci r
rhosi
s ofli
ver,Atypi
calhyperpl
asi
a of
endometri
um,Leukoplaki
a,Infl
ammat oryboweldi
sease,Adenomatouscol
onic
polyps
152. Ini
ti
atorchemical
s-Causei r
rever
sibl
edamaget oDNA,butatmaxi mum they
cancauseseveredyspl
asi
a.

153. Pr
omot erchemical
sit
sel
fcannoti
nducecancer
,t
heypr
opagat
eorenhancet
he
ef
fect
sofi ni
ti
ator
s

154. Knownchemi calcarci

nogensinclude:A-Asbest
os-Lung,
mesot
hel
i
oma.GIt
ract
(esophagus,stomach, l
argei
ntestine)
b-Arsenic-Lung, ski
n,hemangiosarcoma
c-Beryl
li
um -Lung
d-Cadmi um -prostate
e.Benzene-Leukemi a

155. I
oni
zi
ngr
adi
ati
onl
eadst
ody
sjunct
ion r
andom f
usi
on mut
ati
on.

156. Exposur
elongt
erm ofr
adi
ati
onsl
eadt
oleukemi
aandt
hyr
oidcancer
s.

157. I
nit
iat
ion, Lat
ent stage, Promoti
on and Mal
i
gnant t
ransf
ormat
ion ar
e
r
ecognizabl
estagesi
ncarci
nogenesi
s.

158. Mastcel
l
sar
ethemai
nsour
ceofhi
stami
neandpl
atel
etst
hemai
nsour
ceof
 ser
otoni
n.

159. ThromboxaneA2( TXA2)

,fr
om pl
atel
ets,aggr
egat
espl
atel
ets,const
ri
ctsbl
ood
vessel
s.Greatf
orhemost
asi
s.

160. Prostacycl
i
n(PGI2)
,fr
om thevesselwal
l,pr
eventspl
atel
etaggr
egat
ion,di
l
ates
vessels.Gr
eatf
orwhenev
erhemostasisi
sunnecessar
y.

161. Suppur
ativ
eorpur
ulenti
nfl
ammat i
onischar
act
eri
zedbytheproduct
ionoflarge
amountsofpusorpurul
entexudat
econsi
sti
ngofneut
rophi
l
s,necrot
iccel
l
s, and
edemaflui
d.

162. Anulceri
salocaldefect
,orexcavat
ion,oft
hesur
faceofanorganorti
ssuet
hat
i
sproducedbythesloughi
ng(sheddi
ng)ofinfl
ammator
ynecr
otict
issue

163. Ter
atomai
sat
umorder
ivedf
rom mor
ethanoneger
m cel
ll
ayer
.

164. Semi
nomas,
Mel
anomas,
Hepat
omasar
emal
i
gnantt
umor
s.

165. Extenttowhichthetumorcel
lresembl
eit
spar
entcell
isdi
ff
erent
iat
ion.
166. Ranges ofdi ff
erenti
ati
on i
nclude:wel
l
,moderatel
y,poorl
y,undiff
erent
iat
ed
(anaplasi
a).

167. A mali
gnantcel
l
s shows:high N/
Cr ati
o,hy
per
chr
omat
ic nucl
ei,pr
omi
nent
nucl
eol
i
,scant
ycyt
opl
asm andpl
eomorphism.

168. Car
cinomai nsi
tuis:Full-
thi
cknessdyspl
asi
aext
endi
ngf
rom t
hebasement
membr anet
othesur
faceoftheepit
hel
i
um.

169. Dyspl
asia:At
ypi
calpr
oli
fer
ati
onofcellscharact
eri
zedbynucl
earenl
argement
andfai
lur
eofdif
fer
ent
iat
ionwhichf
all
sshortofmali
gnancy

170. Thechanget
hatoccur
sint
hest
romaast
umori
nvadesi
scal
l
eddesmopl
asi
a

171. Beni
gnt umorsnev erl
ocal
l
yinv
adeandMal
i
gnantt
umor
sal
way
sinv
adet
he
sur
roundingt
issues.

172. Car
cinomaoft
heov
aryspr
eadst
hroughseedi
ngofbodycav
iti
es.

173. Commonestpl
acesf
ormet
sdeposi
tsar
eli
verandl
ungs.

174. Per
ineur
alspr
eadi
sseenbycar
cinomaofpr
ost
ateandpancr
eas(
2P’
s).

175. Nucl
eardamagei
sthehal
lmar
kofi
rr
ever
sibl
ecel
li
njur
y.

176. Sci
ent
if
icst
udyofst
ruct
uralchangesandf
unct
ionalconsequencesofi
njur
ious
 st
imul
ioncel
l
s,t
issuesandor
gansi
sPat
hol
ogy
.

177. Metapl
asiaisat woedgesswor
dbecausei
tcanl
eadt
ody
spl
asi
aandt
he
or
igi
nalfunct
ionofcel
l
sisl
ost
.

178. Met
apl
asi
acanl
eadt
ody
spl
asi
a.

179. ALTHOUGHATROPHI
CCELLSMAYHAVEDI
MINI
SHEDFUNCTI
ON,
THEYRNOT
DEAD.

180. Pat
hol
ogichy
per
plasi
aconst
it
utesafer
ti
lesoilinwhichcancer
ouspr
oli
fer
ati
on
mayevent
ual
l
yari
seli
kebphandendometr
ial
hy per
plasi
a.

181. Dy
spl
asi
acanr
egr
essanddoesnotal
way
sleadt
ocancer
.

182. Transudat
esarefl
uidaccumul
ati
onsthatar
eessenti
all
ysal
t-
water
,accumul
ated
becauseofpressureprobl
ems.Exudatesareprot
ein-
ri
chflui
daccumulat
ions,
duetoleakyv
essels.

183. Indisseminatedintr
avascul
arcoagulati
on,t
heclotti
ngcascadesareacti
vated
thr
oughoutt hebody .Thi
si sbad,sinceitt
endst oshutdownor gansduet o
microthr
ombi ,andalsocausesbleedi
ngduet oconsumpt
ionofclott
ingf
actors
andact i
vat
ionofplasmin.

184. Somepeoplereser
vethewor d"
thr
ombus"f
ort
heant
e-mor
tem ki
nd,andcal
l
post
-mor
tem t
hrombi"
clot
s".

185. Ar
teri
alt
hrombiusual
lyoccuroverr
upt
uredather
oscl
erot
icpl
aques,
lessof
tenat
si
tesofot
hervascul
ardiseaseorol
dsurger
y.

186. Veget
ati
onsarethrombithatoccuroncardi
acvalves.Theymaybel oadedwi
th
bact
eri
a("bact
eri
alendocar
dit
is"
),orst
eri
l
e("maranti
c","
ver
rucous"
,"bl
and"
;al
so
thet
hrombiofacuterheumati
cfever
).

187. Embol
us"comesf
rom t
heGr
eekf
or"
bot
tl
est
opper
".

188. Pulmonaryembol
izat
ionisoneofthegreatki
l
ler
sofhospital
i
zedpat
ient
s,and
thatant
e-mor
tem di
agnosi
sisnot
ori
ousl
yunsati
sfact
oryev
entoday
.

189. Apar adoxi

calembol
us(* 
crossedembolus)isonefrom t
hesy
stemicvei
nsthat
passest hr
oughari
ght-
to-
lef
tintr
acar
diacshunt(
i.
e.,
abirt
hdef
ect)
,tooccl
udea
syst
emi carter
y.

190. Longbonef
ract
uresar
ethemai
ncauseoff
atembol
i
sm.
191. Tumoremboli
arebi
tsofcancert
hati
nvadedav
einandt
henbr
okeof
f.Renal
cel
l
car
cinomai
sfamousfort
his.

192. Whit
einfar
cts(
"anemicinf
arct
s",f
rom "an-
",not
,and"
-eme"
,bl
ood)ar
eusual
whenart
eri
esar
eoccludedi
nsolidorgans

193. Redinf
arcts(
"hemorrhagi
cinf
arct
s",soundsli
keanoxymoronbuti sn'
t)r
esul
t
whenveinsar
eoccluded,orwhenarter
iesar
eoccl
udedinlooset
issues(bowel
)
orwi
thadualbloodsupply
,orwhentheorganwasal
readyv
erycongested.

194. Monocy
tesar
ethel
argestcel
l
sinbl
oodst
ream.

195. Hi
sti
ocy
tesar
emat
uret
issuemacr
ophages.

196. Cel
lmembr
anedamagei
sthef
ir
stsi
gnofi
rr
ever
sibl
ecel
li
njur
y.

197. Ly
sosomal
leakageconf
ir
msi
rr
ever
sibl
ecel
li
njur
y.

198. Chor
ist
omasandhemar
tomasar
enotneopl
asms.

199. FGF,
TGF,
VEGF,
EGFar
emai
ngr
owt
hfact
ors.

200. Endot
hel
ium getsleakyinacuteinf
lammationdueto:1)for
mat ionofendotheli
al
gapsinv
enules2)cy toskel
etalr
eorgani
zat
ion3)i
ncreasedtranscyt
osis4)direct
endot
hel
iali
njury5)leukocytedependenti
njur
y6)delayedprolongedleakage7)
l
eakagefrom newbloodv essel
s