BHARATESH - 5VX10PMN01 - Thesis - Impact Header

Studies on Strength Properties of Wood Steel Composites and its Applications
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to composite and their usage

A composite material is a structural material which consists of two or more
constituents combined at a macroscopic level and is not soluble in each other. One
constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the other one in which it is embedded in is
called as matrix. The bond between the reinforcement and matrix is termed as interface. A
concept of composite material is shown in figure (1.1) the reinforcing phase may be
fibres, particles, or flakes. The matrix phases are generally continuous [1]. The idea of
composite materials is not new. Wood is a fibrous composite in which cellulose is fibre in
lignin matrix. Composition of bone material is another example of natural composite that
supports the weight of various members of the body [2].
Fig. 1.1 Concept of composite [3]
The first fibre glass boat was made in 1942; it was built using the reinforced
plastics in aircraft and electrical components [4]. Filament winding was invented in 1946.
The high strength carbon fibres were introduced in early 1960s. Boron/Aluminium
composites were introduced in 1970. DuPont developed Kevlar or Aramid fibres in 1973
[4]. The 1980s marked a significant increase in high modulus fibre utilization and 1990s
further expanded to infrastructure. Applications of composite are plenty and continuously
expanding in development of aerospace, aircraft, automotive, marine, energy,
infrastructure, armour, biomedical, and recreational applications [4]. There are some
applications of composite where, complete structure is built by using composite materials.
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Fig.1.2 Composite bridge systems. Vancouver, Canada [5]

A composite bridge system under development is shown in figure (1.2). The
composite systems are also used in the process of repair and rehabilitations of materials
and structures. Few examples of wood-steel and wood-carbon fibre applications are
shown figure (1.3-1.6).
Fig. 1.3 Installation of carbon/steel plate Fig. 1.4 Carbon fabric wrapped to beam
on tension face [6] surface [6]
Fig. 1.5 Wood beam strengthening [7] Fig. 1.6 Wrapping around column increases
to enhance stiffness, strength and Shear and axial strength to improve ductility
ductility and energy dissipation behaviour [8]
Composites are usually developed to rectify weakness in one material using
strength of another. The objective is to create a material that has only the characteristics
needed to perform the intended task. Composites offer several advantages over
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conventional materials. These include improved strength, stiffness, fatigue, impact

resistance, thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance etc.
The Mechanical advantage of composite is measured by specific modulus, and

specific strength [1]. The ratio between the Young’s modulus and density of the material
is called as the specific modulus and the ratio between the ultimate strength and density of
the material is called as the specific strength.
′

= = (1.1)

#$%&'(%) *%+),%-. 23$%

!ℎ = = (1.2)
/),0&%1 4
The above mentioned ratios are high in composite materials. Figure (1.7) shows
how composites and fibres rate with other traditional materials in terms of specific
strength [9].
Fig. 1.7 Specific strength of materials Vs time [9], [1]

Figure (1.8) shows the effect of specific strength and specific modulus on various fibres,
metals and composites [1]. For Graphite fiber the specific modulus and specific strength
is higher as compared to Steel and Aluminium.
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Fig. 1.8 Comparison of specific strength [1]
Mechanical characterization of composite materials and structures built by

composites is more complex than that of metal. Evaluation and measurement techniques
of some composite properties are still being developed. Mechanical parameters to be used
for the measurement depend on the applications [10]. Depending upon the applications,
construction, material used the composites are classified. The proceeding section deals
with various classifications of composite materials.
1.2 Classification of composite materials
Usually composite materials will consist of two separate components i.e. the
matrix and the filler. The matrix is the component that holds the filler together to form the
bulk of the material. It generally consists of various polymer matrix but other materials
may be used. The metal matrix, ceramic matrix, carbon matrix, and graphite matrix
composites are some of the other possibilities. The filler is the material that has been
impregnated in the matrix to give its advantage (usually strength) to the composite. The
behaviour of a composite is a result of combined behaviour of fiber, matrix and
fiber/matrix interface [2]. A pictorial presentation of composite is given in figure (1.9).
The classifications based on matrix, reinforcements, and interfaces are dealt in the
following sections.
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Fig. 1.9 Schematic presentations of composites [11]
1.2.1 Classification based on matrix materials
The matrix is the material which binds the fiber material. The functions of matrix
include binding fibers together, protecting fibers from environment, shielding from
damage due to handling, and distributing the load to fibers. Matrices have low mechanical
properties compared to fibers, but influences many mechanical properties of the
composites. These properties include transverse modulus and strength, shear modulus and
strength, compressive strength, inter-laminar shear strength, thermal expansion
coefficient, thermal resistance, and fatigue strength (1). The materials used as matrix
include polymers, metals, ceramics, carbon, and graphite. Figure (1.10) shows the general
classification of composites based on matrices.
Fig. 1.10 Classification composites based on matrices [12]
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1.2.2 Classification based on reinforcement materials
Reinforcements are fibers. The Fibers can be long, short, continuous, particles,
whiskers, flakes, or sheets. The Fibers posses very high strength and stiffness coupled
with very low density. Glass, aramid, boron, carbon, organic, ceramic, oxides are the
commonly used man-made fibers. Cotton, jute, flax, hemp, sisal, ramie, wood, straw, hair,
wool, and silk are the nature-made fibers. The use of fibers as high performance
engineering material is based three important characteristics
• Decrease in strength with increase in diameter of fiber [13].
• A high aspect ratio (length/diameter), which allows a very large fraction of the
applied load to be transferred via the matrix to the stiff and strong fiber [2].
• A very high degree of flexibility (Young’s modulus X Moment of inertia), which
permits the use variety for making of composites [2].
Figure (1.11) shows the general classification of composites based on reinforcing fibers.
Fig. 1.11 Classification of composites based on reinforcements [12]
1.2.3 Classification based on bonding at the interfaces
An interface is a surface between reinforcement and a matrix in composites. It is

very essential to control the degree of bonding between the matrix and the reinforcement.
In order to control the degree of bonding, it is necessary to understand all the different
possible bonding types [2]. Figure (1.12) shows the classification of important types of
interfacial bonding
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Fig. 1.12 Classification of composites based on interfacial bonding (2)
1.2.3.1 Mechanical bonding

Simple mechanical keying or interlocking process between the two surfaces can
lead to considerable degree of bonding. The matrix penetrating the crevices on fiber
surfaces by diffusion lead to mechanical bonding. Mechanical gripping of fibers by
matrix is sufficient to cause an effective reinforcement [2]. An example of mechanical
bonding assembly of bullock cart wheel is shown in figure (1.13), which is of wood steel
composite type.
Fig. 1.13 Cart wheel an example of shrink fit interface [14]
Mechanical bonding is efficient in load transfer, when applied force is parallel to

the interface. In this case, the matrix must fill the pores and surface roughness of the
reinforcement. Surface roughness contributes to the bond strength (3). Any bonding
involving weak, secondary forces, dipolar interactions, and hydrogen bonding can be
classified as physical bonding.
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1.2.3.2 Chemical bonding

In chemical bonding, atomic or molecular transport by diffusion processes is
involved. Solid solution and compound formation occurs at the interface resulting in
reinforcement/matrix interfacial reaction zone with certain thickness as shown in figure
(1.14). This encompasses all types of covalent, ionic and metallic bonding. In case of
dissolution bonding interaction occurs at an electronic scale and the interactions are of
short range and atomic scale [2]. Reaction bonding occurs when atoms or molecules of
the fiber and the matrix diffuse into each other at the interface [1]. Adhesive bonding is
chemical bonding and is used to fasten two surfaces together, generally to produce a
smooth bond. This joining technique involves glues, epoxies, or various plastic agents
that bond by evaporation of a solvent or by curing a bonding agent with heat, pressure, or
time.
Fig. 1.14 Adhesive bonding [15]
In earlier applications, glues have produced relatively weak bonds. However, the
recent application of plastic-based agents allowed adhesion with a strength approaching
that of the bonded materials themselves. As a result, gluing has replaced other joining
methods in many applications—especially where the bond is not exposed to prolonged
heat or weathering.
A large fraction of modern glues are carbon-based petrochemical derivatives.
These can be used to bond almost any combination of surfaces. Whether bonding metal to
metal, plastic, glass, rubber, ceramic, or to another substrate material, adhesives distribute
stress load evenly over a broad area, reducing stress on the joint. They resist flex and
vibration stresses, and forms a seal as well as a bond, which can protect the joint from
corrosion.
Adhesives easily join irregularly shaped surfaces which increase the weight of an
assembly negligibly. It creates virtually no change in part dimensions or geometry.
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Adhesives bond dissimilar materials as well as heat sensitive materials quickly and easily.
Limitations include, they require More time to fix and develop full strength, surface
preparation requirements, and some problems are associated with joint disassembly.
1.3 Wood based composites

Wood is a three dimensional polymeric composite made up of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose, lignin, extractives and ash forming minerals [16]. These polymers exist in
varying proportions at different parts of the cell wall and are responsible for most of the
physical and chemical properties exhibited by wood. The framework substance of a
woody plant cell is cellulose that occurs in form of micro fibrils, while hemi-cellulose and
other carbohydrates constitute the matrix. Lignin and other aMORphous substances in the
wood form the covering materials, which bonds the framework and matrix structure
together [17] . Structure of wood is shown in figure (1.15).
Fig. 1.15 Wood structure [15]
The physical and mechanical properties of wood are affected by the type of cells,
distribution of cells and orientation of micro-fibrils in the cell wall layers. Thus there are
variations in the physical and mechanical properties of wood. Wood is weaker in
compression than in tension. High density woods tend to fail in tension. Wood will often
fracture in horizontal shear [18]. Wood is an orthotropic material and has unique and
independent mechanical properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes
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as shown in figure (1.16) [19]. Wood can be effectively upgraded for strength and
stiffness through the application of reinforcement.
Fig. 1.16 Three mutually perpendicular axes of wood orthotropy [19]
1.3.1 Importance of wood

A reinforcing system would result in many possible benefits to a wood section. It
may act to improve the mechanical properties of the section, reduce both long- and short-
term maintenance, or increase the durability of the section. In addition to this, a
reinforcing system may make some wood products More economically competitive with
other engineering materials [19].
The improvement of mechanical properties will be measured by comparing
reinforced properties with unreinforced ones. Specifically, stiffness enhancement will be
measured by comparing the reinforced Modulus of Elasticity with that of the specimen
prior to reinforcing. Strength enhancement is measured by comparing the moment
capacity of unreinforced specimens at failure with the reinforced specimen’s capacity at
failure [19].
The strengthening of wooden beams is designed to enhance both the capacity and
flexural stiffness. Composite wood-steel structural members have potential to combine
the advantages of ready availability, easy working, and simple joining along with strength
and stiffness. Wood beams are used in structures subjected to flexural deformation and
can benefit from reinforcements such as flitch plate, solid cylinder rods inserted in to
routed groves. Wood will often fracture in horizontal shear when it is very dry or there are
sharp changes in growth ring density. It is possible to reinforce wood with Mild steel,
Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP), Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), Glass Fiber
Reinforced Plastic(GFRP), Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic
Polyurethane(FULCRUM) are the materials used for reinforcement. Mild steel is most
commonly used because it has good strength and stiffness properties [20]. A literature
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survey is carried out and presented in the following section to look in to various
strengthening techniques of wood and other materials and to explore possible research
opportunities.
1.4 Literature survey

An extensive amount of literature survey is carried out to find out the possibility
of use of wood steel composites. The literature survey implies that, there are various
kinds of wood based composite systems and there exist numerous classifications.
Basically wood based composite is a hybrid systems, in which wood is joined with metal
or non-metal by mechanical or other means. In this work the literature survey carried out
on wood based composite is pertaining to the method of joining wood with other
materials. The literature of previous work carried out on wood based composite system is
conveniently categorized as shown in figure (1.17). The work of the literature review is
organized in the following sections as:
• Open Type Wood Based Composite
• Closed Type Wood Based Composite
Fig. 1.17 Classification of wood based composite systems
1.4.1 Open type wood based composites

Flitch, sandwich, laminate and Glulam construction is open type system which
consists of the combination of two or more materials assembled to form one component.
The final product has enhanced desirable properties than its constituents. Thin layers were
used to form the skins of the sandwich structure. These skins are made from steel or FRP,
which are placed apart by a filling material such as concrete, wood or foam. This system
offers high capacity-to-weight ratio. The limitations of this system include a relatively
low flexural stiffness and limited fire resistance, unless it is insulated.
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The majority of the early research work, in wood steel applications. The use of
steel reinforced timber systems are seen from the mid of 1800's and some of them are
patented from the early 1900's [21].These flitch systems have used steel strips, both
continuous and intermittent and laminated to form the exterior of wood beams. The
development of beams with internal vertical plates is also known as flitch beam [22],
[23], [24].
Buleit et al. [25] conducted work on steel wire mesh embedded between the lams
in a glue lam beam. The results of this work shows, that stiffness increases by 24-32%
and moment capacity increases in the order of 30%. There are several applications in
which steel bars, rods and plates are used for reinforcing. The systems developed included
wood-aluminium system [26]. Some systems were also designed using pre-stressed
reinforcing materials [27], [28].
Despite improvement achieved in the engineering properties of the wood, the
majority of these researches were not taken beyond the experimentation stage. There are
number of reasons for this.
• First and foremost has been the economics. Current large scale manufacturing
costs of these products have not outweighed the structural advantage achieved.
• Secondly, the difficulty of developing a successful connection between the
different components has also limited commercial production [29].
Enhancement with metallic reinforcements has the difficulty in developing a

system to anchor the metallic reinforcement to the timber specimen. Figure (1.18) shows
constructional feature of flitch beam.
Fig. 1.18 Bolted flitch beams [30]
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Gardner [31] reported a system in which a steel reinforcing bar is placed inside of
a Glulam sample. Two adjacent lams in a Glulam specimen were grooved, to
accommodate a reinforcing bar and then the section built-up, using traditional Glulam
manufacturing techniques. Test results of these specimens showed that some of the
mechanical properties were enhanced by as much as 280% when compared with
unreinforced specimens. This particular system has shown that the mechanical properties
of a timber section may be considerably improved using metallic reinforcement, while
remaining economically competitive. Fiber reinforcement studies were undertaken
concurrently to overcome the limitations of metallic reinforcements. Following sections
deals with the examples of Fiber reinforcing in wood.
Studies involving the fiber reinforcement of wood were undertaken along with the
work involving metallic reinforcements. The focus is diverted from the area of metallic
reinforcing systems when substantial improvement in moment capacity was achieved by
fiber reinforcement in wood. As a result, over the past 10-15 years the majority of the
work has cantered on the investigation of fiber reinforced members. Studies by Spaun
[32], Rowlands et al. [33], Van [34] and many others have shown that the use of fibre
reinforcing systems can result in substantial additional moment capacity and deflection
reduction.
The main focus of the study was on the use of fibre reinforcement. The extensive
studies were conducted by Plevris et al [35] on aramid, carbon and glass fibres as a
reinforcing material for sawn timber. In the work they examined ultimate moment
capacity, curvature ductility, rigidity and axial force capacity. It was found that for each
fiber type, the bending strength of the specimens increased almost linearly with increasing
fibre fraction up to a critical value, after which it became constant. It was found that the
carbon fibre reinforcing provided the greatest initial strength and stiffness, followed by
aramid fibres and finally glass fibres. This is consistent with the relative strength of the
pure fibres. The studies revealed that, there is a beneficial effect from the FRP on the
ductility of the system. It was found that even a small carbon fibre fraction area of (1%)
can result in an initial stiffness increase in the order of 60%. It was concluded that even a
small fiber fraction area can have a dramatic enhancement on mechanical properties. An
application of CFRP sheet is shown in figure (1.19)
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Fig. 1.19 Reinforcement applications: CFRP sheets [36]
Pilot studies in recent years have shown the significant promise of combining
wood and FRP [37], [38], [39], [40] For example, FRP reinforcement in the order of 2%
can increase the strength of wood beams by over 50% [41], [42]. The published work on
FRP reinforced wood has been ‘proof-of-concept’ studies that have focused on short-term
response of reinforced rectangular glued-laminated beams (Glulam). Following are the
fundamental and science and engineering issues that need to be addressed [43].
• A basic understanding of FRP–wood bond issues.

• Optimum FRP composition for compatibility with wood.
• Optimum FRP–wood structural member geometries and material
properties.
• Modeling of long-term behavior.
In applications to find the mechanical strength, steel bars were used as Glulam
strengthening by Dziuba [44] and Bulleit et al. [45]. Steel and aluminium plates have
been placed between laminations both vertically and horizontally by Borgin et al. [46],
Stern and Kumar [47], and Coleman and Hurst [48]. High strength steel wire embedded in
an epoxy matrix has been used to replace tension laminations of wood beams by Krueger
et al. [49]. Most of these techniques have never been used to consolidate existing or old
wood beams for various reasons, to carry out a complete replacement of the wood
element. Seismic or static upgrading works are often necessary for existing wood member
and external bonding of strengthening is possible solution [50]
Borri et al. [36] conducted mechanical tests to find out flexural properties of
reinforced wood, the results revealed that external bonding of FRP sheets on the side
loaded with tension increases flexural capacity by 60.3 % compared to unreinforced
beams. The specimen used in the test are shown in figure (1.20)
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Fig. 1.20 Reinforcement layouts on wood section [36]
Hairstans et al. [51] carried series of laboratory test and parametric studies on
flitch beams constructed from Kerto S Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) or C24 grade
timber using a shot fired dowel connection to find the effect of dowels on flexural
strength. The tests showed that during elastic range proportional stress transfer taken
place. However at higher load there was an uneven stress transfer due to localized
buckling of the steel in the top chord and weakening of the timber elements of the beam
due to splitting at the nailing point. In the reported study it is found that the use of shot
fired dowels provides an adequate connection for the elements of flitch beam to act in a
load sharing even when they are not connected together. It is concluded that the use of
shot fired dowels is relatively quick and efficient method of fabrication and structural
properties of the beam are of a standard enough to allow economic application. The type
of specimens used in the test and the load Vs deformation curve obtained are shown in
figure (1.21-1.22).
Fig. 1.21 Wood with dowels [51] Fig. 1.22 Effective span load against
deflection plots adjusted for density [51]
Parvez et al. [52], addressed the function of nailing density on flexural properties
of vertically laminated steel-timber flitch beams. Increasing the nailing density slightly
improves the flexural stiffness but concurrently causes a clear reduction in flexural
strength. Stresses in the mechanical fasteners are primarily localized to the area of
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contact with steel plate. They suggested that nails placed centrally play no role in resisting
normal tensile-compressive stresses during flexion; however they reduce the beginning of
buckling and provide extra resistance in vertical shear. Shot fired nailing is fast and
effective method of joining structural composites. It is concluded that the flexural
modulus cannot clearly be said to increase as a function of increasing nailing density.
This verifies that the contribution of steel to the stiffness of the composite is achieved
with the lowest nailing density. This is because the introduction of More nail holes defect
makes crack propagation easier when deformation is non- recoverable. The specimens
and test results are shown in figure (1.23-1.24)
Fig. 1.23 Nailing patterns [52] Fig. 1.24 Plot of the median values for the
flexural strength against the flexural modulus
[52]
Campilho et al. [53] performed experimental and finite element study on the
bending behaviour of wood beams of the Pinus Pinaster species repaired with adhesively
bonded carbon-epoxy patches, after sustaining damage by cross-grain failure. They found
that the damage is characterized by crack growth at small angle to the beams longitudinal
axis, due to misalignment between the wood fibres and beam axis. The simulation
included the possibility of cohesive fracture of the adhesive layer, failure within the wood
beam in two propagation planes and a patch inter-laminar failure. The comparison with
the test allowed validation of proposed methodology, opening a good perspective for the
reduction in costs in the design stages of the repairs.
Borri et al.[54], presented experimental study on the strengthening of wood beams
under loads through the use of very high strength steel cords. An experimental program
based on four-point bending test configuration was carried to characterize the stiffness,
ductility and strength response of wood beams strengthened with steel chord. Mechanical
tests conducted on the strengthened wood showed that, the external bonding of steel
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fibres produce high increase in flexural stiffness and capacity. It concludes that with
regard to bending tests on strengthened beams a non-linear behaviour was observed. This
non-linearity may be due to compression yielding of the wood and/or imperfect
composite action between wood and strengthening. Adherence between the wood and
reinforcement was effective up to the fracture in the wood beams. The detachment of the
metal cords from the wood occurred only after the fracture of the wood in the tension
area. The fracture initiated from a defect in the wood itself, such as a knot or an existing
fracture due to wood shrinkage or grain deviation. The presence of steel strengthening
seems to arrest crack opening, confines local rupture and bridges local defects in the
timber. This causes an increase in the tensile strength parallel to the grain. Figure (1.25)
shows pictorial view of steel cords in timber rafter and graphical results are as shown in
figure (1.26)
Fig. 1.25 Application of steel cords in Fig. 1.26 Ultimate static load–deflection plots for
timber rafter [54] un-strengthened and strengthened oak wood
beams[54]
B. Wethyavivorn, K. Atechacosit [55] presented the process of development of the
optimal topology of steel-wood composite beam, which included analysis, design and
experiment on beams. Finite element techniques are used to perform stress analysis
together with special algorithm developed to generate the optimal topology of the design
area. The technique of closure of element or material deactivation was employed. No of
attempts tried and final design was then reanalyzed to investigate the stress level and
evaluate the stability and failure conditions. Three full scale composite beams with the
span of 4 meters were built and tested and the load carrying behaviour including failure
mechanism was investigated. It was found from the analysis that the topology technique
worked well for this steel wood composite beam design. The optimal topology design was
obtained to cut down More than 30% of steel by weight.
Camille et al. [56] conducted experimental study to determine flexural properties
of reinforced and unreinforced glued laminated beam. They used steel plate and CFRP for
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reinforcement. The results indicated that reinforcement changes the mode of failure from
brittle to ductile. Reinforcement increases the load carrying capacity.
In recent studies carried out by Jasienko et al. [57] on series of solid timber beams
made of new wood (NW) and old wood (OW) as shown in figure (1.27), which were
subjected to bending after they were strengthened with steel plates and an epoxy
adhesive. The results obtained when steel plates were used for strengthening were found
to be comparable to those strengthened with FRP (fibre reinforced polymer) materials.
The load-bearing capacity of the strengthened specimens is increased by 100% relative to
that of un-strengthened wood. The specimen used in the study are shown in figure (1.27)
Fig. 1.27 Solid timer beams strengthened with steel plate and epoxy [57]
1.4.2 Closed type wood based composites

Material Filled Tube(MFT) are closed type wood based hybrid systems which
consists of tube with a relatively thin wall, made of high performance material, such as
steel or FRP which is filled with either wood, concrete, or foam as shown in figure (1.28-
1.30). From a construction point of view, the tube eliminates the need for formwork and
protects the core material from the external environment. It also helps to retain the
moisture and reduces the effect of drying shrinkage cracking. Structurally, the tube acts as
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement and provides confinement to the core material,
which improves the axial resistance capacity. The role of the filled material in this system
is broad and depends on the application. Generally, the core material increases the
compressive strength and reduces the tendency for local buckling of the tube. The filling
of tube with material increases the flexural rigidity and the stiffness of the system.
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Fig. 1.28 Tubes filled with material
Fig. 1.29 Foam filled tubes [58] Fig. 1.30 Concrete filled tubes [59]
Filling material in hollow sections is very effective and finds applications in

building and construction activities. The steel hollow sections filled with material have
higher strength and greater stiffness than the conventional structural steel. In earlier and
present studies on behaviour of concrete filled tubes as columns, beams, beam-columns
were presented. Furlong [60], Gardner and Jacobson [61], Ge and Usami [62], Han [63],
Han et al. [64] have contributed to the said area. Lu and Kennedy [65] performed tests on
twelve beams of concrete filled square and rectangular hollow steel sections. These tests
showed that the ultimate strength increases by maximum of 30% over bare steel sections.
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Fig. 1.31 Wood with knitted fabric [66]
Heiduschke et al. [66] presented the load carrying capacity of light-weight

columns with circular hollow cross section. The axial compression tests were conducted
to evaluate the structural performance of the tubes. The static tests have shown that
wooden tubes are capable of sustaining high buckling loads and brittle failure modes can
be prevented. The tests on reinforced tubes demonstrated that load carrying capacity and
ductility of timber profiles can be significantly enhanced by composite confinement. The
innovative developments may set the basis for the future of high capacity timber
structures, especially in case of highly loaded members with large cross sections.
Wood is a natural resource; an efficient use of wood is also a requirement for
structural timber design. The performance of the structural elements (serviceability and
strength) depends not only on the material properties, but mainly on the moment of inertia
of the cross section. The Timber Construction Institute of Technische Universität Dresden
has developed a process for the manufacture of structural wood profiles. The resulting
profiles combine economy, an efficient use of the material and optimal structural
performance. They are externally reinforced with composite fibres, which improve the
mechanical characteristics of the wood and protect it from weather effect. The available
experimental tests to axial loading show the outstanding properties of this new technology
The axial strength of wood or steel also plays an important role in design [66].
Cabrero et al. [67] developed preliminary model to obtain the axial strength of
longitudinally compressed tubes. Two different analytical algorithms are discussed and
applied. The model adequately predicts the axial strength of fibre reinforced wood
profiles. The analytical results are within an error less than 10% to the available
experimental results, with a mean error ratio less than 3%.
Wehsener et al. [68] built small-sized wind power plants with towers of wooden
tubes and an outer reinforcement of glass fiber reinforced plastic. They conducted
experiment and with results they revealed that the outer coating with fiber reinforced
plastic and the high vibration resistance are advantageous for the endurance of the
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facility. The damping of the wood reduces the noise emission and the fatigue of the
machine parts due to heavy vibrations compared to similar constructions made of steel.
AL-Qrimli et al. [69] fabricated 36 specimens using the fibre-glass and resin
(epoxy) with a two different geometries (circular and corrugated) each filled with five
types of filler (Rice Husk, Wood Chips, Aluminium Chips, Coconut Fibre, Palm Oil
Fibre) and tested to comprehend the crash resistance parameters such as initial failure
load, average load, maximum crushing load, load ratio, energy absorption, specific energy
absorption, volumetric energy absorption, crushing force efficiency and crush strain
relation.
Reddy et al. [70] studied the behaviour of metal tubes filled with wood and
subjected to axial crushing. Experimental results show that the mode of elastic buckling is
changed by the presence of the wood filler. There is considerable enhancement in the load
carrying capacity and energy absorption was seen in the case of thicker walled tubes. A
new idealized deformation mechanism for the progressive crushing of the wood-filled
tube is suggested and analyzed. The results analyzed were agreeable with experimental
observations.
Gupta et al. [71] conducted test on foam filled and wood filled tubes to study the
behaviour in three point bending. The study presented the effect of infill material and rate
of loading on energy absorbing characteristics. The presence of wood changed the mode
deformation of tube appreciably and tube seemed to act as a cover over the wood. The
span length greatly influenced the mode deformation.
Singace [72] studied the influence of foam-like wood filler on the mode of
collapse and energy absorption performance of polyvinylchloride (PVC) tubes. The mode
of collapse of axially crushed PVC tubes has been found to revert from regular three-lobe
diamond mode to axi-symmetric concertina mode at a certain wood-filling density. The
energy absorption capacity of the PVC tubes is enhanced by wood compression as well as
by extra stretching in the tube circumference due to shifting from multi-lobe to axi-
symmetric mode. Compression tests on wood sawdust were used to extract its mechanical
properties. The results have been used in the validation of the analytical model. The
analytical results obtained for the mean crushing load agree reasonably well with those
from experimental observations. It is found that wood filling in PVC tube is suitable for
energy absorption applications.
Ghazijahani et al. [73] presented experimental results on rectangular steel tubular
sections filled with timber and confined with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) as
shown in figure (1.32). The timber infill was found to significantly improve the capacity
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by preventing local inward buckling. This effect was further enhanced when the short
columns were confined with sufficient layers of CFRP to prevent local outward buckling.
They observed that, in both cases the strength increase (up to 75%) was substantially
greater than the corresponding weight increase (up to 44%).
Fig. 1.32 Timber filled and CFRP confined specimens [73]
Seitzberge et al [74] studied the applicability of aluminium foam as filler material

in tubes made of mild steel having square or circular cross sections. The experimental
results for the square tubes reveal efficiency improvements with respect to energy
absorption of up to 60%, resulting from changed buckling modes of the tubes and energy
dissipation during the compression of the foam material itself. Aluminium foam is
shown to be a suitable material for filling thin-walled tubular steel structures, holding the
potential of enhancing the energy absorption capacity considerably, provided the plastic
buckling remains characterized by local modes.
Lin-Hai Han [75] developed a mechanics model that predicts the behaviour of
concrete-filled hollow structural section beams. A confinement factor is introduced to
describe the composite action between the steel tube and filled concrete. A series of
concrete filled square and rectangular tube beams tests were carried out. The parameters
varied in these tests were the depth-to-width ratio and tube depth to wall thickness ratio.
The load vs. lateral deflection relationship was established for concrete filled HSS beams
both experimentally and theoretically. Number of formulas which should be suitable for
building codes is developed for calculating the moment capacity of concrete-filled HSS
beams. Comparisons are made with predicted beam capacities and flexural stiffness using
various design codes. It concludes that the behaviour of specimens is ductile. The
enhanced structural behaviour of the columns can be explained in terms of composite
action between the steel tube and the concrete core. The predicted maximum strength of
22
beams agrees well with tested values. The simplified methods for the calculations of
moment capacities of the composite beams have been proposed based on mechanics.
Fam et al. [76] presented results of an experimental investigation on three beams
and five short columns, consisting of glass fiber reinforced polymer concrete-filled
rectangular filament-wound tubes (CFRFTs). The system is quite simple in construction
and provides permanent form work. The flexural strength has increased by 41%. CFRFT
columns failed in brittle manner. Bulging of CFRFT columns has limited their
confinement effectiveness.
Chung-Hao Wu, Yu-Cheng Kan et.al. [77], presents experimental investigation to
study the size effect and the flexural behaviour of full size reinforced concrete beams with
lightweight aggregate and normal aggregate. A total of 6 flexure beams with various
reinforcement ratios and 6 size effect beams with various dimensions were fabricated and
tested. The designated compressive strength of concrete is 34MPa. Test results indicate
that the reinforced light weight aggregate concrete (LWAC) beams have similar load
capacities and failure mode as that of Normal Weight Concrete (NWC). The test results
reveal that the deflections at the stage of cracking are larger than theoretically calculated
values (25% to 98%). On the other hand the measured deflections at the yielding are on
the average 10% More than the calculated deflections. This indicates that elastic flexural
theory adopted by American Concrete Institute (ACI) code 318 relatively underestimates
the actual deflections.
Wie-Min Gho, Dalin Liu [78], studied flexural behaviour of high strength
rectangular concrete filled steel hollow section. The specimens tested to failure under
pure bending. Three different sizes of steel hollow sections were filled with high strength
concrete. A good ductility performance of the specimens was observed in all specimens.
Local buckling was specifically noted on the compression face of the specimens. A
comparison of experimental moment capacities with the values calculated from the
formulae in codes EC4 (Euro Code).
Lu et al. [79], presented experimental study on the mechanical behaviour of non-
uni-thickness walled rectangular concrete filled tube (CFT) beams subjected to pure
bending. Three specimens were fabricated and tested to investigate the relation of bending
moment vs. deflection of the composite beam. Ultimate flexural strength of non-uni-
thickness walled rectangular CFT is compared to the predicted strength of corresponding
uni-thickness walled CFT based on current design codes. A non linear FEM is developed
and verifies with experimental results. The FEM model is used to investigate the effect of
the steel wall thickness ratio on bending strength of the composite beam. Both
23
experimental and analytical results suggest that a non-uni-thickness walled rectangular

CFT exhibits adequate ductility and superior flexural strength compared to uni-thickness
rectangular CFT. The tests showed that all specimens failed in a very ductile manner.
Fracture did not occur to the stretched steel plate at the bottom of the beam. Local
Buckling was observed at the mid-span of the top surface where steel was compressed.
Elchalakani et al. [80] carried out an experimental investigation of flexural
behaviour of circular CFT subjected to large deformation pure bending where d/t ratio of
12 to 110 is used. The study compares the behaviour of empty and void filled cold formed
circular hollow section under pure plastic bending. It was found that for a range of d/t ≤
40 cold filling prevented local buckling for very large rotations. Multiple plastic ripples
formed in the inelastic range for specimens with 74 < d/t ≤110. In general, void filling of
steel tube enhances strength, ductility, and energy absorption especially for thinner
sections. Based on the measured material properties, the plastic d/t limit was found to be
112. A simplified formula is provided to determine flexural capacity of CFT. In this
investigation the end cap was removed and the ends of the specimen were left uncapped
to allow slippage to occur. This is believed to be worst case in regards to loss of
composite action. Machining effect was found to have negligible effect on flexural
behaviour. The study concludes that concrete filling increases in flexural strength and
ductility for thinner CHS than thicker ones. The predicted ultimate moment capacity is in
match with EC4 and CIDECT.
Sakino et al. [81] carried out concentric loading tests on 36 circular and 48 square
sectioned concrete filled tubular stub columns. Test results showed that square sectioned
stub columns have higher compressive strength than circular sectioned stub columns. This
strength improvement was attributed to strain hardening of the steel section instead of the
confinement effect.
Liu [82] tested 22 specimens of concrete filled steel hollow sections stub columns
under concentric loading and concludes that rectangular steel hollow sections are
generally considered less effective than circular and square ones in terms of offering
confinement to concrete core. This is because the rectangular section confines the
concrete by plate bending while circular section by hoop stress. Results illustrate that
strength increase adversely influenced by the aspect ratio (height/width=H/B) of column.
Therefore, concrete filled columns with H/b>2 are not recommended for use.
Mohanraj et al.[83] studied steel tubular columns filled with different types of
waste material, as well as recycled aggregate concrete, instead of normal conventional
concrete. The behaviour of circular and square concrete-filled steel tubular sections
24
(CFSTs) under axial load, in which coarse aggregate was partially replaced by recycled
aggregates, is considered for study. The effects of steel tube dimensions, shapes and the
confinement of concrete were examined. The Figure 15 presents the test results of study
conducted by the author. It can be noted that the load carrying capacity of square columns
of all sizes with plain concrete and recycled aggregate concrete is More than that of the
circular column with a comparable size. The comparisons of results obtained are as
shown in figure (1.33)
Fig. 1.33 Comparison of load carrying capacity of circular and square columns [83]
Arivalagan et al.[84], studied Concrete Filled Steel Tube (CFST) beams for
flexural strength and verified the results by the Finite Element Program ANSYS against
experimental data. Nine beam specimens are used in the test program, which includes
three square hollow section beams, three are filled with normal mix concrete (NMC) and
remaining are filled with quarry waste concrete (QWS). Numerical analysis has shown
that square CFST has good confining effect. The presented work concludes that FEA is a
promising method to obtain data for the development and design of CFST. FE model can
accurately reproduce the conditions of test. FE load deflection curves for different mix
show satisfactory agreement with those of tests. Results of FE analysis and Euro-code
EC4 standard code show that experimental investigation gives conservative predictions
for the behaviour of CFST beams.
Hanssen et al. [85] presented experiences gained at SIM lab in modelling and
design of aluminium-foam filled tubes for structural applications. The main challenges for
robust finite element simulations using explicit codes are outlined and reference to
previous studies are used for illustrations. The Aluminium foam filled thin walled tubes
25
such as sections made from steel sheets or aluminium extrusions, presents practical as
well as finite element simulation related challenges.
There may be a question in the mind of researcher what material model is to be
used, how should bonding between the foam and tube be modelled and how can thin layer
of skin be modelled. It suggests that a full validation test program may be the best
solution in order to obtain a reliable model. Simple formulas for predicting the strength of
aluminium foam from the density and also show how surface skin of foam can be taken in
to account in bending of a foam member. This work recapitulates design formulas which
may be used in axial crushing, oblique loading and behaviour of foam filled sections in
pure bending. The work also suggests use of 3-point bending test to find the
computational equivalent skin for such components. In this work three types of tests were
prepared as shown in figure (1.34) surface skin totally removed (0S), surface skin on
three sides (3S), Surface skin on all four side (4S). Results presented show that Foam
blocks with Surface skin on all sides show the maximum load carrying capacities
compared to other two types. It is observed experimentally that average crush force of
foam filled extrusions always exceeds the sum of these two terms and this increase in
capacity is referred as an interaction effect of foam and skin. The work concludes that
foam filled structures pose considerable challenges when it comes to finite element
modelling as foam filler will directly influence the behaviour of surrounding material.
Fig. 1.34 Skinned and un-skinned aluminum foam specimens [85]
Moradi et al [86] used steel foam to fill the steel tube to modify response of steel
tube in compression and bending. Steel foam improves the maximum strength and ability
of energy absorption of steel tube significantly. The increase in composite action between
26
steel foam and steel tube improves the strength. Failure modes change from local
buckling to yielding.
Abedi et al [87], studied empty and polyurethane foam filled columns with square
and rectangular cross section under axial compression by considering interaction effects
between column wall and foam. The soft and hard foams with 50 and 259 kg/m3 were
used. Equations were derived for predicting axial force theoretically. Comparison of
theoretical and experimental results shows a good agreement.
Karmarkar et al [88] investigated the effect of filler concentration on mechanical
properties of wood-fiber filled composites prepared using m-TMI-g-PP compatibilizer for
interfacial adhesion. The use of adhesive resulted in improvement in mechanical
properties of wood-fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) composites.
Wood fibres have gained significant interest as reinforcing material [88], and are
now fast evolving as potential alternative to inorganic fillers for various applications.
Wood fibres offer several advantages like low density, high specific properties, non-
abrasiveness, low cost, biodegradable and regenerative. Drawback of using wood fibers
for reinforcement is the poor interfacial adhesion. The interfacial adhesion can be
improved by using compatibilizers or coupling agents, structural adhesives. Recent
researches suggest use of maleated polypropylene (MAPP) significantly improves the
fiber-matrix bonding [90],[91], Adhesive selection begins by considering the types of
wood adhesives, along with their strength and durability, preparation and use
characteristics, and typical applications[92], also suggests the adhesives for the required
applications.
The work done by Buleit et al [25] showed that stiffness increases by 24-32% and
moment capacity increases in the order of 30%. Improvements reported by others fall
almost in the same category. The difficulty of developing a successful connection
between the different components has also limited commercial production [29]. It is
found that for each fiber type, the bending strength of the specimens increased almost
linearly with increasing fiber fraction up to a critical value, after which it essentially
became constant. The tests showed that ultimate strength increase by maximum of 30%
over bare steel sections a very poor compared with Glulam improvements over 280%.
Large amount research studies are available on theoretical, experimental and
numerical analysis of foam and concrete filled tubes. Surprisingly, Very little research has
been reported on strength properties of wood filled tubes in bending, compression,
fatigue, and vibration. However, extensive and exhaustive research work is done on
concrete filled tubes [93], [94], [95], [96], [97] and foam filled tubes[98], [99], [100],
27
[101], [102]. The theoretical, experimental and numerical research is reported on

behaviour of concrete filled tubes and foam filled tubes under bending, and compression.
Very limited work is reported on fatigue and vibration behaviour of concrete and foam
filled tubes. To fill-up this gap, an opportunity is sought through this research work.
The design codes are well established for the concrete filled tubes and used by
engineers and designers. This provides another opportunity to verify and validate the
applicability of these codes to wood filled tubes.
1.5 Motivation for the research work
Motivation for this research work is drawn from the studies on the composites
systems discussed in literature survey knowing the merits of material filled tubes. Despite
improvements achieved in the engineering properties the majority of these researches
were not taken the research work beyond the experimental stage.
Higher raw material cost, lower elastic modulus, and lack of ductility leads to
basic understanding of bond issues, wood structural member geometries and material
properties, and modelling of long-term behaviour are all fundamental science and
engineering issues that still must be addressed[43].
The limitations of this system include a relatively low flexural stiffness and
limited fire resistance, unless insulated. The stiffness, strength and ductility of system is
largely dependent on type of connection and material used for connection. The
performance depends on interfacial bonding, along with tube material and filler material.
Confusion in selection of correct design procedures, design codes and standards for
establishing mechanical properties of wood filled tubes should be focused More for
further investigations.
The primary impetus for developing wood filled tube products has come from one
or More of the following research and development goals
• Develop “green” or “environmentally benign” products with enhanced

sustainability
• Reduce material costs by combining a lower cost material (acting as a filler) with
an expensive material
• Develop products that can utilize recyclable and renewable materials
28
• Produce composite products that exhibit specific properties that are superior to
those of the component materials alone (for example, increased strength-to-weight
ratio, improved abrasion resistance, enhance resistance to fire, decay)
Today, the major problem faced by researchers is carbon emissions and energy
crisis. World is trying to build and use renewable materials and systems which have
sustainable benefits. Wood is such a material which has answers to all the problems.
Wood has many characteristics that make it an earth friendly material. It is energy
efficient, non-toxic, recyclable, and reusable and has carbon holding capacity. Cement,
Glass, Steel, and Aluminium require 5, 14, 24 and 126 times More energy than wood
respectively [103]. Steel and concrete design release 24% and 47% More air pollution,
Produce 8% and 23% More solid waste, Use 11% and 81% More resources, emit 34%
and 81% More greenhouse gases than wood design [104].
The motivation for the researchers is to enhance the stiffness and strength of wood
either by fiber or metallic reinforcement. Majority of researchers worked with either open
hybrid system and/or closed hybrid system. The open hybrid system offers high capacity-
to-weight ratio. The limitations of this system include a relatively low flexural stiffness
and limited fire resistance, unless insulated. Open type systems find limited applications.
The closed type hybrid system from a construction point of view eliminates the need for
formwork and protects the core material from the external environment effect. It also
helps retain the moisture within, reducing the effect of drying shrinkage cracking.
Structurally, the tube acts as longitudinal and transverse reinforcement and provides
confinement to the core material, which improves the axial resistance capacity.
The core material increases the compressive strength and reduces the tendency for
local buckling of the tube. The material filled tube increases the rigidity and the stiffness
of the system. Drawback of these types of systems is their performance. Effectiveness is
dependent on interfacial bond between core material and wall of tube. The matrix
penetrating the crevices on fiber surfaces by diffusion lead to mechanical bonding.
Mechanical gripping of fibres by matrix is sufficient to cause an effective reinforcement.
Mechanical bonding is efficient in load transfer when applied force is parallel to the
interface. Matrix must fill the pores and surface roughness of the reinforcement. Surface
roughness contributes to the bond strength [2].
The majority of original natural binding materials have now been replaced by
synthetically prepared adhesives. As polymer chemistry has advanced in terms of
knowledge, specific adhesives have been developed that bind very strongly to organic or
inorganic materials. With regard to adhesive strength and deformation, these adhesives
29
meet very specific requirements that result from the configuration of the adhesive joint.
Meanwhile, high-strength adhesive assemblies have been created with quite short curing
periods. The use of adhesive in bonding the filler material and tube will enhance the
mechanical properties of the wood filled tubes.
1.6 Objective of the research work

Composite materials play important role in reducing weight of structure.
Various properties of composites are obtained by varying the size of the two or More
materials that forms the composite. Strength properties usually reported include modulus
of elasticity, modulus of rupture, compression strength, tensile strength; shear strength,
fastener holding capacity, and hardness. There are two major motivational factors for
current interest in composite materials. The first one is to satisfy the need for materials
that will outperform the traditional monolith materials and composite offers engineers the
opportunity to design totally new materials with precise combination of properties needed
for specific applications.
It can be observed from the literature review study that wood is first kind of
orthotropic structural material and its properties vary from species to species and they are
tropical sensitive. Wood is weaker in compression than in tension but higher density
wood fail in tension. Low density wood often exhibit gross compressive buckling before
the appearance of any sign of failure. Wood will often fracture in horizontal shear when it
is very dry or there are sharp changes in growth ring density. If such unpredictable wood
is encased in an isotropic material such as mild steel (which is widely used for structural
application), the strength properties of wood can be controlled and can be used
advantageously for outdoor and indoor applications. Void filling of steel tube by wood
enhances strength, ductility, and energy absorption especially for thinner sections. The
following objectives are being identified;
• To conduct experiments and determine the mechanical properties of teakwood and

steel tube material using ASTM standards.
• Prepare teakwood filled steel tube material using mechanical and adhesive bond to
carry out the investigations on the strength properties.
• To determine and study the bending properties of rectangular sectioned teakwood
filled steel tubes under three point bending, and to study the effect of span to
depth ratio on the bending properties.
30
• To determine and study the compression properties of square sectioned teakwood

filled steel tubes.
• To determine the fatigue life of circular sectioned teakwood filled steel tube and to
establish the relation between fatigue life and fatigue strength using four point
rotating bending testing machine.
• To use Euro code design procedure used by practitioners in case of bending,
compression, and fatigue to cross verify, and validate the experimental results.
• To conduct experimental vibration analysis of the rectangular teakwood filled
steel tubes to determine fundamental natural frequency and damping ratio.
1.7 Organization of thesis

This thesis deals with experimental investigation of teak wood filled steel tubes in
bending, compression, vibration and fatigue analysis. Euro code is used for validation of
experimental results in bending, compression, and fatigue studies. Impact hammer test
were carried out determine damping characteristics of wood filled tubes and results are
validated by finite element analysis using ANSYS. The thesis is organized as follows
Chapter 1 deals with the general introduction to composites, usage, and classifications. A
brief introduction to wood based composites with importance of strengthening is dealt
with. A literature survey on wood based composites is classified on the basis of
construction and discussed with merits and demerits. The focus was established on closed
type wood based system as the confinement of core materials is achieved by tube which
reduces the effort of manifesting the materials and properties as well. Motivation derived
out of literature as well as an interest of researcher along with objectives of the research is
given in brief.
Chapter 2 contains the frame work for investigation is done considering the ASTM
standards for testing of materials. Classification and preparation of materials, machines,
and tests used in this investigation are discussed. Applicability and adoptability of Euro
code design procedures for theoretical analysis of wood filled tubes is also presented in
this section.
Chapter 3 presents the material and mechanical properties of teakwood, steel, and
adhesive used in preparation of wood filled tubes. As a pre-requisite, the investigation on
coefficient of friction between teakwood and steel is included in this section.
31
Chapter 4 discusses experimental evaluation of static bending test on rectangular cross

sectioned teakwood filled steel tubes. The strength properties such as modulus of
elasticity, modulus of rupture, and bending strength are presented along with the effect of
interface and span to depth ratio. The experimental results obtained are compared with
euro code design procedures. The effect of adhesive on bending properties of teakwood
filled steel tube is discussed.
Chapter 5 explains in detail the experimental evaluation of compression tests carried out
on stub columns of square sectioned teakwood filled steel tubes. The experimental
outcomes are compared with design codes. The effect of adhesive and nature failures are
included in the presentation.
Chapter 6 deals with evaluation of fatigue life of teakwood filled circular hollow steel
tubes. The fatigue life of mechanical and adhesive bonded teakwood filled steel tube is
compared. A useful mathematical relation is built between fatigue strength and fatigue
life of teakwood filled steel tube. Based on this relation fatigue life or strength can be
predicted. Validation of the experimental result is carried using euro code design
procedure used for static bending.
Chapter 7 presents the experimental evaluation of damping characteristics of teakwood

filled steel tubes by impact hammer test. The experimental results obtained are validated
by finite element analysis method using ANSYS.
Chapter 8 discusses the summary and conclusions of the work along with future scope.
32
CHAPTER 2
PREPARATION OF WOOD FILLED TUBES AS PER ASTM
STANDARDS
2.1 Introduction
The objective of this work is to study the strength properties of the wood filled
tubes for beam, column, fatigue and damping applications. To achieve these objective
detailed considerations on constituent materials is required for preparation of wood filled
tubes. Further various tests are also conducted to establish the strength properties.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM International) recommends standard
procedures to determine properties of materials along with machine and method of
considerations. Similarly, EURO CODE standards provide common structural design
rules for everyday use for the design of whole structures and component products of both
a traditional and an innovative nature. Euro code 4 applies to the design of composite
structures and members for buildings and construction.
The framework for the proposed research work was planned based on the ASTM
and EURO CODE standards. The preparation of wood filled tubes, types of tests, and
machines used are discussed in the following sections.
2.2 Need and identification of materials for wood filled tubes

Materials selected and used in this work are considered on the basis of
sustainability and strength. Today’s research work is highly focused on sustainability.
Research community is trying to maximize the use of sustainable materials and to explore
the opportunities in the areas of design, manufacturing, and applications. Globally Wood
and steel are two most sustainable materials. Wood and steel are considered for
construction of composite by considering green features of wood and steel [105]. Green
features in manufacturing, application/use and waste management.
2.2.1 Wood
Wood is the oldest and one of the most commonly used building and structural
material in the world. It is widely used because of its low cost, high specific strength, high
stiffness and high toughness. It is a renewable source of material, and its production
requires low energy input. Wood is fiber composite material with complex overall
structure [106]. Wood structures have played an important role in construction. The green
features of the wood are shown in Table 1.
33
Table 2.1 Green features of wood [105]
Waste
Material Manufacturing Application
Management
Wood Waste Reduction Energy Efficiency Biodegradable
Water Treatment &
Pollution Prevention Recyclable
Conservation
Recycled Nontoxic Reusable
Embodied Energy
Renewable Energy Source
Reduction
Wood is most preferred sustainable structural material because of following

considerations [107]
• Wood is as stiff as metals

• Wood absorbs vibration better than steel, aluminum or carbon
• The fatigue life of wood exceeds steel or aluminum, and approaches carbon [108]
as shown in figure (2.1).
• Wood is not susceptible to crack propagation from dents like the metals, nor is it
notch-sensitive or damage-concealing like carbon [108]
• Wood frame has much greater impact resistance than butted metal or carbon
frames
The comparison on of fatigue life of fiber composites, steel, aluminium and

laminated wood is shown in figure (2.1)
Fig. 2.1 Comparison of fatigue life [108]
34
Teakwood structures have played an important role in construction. Teak

(Tectona Grandis L.f) is one of the most valuable and best known tropical timber species
and highly valued for its use in shipbuilding, outdoor equipment, furniture, rural housing,
and general carpentry. Teak wood is moderately hard and heavy, seasons rapidly and has
good machining properties. It is naturally durable and possesses high dimensional
stability. Teak grows naturally in Southeast Asia and is introduced to other tropical and
subtropical regions of Australia, Africa, and Latin America [109]. Teak is abundantly
available along coastal region of states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamilnadu
of India. It has been selected for sustainable production in these regions for plantation.
Global plantations of teak exceed 5.2 million hectares [109].
2.2.2 Steel
93.3% of steel is recyclable [110], which makes steel with highest recyclability
value out of all construction materials used for structural framing. Steel is permissive and
space efficient which allows sufficient room for mechanical systems or insulating
materials. Steel usage reduces the overall volume of the structure. Green feature of steel
are summarized in table (2.2)
Table 2.2 Green features of steel [104]
Waste
Material Manufacturing Application
Management
Steel Natural Material Longer Life Biodegradable
Recycled Nontoxic Recyclable
Natural Material Longer Life Reusable
Circular, square and rectangular steel hollow sections for general structural
purpose supplied as per IS 2062/1999 (Grades A, B, C), ASTM-A36M M, DIN 17100, IS
1977/1966. These tubes are available in a variety of dimensions and can find application
in furniture industries & domestic applications, Chassis, Cabins, Bus stands, Milk Booths,
Scaffoldings, Cranes, Material Storage Racks, Furniture partition frame work, Pallets,
Guard Rails, Staircases, Hand railings, Fencing Poles, Truck & Bus body Members,
Trusses, Columns & Purlins, Trolleys. The chemical composition and Mechanical
properties of steel which can be used for such applications is shown in table (2.3)
35
Table 2.3 IS: 2062 - Specification of steel for general structural purposes [111]
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Grade C% Max. Mn% Max. S% Max. P% Max. Si% Max. C.E.% Max.
A 0.23 1.50 0.050 0.050 0.40 0.42
B 0.22 1.50 0.045 0.045 0.40 0.41
C 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 0.40 0.39
MECHANICAL PROPORTIES
Bend
Grade UTS(MPa) Min. Y.S.(MPa) Min. El.% Min. 5.65 Sqrt(So)
Test
A 410 250 240 230 23 3T
B 410 250 240 230 23 2T & 3T *
C 410 250 240 230 23 2T
* 2T - <= 25mm
* 3T - > 25mm
2.2.3 Adhesive
Adhesives can with stand and distribute loads between components, thereby
increasing the strength and stiffness of wood products. Effective transfer of stress from
one member to another depends on the strength of the links. Thus, the performance of a
bonded joint depends on how well the complex factors that contribute to the properties of
the individual links of wood, adhesive, and inter-phase regions of wood and adhesive,
which are controlled during product assembly, and it ultimately determines the strength of
the chain. Adhesion involves both mechanical and chemical factors that control the
adhesive ability to hold together the two wood surfaces.
Because wood is porous, one mechanism of adhesion is mechanical interlocking.

Effective mechanical interlocking takes place when an adhesive penetrates beyond the
surface debris and damaged fibres into sound wood two to six cells deep. Further
penetration into the cell wall microstructure increases the mechanical interlocking and the
surface area for adhesive contact with the wood. With many adhesives, the most durable,
water-resistant bonds develop when the adhesive flows deeply into cell cavities and
infiltrates inside the cell walls. The standard for excellent bonds is that the wood breaks
away from the adhesive joint and that the bond strength is equal to the strength of the
solid wood.
A synthetic adhesive is thermoplastic or thermosetting which has a major
influence on its performance in service. Thermoplastics are long-chain polymers that
soften and flow on heating and then harden again upon cooling. They generally have less
resistance to heat, moisture, and long term static loading than do thermosetting polymers.
Common thermoplastic adhesives for wood include poly (vinyl acetate) emulsions,
elastomeric, contacts, and hot-melts.
36
Thermosetting polymers make excellent structural adhesives because they

undergo irreversible chemical change when cured, and on reheating, they do not soften
and flow again. They form cross-linked polymers that can have high strength, have
resistance to moisture and other chemicals, and are rigid enough to support high, long-
term static loads without deforming. Phenol-formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde,
melamine-formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde, isocyanate, and epoxy adhesives are
examples of thermosetting polymers.
Fevitite superfast is a faster setting two-component multipurpose epoxy adhesive
system. Resin and hardener mixed thoroughly in the ratio 1:1 by volume. Apply a thin
layer on the surface to be bonded. It bonds virtually anything to anything. Faster setting
makes it ideal for those jobs which have to be finished in 3hrs. It can set within 2-3 hrs at
30°C. This system does not contain volatile matter; hence there is negligible shrinkage on
curing. Fevitite superfast which is internally flexible provides strong joints with excellent
low creep properties hence make it ideal for structural bonding applications [112].
FEVITITE Superfast adhesive is a multipurpose structural adhesive that can find
applications in interior applications like fixing marble, granite, stone & skirting’s, kitchen
platforms, glass & mosaic tiles, mirrors etc. It provides excellent adhesion to many
substrates like cement – concrete, metal, ceramic, glass, marble, granite, Kaddappa,
artificial stone, leather, wood, most plastics etc. Features and benefits of Fevitite
Superfast are as follows;
• High Cohesive Strength

• Good Heat/Solvent/Chemical resistance
• Negligible shrinkage on curing and hence good dimensional stability.
• Good shock resistance
• Long lasting bond
The strength and durability of bonded joint are dependent on proper pre-treatment of
substrates to be bonded. Preparation and application of Fevitite super fast is as follows
At the very least surfaces to be joined should be cleaned with a good degreasing
agent such as Acetone or Trichloroethylene in order to remove all traces of oil,
grease, rust, dust, etc from the surface.
The best and most durable joints are obtained by either mechanical abrading (Sand
Blasting) or by chemical etching (pickling) the degreased surfaces.
Mechanical abrading shall be followed by a second degreasing treatment.
37
Mix Resin & Hardener in 1:1 ratio until uniform color is attained, it is beneficial
to mix for at least 2-3 minutes thoroughly.
Wipe off the excess oozed quantity from the bond area, when the adhesive is wet.
Mix the specified and don’t mix large quantity at a time.
Method by weighing is More accurate.
In mixing by volume, never pour resin & hardener over another. Pour equal
quantity side by side. This way judgment of volume is good.
Do not disturb the bond during setting i.e. after the clamping of assembly is over.
Please note that certain polymeric surfaces such as Polythene (PT), Polypropylene
(PP), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), ethylene propylene diene monomer
(EPDM), Silicone Rubbers cannot be bonded with this adhesive. These surfaces
require special treatments before bonding.
2.3 ASTM standards for testing of materials

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International is one of the
largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world - a trusted source for
technical standards for materials, products, systems, and services.
2.3.1 Steel tube material

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E8/E8M, 2011 [113]
recommends Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. Coupons
were cut from the steel tube materials as per the specification of the ASTM E8/E8 M
standard and tensile tests were conducted to determine the tensile properties of steel tube
material.
2.3.2 Teakwood material

To determine teakwood properties ASTM D143 [114] is referred. American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D143 prescribes the standard method of
testing small clear specimens of wood. The desirable properties for investigation
teakwood such as longitudinal modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, maximum crushing
strength were obtained as per the procedure laid down in the ASTM D143. The specimens
manufactured referring to the specification prescribed in this standard.
38
2.3.3 Wood filled tubes
To determine the strength properties experimentally three ASTM standards ASTM

D143 [114], ASTM D198 [115], ASTM D790 [116] were considered to finalize the
specimen specifications of wood filled steel tubes to evaluate the strength properties.
ASTM D790, standard test methods for flexural properties of unreinforced and
reinforced plastics and electrical insulating materials, American society for testing and
materials, 2010. Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of rupture (MOR) are two
important structural properties of beam and desired to be designed accurately. While
investigating these properties of wood based composites it becomes essential to select the
correct span-to-depth ratio. Also it is necessary to cross verify the span-to-depth ratio
used to obtain flexural properties of wood based composites.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D143 recommends the span-
to-depth ration of 14 for testing clear wood specimens; ASTM D198 recommended 11
and 15 for lumber in structural sizes in its first edition [117]. ASTM D790 recommends
16:1 span- to-depth ratio in general but recommends that span-to-depth ratio shall be
chosen such that failure occurs in the outer fibres of the specimens and is due only to the
bending moment. A span-to-depth ratio larger than 16:1 may be necessary for high
strength reinforced composites 32:1 or 40:1 are recommended. For some highly
anisotropic composites an increase in the span-to-depth ratio to 60:1 is recommended to
eliminate shear effects when modulus data are required. From the above discussion it can
be noted that the flexural property is function of span-to-depth ratio and needs to be
investigated for wood filled steel tubes.
For specifying the specimen sizes for compression tests ASTM D143 and ASTM
D198 were considered.
2.4 Classification and preparation of specimens
Two kinds of wood filled steel tubes have been manufactured for the purpose of
strength property analysis and are classified on the basis of type of bond between wood
and steel tube. The classification of materials tested in this work is as shown in figure
(2.2)
39
Studies on Strength Properties
roperties of Wood Steel Composites and its Applications
Application
Fig. 2.2 Classification of materials selected
Two kinds of specimens were considered in the investigation
i. Mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes and

ii. Adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes.
Wood is pressed in to the steel tube to obtain mechanically bonded specimen. Internal
size of steel tube is kept constant and wood size is varied to obtain a desirable
interference fit between wood and steel. Allowable
owable interference between solid teakwood
and steel tube is determined using following equations (2.1-2.2) adopted from design
guide manual 1 of DuPont Engineering Polymers [118]
78 9<=> @F=

5=6 9
: ;6 >
:?6
:G (2.1)
AB^D< ^DE
9 = AB^DF ^DE (2.2)
Where σy is yield stress in N/mm2, D is size of shaft in mm, Vw and Vs are poisons ratio
of wood and steel.
In case of adhesively bonded specimens a structural adhesive was applied on

wood surface and is press fitted in to the surface cleaned steel box. The assembly is
allowed to cure for minimum of 3 hrs.
40
2.4.1 Mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes
Specimens were prepared for bending, compression vibration and fatigue tests.
The step by step procedure for manufacturing mechanically bonded wood filled steel tube
(MWFT) is shown in figure (2.3).
Fig. 2.3 Process of manufacturing MWFT
2.4.2 Adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes
Specimens were prepared for as per the procedure shown in figure (2.4) for
bending, compression, fatigue, and vibration tests.
41
Fig. 2.4 Process of manufacturing AWFT
2.5 Tests carried out
Experimental tests in this work have been classified in two categories based on the
properties required for the purpose of analysis and are shown in figure (2.5).
2.5.1 Classification of tests carried out
Fig. 2.5 Classifications of experimental tests considered
42
Variation in properties is common to all materials. Because wood is a natural

material and tree is subject to many constantly changing influences such as moisture, soil
conditions, and growing space. Wood-steel composites being the wood based material the
effects of material, manufacturing and service environments on mechanical properties
need to be considered.
Mechanical properties most commonly measured and represented as “strength
properties” for design include modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture in bending,
maximum stress in compression parallel to grain, compressive stress perpendicular to
grain, and shear strength parallel to grain. Strength properties less commonly measured
include torsion, toughness, rolling shear, and fracture toughness. Other properties
involving time under load include creep, creep rupture or duration of load, and fatigue
strength [119].
Filling in hollow sections either by concrete, foam, wood are very effective and
find applications in building and construction activities. The steel hollow sections in-
filled with material have higher strength and greater stiffness than the bare wood and
conventional structural steel. In the past and at present large number of research studies
on behaviour of such materials is done on beams, columns, and beam-columns. Based on
the nature of material, manufacturability and application point view it was decided to
determine strength properties in bending, compression, fatigue, and vibration.
2.5.2 Tensile test
To determine the tensile strength properties of teakwood and steel tube material
tensile test were conducted as per ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
Standards. ASTM D143 and ASTM E8 standards were used to determine the tensile
strength of teakwood material and steel tube materials. Tests were carried out using
universal testing machine.
2.5.2.1 Tension test parallel to grain

The tensile load in KN is applied uniformly and deflection is noted from computer
interfaced system until the failure of specimen occurs. The maximum load is recorded and
is used in the analysis of tensile properties. The set-up is as shown in figure (2.6)
43
Fig. 2.6 Tensile test of teakwood specimen
2.5.2.2 Tensile test of steel coupons;

The tensile tests on steel coupons (coupons are flat strips). The load in KN is
applied uniformly and deflections are noted from computer interfaced system until the
failure of coupons. The setup is shown in figure (2.7)
Fig. 2.7 Testing of Steel Coupons for Tensile Properties
2.5.3 Bending test
To determine the bending strength properties of teakwood and steel tube were
conducted as per ASTM Standards. ASTM D143 and ASTM D198 standards were used
to determine the bending strength of teakwood beam and steel tube beam. Tests were
carried out using universal testing machine.
Figure (2.8) shows the flat-wise test and figure (2.9) shows the edge-wise test
Fig. 2.8 Flat-wise three point bending test
44
Fig. 2.9 Edge-wise three point bending test
Three point bending tests were conducted on beams of steel tube(ST),

teakwood(TW), mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes(MWFT), and adhesively
bonded wood filled steel tubes(AWFT). Load at proportionality limit(Ppl), deflection at
proportionality limit(∆pl), maximum load(Pmax), and maximum deflection(∆max) for all
specimens were noted for both edge-wise(E) testing and flat-wise(F) testing for 360mm
and 710mm span of specimens. Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture
(MOR) and Moment Capacity (Me) for each beam were determined.
2.5.4 Compression test
The computerized universal testing machine consists of a set up for compressive

testing along with the digital data acquisition system. The load is applied using hydraulic
cylinder and the values of load applied, deflections are digitally noted directly on to the
data acquisition system. The load data is connected with the computer and the plot of load
v/s deflection is directly created by the computer which is taken as the output.
The specimens were subjected to concentric axial loading as shown in figure (2.6).
The load was applied uniformly and the deflection under the different applied loads is
noted down directly by using the data acquisition system. The applied load increased up
to the breaking point or the failure of the material.
The load v/s displacements were obtained by the testing mechanically and
adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes of square cross sections. Load v/s
displacement curves were obtained and maximum load was noted and compressive
strength was determined using equation (2.3)
H = IJK/M (2.3)
Where ‘CS’ is compression strength in MPa, ‘Pmax’ is maximum load in N, and ‘Ac’ is
area of cross section of specimen in mm2.
45
Fig. 2.10 Compression test
2.5.4 Fatigue test
In this work 4-point rotating bending fatigue testing machine as shown in Figure
(11) was used to determine the fatigue strength and fatigue life. On this machine
specimen is subjected to completely reversed stress cycles with constant amplitude.
During each cycle, the rotating specimen is subjected to both tensile and compressive
stresses alternatively. The schematic rotating bending fatigue testing machines specimen
loading arrangement is shown in the Figure (2.7) [120].
Fig.2.11 Fatigue testing machine FTG-8D [120]
46
Fig. 2.12 Specimen loading arrangement, Fine testing machine
A single test consists of applying a known, constant bending load on a rotating

specimen. During one cycle of rotation, the specimen is subjected to the two types of
bending stresses (tensile and compressive) having same magnitude but opposite signs
and due to these alternative stresses the specimen fails after certain number of cycles. The
number of cycles sustained by the specimen up to the failure is recorded by the counter.
The above procedure is repeated for all the specimens by applying different bending
moments at constant spindle rpm. The number of cycles sustained by each specimen up to
the failure is recorded.
The specimens were first subjected to maximum bending moment by the applied
load. The bending moment was reduced in each step and number of cycles to failure was
noted. The results obtained were plotted to generate S-N curve for both MWFT and
AWFT. The bending strength were calculated using following equations (2.4-2.5)
5 = N/OPA
P −
P E (2.4)
7R
= = (2.5)
5 S
Where, ‘Im’ is moment of inertia, ‘do’ is outer diameter, ‘di’ is inner diameter, ‘M’ is
bending moment, ‘σb’ is bending stress, ‘E’ is young’s modulus, ‘R’ is radius of
curvature & ‘y’ is distance from neutral axis.
2.5.5 Vibration test
The impact hammer setup for vibration analysis of cantilever beam is shown in
figure (2.10), which consists of clamp to hold specimen rigidly at one end. A piezoelectric
accelerometer mounted at root of specimen to measure acceleration when impact hammer
is hit to produce pure bending deflection in the specimen. A signal conditioner is used to
47
manipulate signals to examine the data for further use. Dynamic analyser is used to detect
the deformation caused in a specimen. PC or Laptop is loaded with DEWESoft™
software for modal analysis which essentially processes the signals received from the
impact hammer and accelerometer, carrying out their FFTs, finding FRF, obtaining Mode
Indicator Function, and finally providing the natural frequencies, mode shapes, and
damping ratio. Damping ratio is calculated with the help of logarithmic decrement
method using equation (2.6-2.7). The damping curve for cantilever is shown in figure
(2.9).
Fig.2.13. Damping curve
@ K@
T = F@ [VW 6K:] (2.6)
T
Y= (2.7)
ZPND <TD
Where, ‘δ’ is logarithmic decrement, ‘ξ’ is damping ratio, ‘x1….xn’ are the values of
either amplitude, acceleration, velocity for selected ‘n’ sample.
Fig. 2.14 Elements of impact hammer test setup
48
Fig. 2.15 Specimen testing by impact hammer
2.6 Machine identification
To evaluate strength properties teakwood, steel tube, and wood filled steel tubes
following machine were identified and used
2.6.1 Universal testing machine
Universal testing machine for determining the tensile, bending, and compression
properties of teakwood, steel, and wood filled steel tubes. Figure (2.12) shows the
photographic view of universal testing machine (UTM) TUE-C-1000, which meets the
requirements of IS1828 (part1)-2005 and ISO 7500-1 standards.
Table 2.4 Technical specifications of universal testing machine
Clearance Clearance
Model Maximum Least
for between Ram Power
TUE/TU Capacity count
compression columns stroke(mm) supply
E-C (kN) (kN)
test (mm) (mm)
3phase,440
volts, 50
1000 1000 0.1 0 – 850 750 250
cycles, A.C
The universal testing machine consists of a set up for testing the three point
bending set up facilities along with the digital data acquisition system and load is applied
manually using hydraulic cylinder the values of load applied, deflection are digitally
noted directly on to the data acquisition system, further the load data is connected with
the computer and the plot of load Vs deflection is directly performed by the computer
which is taken as the output. The values of the load in KN is applied with uniformly
increasing the value of the load and the deflection under the different applied loads is
noted down directly by using the data acquisition system the applied load increased up to
the breaking point or the failure of the material.
49
Fig. 2.16 Universal testing machine
The load Vs deflection curve obtained by the testing for the two different
materials is analyzed, load under the proportionality limit, ultimate load and load at the
failure is noted by plotting the graph and the value of bending stresses under the
proportionality load, ultimate load and failure load values are calculated by the bending
equation. Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture and Bending Moment is computed
using beam theory relations.
2.6.2 Fatigue testing machine
Fatigue testing machine for determining fatigue properties of circular sectioned

wood filled steel tubes.
2.6.2.1 Rotating bending fatigue testing machine

All specimens are prepared to test on standard fatigue testing machine to determine
the fatigue life. In this work 4-point rotating bending fatigue testing machine have been
used to determine the fatigue strength of wood-steel composite. Figure (2.13) shows the
photographic view of rotating bending fatigue testing machine.
50
Fig.2.17 Rotating bending fatigue testing machine [120]

Technical specifications of rotating bending fatigue testing machine
1. Maximum bending moment : 200kg-cm
2. Load (adjustable) : 5-40kg
3. Range : 100-200kg-cm
4. Accuracy of applied bending moment : ±1%
5. Digital counter : 8 digits
6. Motor : 3 phase, 0.5 Hp
7. Overall size : 100mm x 500mm x 600mm
8. Weight : 120kg
2.6.3 Impact hammer test setup

Impact hammer test to determine the vibration properties of wood filled steel tube
material
Fig. 2.18 Setup for impact hammer

51
Application
Impulse is defined as the state of vibration caused in a system, which leads to

disturbance like mechanical vibration and electrical noise. In Impulse
Im testing the
following are the instruments used in the setups as shown the figure (2.14). The setup
consists the instruments such as the accelerometer, impact hammer, signal conditioner,
clamping, specimen dynamic analyzer.
• Accelerometer: it’s a device used to measure the acceleration,

acceleration which is the
rate of change in the velocity of specimen.
• Impact hammer: impact hammer is the force transducer that measures the
force applied on the specimen.
• Signal conditioner: it’s generally an electronic device used in the
manipulation of the signals to examine the data for further use.
• Dynamic analyzer: it is defined as an objective to detect the deformation
caused in a specimen.
• Clamping the process of fasten the process of holding on to a specimen
with the necessary
nec fixtures.
In This process, a new technology solves the often faced problem that the signal is
higher than expected and therefore clipped. DEWESoft™
DEWESoft FRF technology always gives
the full possible range, since the signal is measured taking a high and a low gain at the
same time. The DEWESoft™ FRF module is used for examine of e.g. mechanical
structures or electrical systems to decide the transfer characteristic (amplitude and phase)
over a certain frequency range.
1. System overview: In this case, the following

lowing are the device used in the setup that
is microphones; model hammer acceleration sensor and other devices are used to
obtain the input.
Fig. 2.19 DEWESoft™ Devices [121]
52
Application
2. Enabling FRF module: Like many additional mathematics modules also “Modal
Test (FRF)” is an option to the standard DEWESoft™ package and needs to be
enabled in the Hardware setup: Enter <Settings><Hardware Setup> and then
<Math>.
Fig. 2.20 DEWESoft™ Hardware Enabling [121]
This process is done manually, due to the pre-stored

pre stored license in the DEWESoft™
instrument. Just click on the “Auto Detect” button and all options will be detected and
enabled automatically.
3. Setup / Operation modes: As per the application of DEWESoft they are
ar
classified into two types as mentioned below:
• Triggered: For initiating, an impulse is generated using modal hammer as shown
in the figure (2.18)).
• Free-run:
run: As we know, the structure is existing,
existing And the frequencies ranges
between 10...1000 Hz.
4. Triggered: In triggering process, consist of an Impact hammer used to excite the

specimen, which generates a short impulse and acceleration. In the Impact
hammer, a force sensor is installed to sense the amount of force generated during
each strike. For big structures
structures big hammer are used to strike in order to induce
impulse.
53
Application
Fig. 2.21 DEWESoft™ Hammer [121]
Fig. 2.22 DEWESoft™ triggering [121]
In the proposed work the load which is implied on the specimen is specified in
DEWESoft™, such that if the Load excides the process ends. The Impact hammer is
connected to the excitation port to sense the change and the specimen is connected to the
response port to view the response implied.
The graph of varied damping

dam ranges are obtained are shown below in the following
figures (2.23-2.25)
Fig. 2.23 DEWESoft™ Low damping value as useful range [121]
54
Application
Fig. 2.24 DEWESoft™ High damping value as useful range [121]
Fig. 2.25 DEWESoft™ Highest damping in critical condition [121]
The figure (2.23) shows that damping ratio generated within the low range. In the
figure (2.24) shows the damping ratio is obtained within the high range and in figure
(2.25) shows the damping ratio is about the critical range which cannot be generated in
graph.
In this process, the excitation and response are measured as shown in the figure
(2.26-2.27).. The excitation is generated by the modal hammer by striking the specimen
and the impulse is generated which is formulated as graph & is shown in the following
figure (2.26-2.27).
Fig. 2.26 DEWESoft™ Excitation and response [121]

55
Application
Fig. 2.27 DEWESoft™ Excitation and response graphical view [121]
In the process of striking the force generated are categorized as the following.
• Overload level
• Trigger level
• Double hit level
Where in overload level the force generated is higher than the value that is been
specified. In trigger level, the force developed lies in between the specified range and in
the double hit level the strike generated is low as shown in figure (2.28).
Fig. 2.28 DEWESoft™ levels [121]
Graphical response obtain during the experimentation is view as

as shown in the figure
(2.29)
56
Application
Fig. 2.29 DEWESoft™ shown the experimental output [121]

[1
2.7 Euro code design procedure

p
Various design codes are being used to predict the properties of in-filled
in members.
These design codes are recommended by National and International bodies responsible
for design of in filled members. Architectural Institute of Japan(AIJ)
(AIJ) [122], British
Standard Institution (BS) 5400 [123], American Insititute of Steel Construction (AISC-
LRFD) [124], American Concrete Institute (ACI) [125] and British Standard Institution
(EC4) [126],, Chinese Standard (GJB) [127]. Research and practice of in-filled members
and structures has also led to the development of these design codes.
2.7.1 Bending properties of wood filled steel tubes
Theoretical analysis to predict the

t moment capacities of in-filled
filled beams are done
by various design methods. AIJ (Architectural
( Institute of Japan) [122
22] code predicts the
theoretical moment based on the combined effect of steel and concrete taking in to
account of the plastic section modulus and angular location of the neutral axis. The
property of steel is fully utilised by taking in to account the plastic section modulus
m of the
steel tube. The ultimate confined concrete strength is considered here which will give the
true value of the in-filled
filled beams. BS 5400 [123] predicts the flexural behaviour by taking
the average compression in the concrete at failure to the design
design yield strength of steel
considering the composite action between steel and concrete. AISC-
AISC LRFD [124] codes
predict the strength of CFT beams by the plastic stress distribution in the cross section for
both steel and concrete cross section. This method is limited to concrete cylinder strength
57
and steel strength less than 55 and 380MPa. ACI (American Concrete Institute) [125]
evaluates the flexural strength based on the assumption that the plane section of column
remained plane during bending. The strength of the concrete in tension is ignored [128].
EC4 (British Standard Institution) code determines moment resistance of the CFT beams
based on plastic stress distribution and full strain compatibility of the cross section of
both steel and concrete [126]. Strength in tension was omitted in the calculation and this
code becomes applicable to the design of CFT beams with concrete cylinder strength and
yield strength of not higher than 50 and 355MPa [129].
The research work conducted and presented to predict ultimate moment capacity
of concrete filled tubes by EC4 show good agreement with experimental results [130],
[131], [132]. It was found that EC4 is best predictor of moment capacity of concrete filled
steel tubes [133] when concrete cylinder strength and yield strength of not higher than 50
and 355MPa. In analysing moment capacity of aluminium foam filled thin walled square
tubes under three point bending used values of yield strength of skin material and tensile
strength of foam material [134]. It is observed that in case of concrete filled tubes, yield
strength of tube material and compressive strength of concrete is used in predicting the
moment capacities by EC4 neglecting the tensile strength which is very low compared to
compression strength of concrete. The tensile strength parallel to grains is the maximum
strength of teakwood. In case of wood tensile strength parallel to grain is greater than
compressive strength-parallel to grain and tensile strength-perpendicular to grain. Hence,
EC4 in moment capacity relations the compressive strength is substituted by tensile
strength-parallel to grain.
2.7.2 Compression properties of wood filled steel tubes

Theoretical analysis to predict the ultimate strength or compressive load of in-
filled stub columns is done by various design methods. These methods are generally
summation of strength of filler material and tube material. The ACI [135] and AS [136]
design guidance for concrete filled tubes does not differentiate between section type and
does not make any explicit allowance for concrete confinement. The AIJ [137] and AISC-
LRFD [20] ignore the confining effect of the steel tube on concrete. GIJB4142-2000
[127] takes in to account the confinement effect but ignores the contribution of binding.
EC4 [138] is most recent international standard which covers concrete encased steel
sections and concrete filled sections with or without reinforcement, which also considers
the confinement effect and gives conservative results. However the effects of confinement
be included with caution. The beneficial effects reduce as the load eccentricity and
slenderness of column increases.
58
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF TEAKWOOD AND

STEEL PROPERTIES
3.1 Introduction
Wood is the oldest and one of the most commonly used building and structural
material in the world. It is widely used because of its low cost, high specific strength, high
stiffness and high toughness. It is a renewable resource, and its production requires low
energy input. Wood is fiber-composite material with complex overall structure [139].
Teak (Tectona Grandis L.f) is one of the most valuable and best known tropical timber
species and highly valued for use in shipbuilding, outdoor equipment, furniture, rural
housing, and general carpentry. Teak wood is moderately hard and heavy, seasons rapidly
and has good machining properties. It is naturally durable and possesses high dimensional
stability.
The teakwood naturally grows in Southeast Asia and is introduced to other
tropical and subtropical regions of Australia, Africa, and Latin America [140]. Teak is
abundantly available along coastal region of states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala,
and Tamilnadu of India. It has been selected for sustainable production in these regions
for plantation. Global plantations of Teak exceed 5.2 million hectares [141].
K.M.Bhat and P.B.Priya [141] Studied influence of provenance on wood
properties of teak from the western ghat region in India. The three major teak
provenances of the western ghat in India were characterized in terms of mechanical and
anatomical wood properties. The mechanical and anatomical properties were studied for
21 year old Teak plantations of North Canara and Malabar (Nilambar) Provenance and 65
year old plantations of Nilambar and Konni. It was noticed that there was trend for
Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rupture of the timber to be highest towards the
southernmost geographic location (Konni). In this paper authors studied the Structure-
property relationships by simple correlation coefficients to elucidate the extent of linear
relationship among various anatomical and mechanical properties. The Mechanical
properties of wood from fast grown teak can be lower than those of wood from slower
grown trees. The results also rule out the possibility of wide rings being always associated
with either strong or weaker wood by underlining the need for consideration of different
provenances/seed sources in the tree improvement program for sustainable teak
management.
59
U.K Rokeya, M.Akter et.al. [142] studied physical and mechanical properties of
hybrid Acacia, produced from natural crossing between two introduced timber species
(Acacia Auriculiformis and Acacia Magnum). The studies of properties it is evident that
the species are moderately strong and suitable for making furniture and other household
articles. The data presented for static bending and compression parallel to grain have
lower values in both green and dry conditions compared to teak the recognized timber
species for comparing the wood properties. The tested species has been found to be good
timber for utilization in making carpentry works like furniture’s, small hand tools, cabinet
door frames, window frame and other purposes.
Rownson Ali, Md. Jahangir Alam, et.al [143] presented the physical, mechanical,
and seasoning properties of Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus). The shear parallel to
grain of jackfruit wood was found greater than that of teak wood. From the test results
they revealed that the species is moderately strong and suitable for making furniture,
building constriction, carving, and carpentry. All the parameters of mechanical properties
except shear parallel to grain have lower values in both green and dry conditions as
compared to teak. The values for nail withdrawal of jackfruit is in air-dry condition are
higher than that of teak wood.
R. Gnanaharan, T.K. Dhamodaran [144] determined mechanical properties of air
dried rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis) from 35 year old plantation in the central region
of Kerala. It is generally thought that rubber wood is weak, but it was found that
mechanical properties tested viz., Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Modulus of Elasticity
(MOE), and Maximum Compressive Stress (MCS) were higher and comparable with
those of many structural timbers. This study indicated that strength values increase with
age. It is advisable to fell trees around 35 years for replanting.
Dorina Isopescu, Oana Stanila et.al [145] present an analysis of the results
obtained by testing standardized specimens and structural size beams according to
standards requirements in simple bending. Small samples were tested for 3-point bending
and real scale beams were tested for 4-point bending. Both tests have shown that if the
wood came from the same batch the results fall in to population of values confirmed by
tabulated values which are given in the codes. However, almost all results have
differences that do not fit the tabulated values perfectly.
For structural purpose the wood elements should be supplied in ‘strength classes’
that determine working stresses. As the strength class depends on both the species and the
grade of the piece, design engineers may specify the required strength class of the timber,
leaving it to supplier to select a species and grade to meet that specification.
60
In the current study it is decided to use the combination of wood and steel. Teakwood
is used as filler material in the development of wood filled steel tubes. The desirable
mechanical properties of teakwood are determined experimentally as they are required in
the analysis of strength properties of wood filled steel tubes. The tests carried out to
establish the physical and mechanical properties as per the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) D143 [146] for small and clear wood specimens. Following
properties of teakwood are determined.
• Longitudinal Modulus of Elasticity (EL)
• Maximum Crushing Strength(MCS)- Parallel to Grains
• Tensile Strength(σ)
In wood filled steel tubes, the steel tubes surrounding the materials eliminate
permanent formwork which reduces construction time [147]. Hence solid wood is press
fitted in to hollow steel section to obtain wood filled steel tube (WFT). The strength
properties of WFT`s are dependent on mechanical properties of wood and steel. It is
desirable to determine mechanical properties of steel tube material.
M. Elchalakani, X.L. Zhao et al. [147] prepared tensile coupons from the seams in
tubes and tested according to Australian standard AS 1391[148] and determine the
young’s modulus, yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, and percentage elongation at
fracture.
Han LH, Lu H et al. [149] tested strips of steel tubes in tension. Three coupons
were taken from each face of the steel tube and tested for young’s modulus, yield stress,
and ultimate tensile strength. In order obtain material properties of steel hollow tubes, thin
steel plate and thick steel plate were cut in to coupons and tested according to Chinese
testing standard GB2975 to measure yield strength and tensile strength by F.W Lu, S. P.
Li, et al [150], Gho WM, Liu D. [151] to determine actual material properties of steel
hollow sections, four coupons were flame cut from the four faces and tested to failure
under tension according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E8[152]
to determine the average yield stress. The stress-strain curved of the coupons of steel is
illustrated. Han LH [153] tested strips of steel tubes of mild steel in tension in accordance
with Chinese standard for metal materials and determine average yield strength.
To determine the material properties, standard test methods for tension testing of
metallic materials of the hollow sectioned steel tube American Society for Testing and
61
Materials (ASTM) E8/E8M [152] is used and tensile properties such young’s modulus,
yield stress, and ultimate tensile strength were determined.
3.2 Specimens of teakwood material

In the present study, commercially available ready to use, good quality, and air
dried (moisture content less than 12%) teakwood material was procured from local saw
mill. Specimens were prepared by machining to the shape and size as specified and tested
as per ASTM D143 standard.
3.2.1 Specimen of teakwood for bending test

Square sectioned teakwood specimens were prepared for static bending tests as
shown in figure (3.1).
Fig. 3.1 Teakwood Specimen for Bending Test
3.2.2. Specimen of teakwood for compression test

Square sectioned teakwood specimens were prepared for compression tests as
Fig. 3.2 Teakwood specimen for compression test
62
Application
3.2.3 Specimen of teakwood for tensile Test

Specimens were prepared to dumbbell shape as shown in figure (3.3).
Fig. 3.3 Teakwood specimen for tensile test
3.3 Specimens of steel tube material
Commercially available hollow sectioned carbon steel tubes for general purpose
were procured as per the requirement.
requirement The general structural purpose rectangular hollow
sectioned carbon steel tube categorised under IS2062/2006 (Grades A, B & C), ASTM-
A36M M, DIN 17100 was considered.
considered Specimens were prepared to determine young’s
modulus, yield stress, and ultimate tensile strength
strength of the material of hollow section as per
ASTM E8 standard. ASTM E8 specifies standard test
est methods for tension testing of
metallic materials.. The specimens were prepared and tested as per the said standard.
3.3.1 Specimen of steel tube for tensile test

Sheets were gas cut from the steel tubee to dumbbell shape as shown in figure
(3.4).
4). These dumbbell shaped flat steel specimens are called as coupons. The sharp edges
were removed by grinding.
Fig. 3.4 Steel Specimen for tensile test
3.4 Results and discussion on material properties of teakwood
Bending, compression and tensile properties were desirable for this work. The
experimental considerations and results are discussed in following sections
63
3.4.1 Results and discussion on properties of teakwood in

bending
Wood is an orthotropic material and has unique and independent mechanical

properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes. The longitudinal axis is
parallel to the fiber, the radial axis is normal to the growth rings (perpendicular to the
grain in the radial direction) and the tangential axis is perpendicular to the grain but
tangent to the growth rings. These axes are shown in figure (3.5).
Fig. 3.5 Three principal axes of wood [154]
The modulus of elasticity in longitudinal direction is determined by bending test

rather than from an axial test and is denoted by EL [154]. The remaining properties were
obtained based on using Longitudinal Elastic Modulus (EL). Other desirable properties are
derived from relations ET/EL, ER/EL, GLR/EL, GLT/EL, GRT/EL, µ LR, µ LT, µ RT .( where; ET is
Transverse Modulus of Elasticity, ER is Through Thickness Modulus of Elasticity, GLR is
Longitudinal Through Thickness Shear Modulus, GLT is Longitudinal In-plane Shear
Modulus , GRT is Transverse, Through Thickness Shear Modulus, µ LR is Minor Poisson’s
Ratio, µ LT is Major Poisson’s Ratio, µ RT is Transverse Poisson’s Ratio) To build these
relations averaged values of white ash, yellow birch, red oak, white oak, African
mahagony, and Honduras mahagony have been considered from [154] and are shown in
the table (3.1). All of them fall under the Hardwood category having similar strength
properties by and large.
64
Table 3.1 Relations used to determine teakwood properties [154]
Hardwood Species ET/EL ER/EL GLR/EL GLT/EL GRT/EL µLR µLT µRT
White Ash 0.0800 0.1250 0.1090 0.0770 -- 0.3710 0.4400 0.6840
Yellow Birch 0.0500 0.0780 0.0740 0.0680 0.0170 0.4260 0.4510 0.6970
Red Oak 0.0820 0.1540 0.0890 0.0810 -- 0.3560 0.4800 0.5600
White Oak 0.0720 0.1630 0.0860 -- -- 0.3690 0.4280 0.6180
African Mahagony 0.0500 0.1110 0.0880 0.0590 0.0210 0.2970 0.6410 0.6040
Honduras Mahagony 0.0640 0.1070 0.0660 0.0860 0.0280 0.3140 0.5330 0.6000
Avg. 0.0663 0.1230 0.0853 0.0742 0.0220 0.3555 0.4955 0.6272
Std. Dev. 0.0142 0.0316 0.0147 0.0108 0.0056 0.0459 0.0805 0.0529
Square Solid Teakwood was tested to determine the longitudinal elastic modulus
and modulus of rupture under 3-point bending. Tests were carried out for five specimens
by loading the specimens at the centre with the span of 360mm as per ASTM D143
standard. Experimental setup is as shown in figure (3.6). All the tests were carried out at
room temperature as per ASTM D143 [146]
Fig. 3.6 Experimental setup for 3 point Static Bending
The teakwood beams were tested using universal testing machine under the three
point arrangement. The universal testing machine consists of a set up for testing the
specimen under three point bending along with the digital data acquisition system. Load
was applied at slow rate using hydraulic cylinder. The load applied in “KN” and
deflection in “mm” was digitally noted directly on to the data acquisition system. Further
the load data was connected with the computer and the plot of load vs. deflection was
directly performed by the computer which is taken as the output. The applied load
increased up to the breaking point or the failure of the material.
The load vs. deflection curves obtained by the testing were analyzed, load at
proportionality limit and deflection at proportionality limit were noted and modulus of
elasticity (EL) was calculated using equation (3.1)
65
[ = AI ∗ [ ] E/AP ∗ ∆ ∗ _ ∗ `] E (3.1)

Modulus of Rupture or bending strength of teakwood was calculated using equation (3.2)
S = A@. b ∗ IJK ∗ [ E / (B*H3) (3.2)
Load vs. deflection curves obtained by 3-point static bending test for five
samples are shown in figure (3.7). It is observed that for all specimens the curves obtained
are coherent. The teakwood material fails in brittle manner. All specimens failed on
tensile face. Load at proportionality limit must be selected carefully from initial straight
line of the curve in such way that maximum number points lie on the straight line or
nearer to fit. In this work initial straight line portion of curve is fitted using linear trend
line option tool available at MS-Excel as shown in figure (3.8) for sample TWB-1. The
procedure is repeated for all other samples.
3.00
2.50
Load, KN
2.00 TWB-1
1.50 TWB-2
1.00 TWB-3
0.50
TWB-4
0.00
TWB-5
0.0
1.4
2.8
4.2
5.6
7.0
8.4
9.8
Delflection, mm
Fig. 3.7 Load vs. Deflection curves for teakwood in bending
1.20
1.00 y = 0.04x
R² = 0.983
Load, KN
0.80
0.60
0.40 TWB-1
0.20 Linear (TWB-1)
0.00
0.00
0.40
0.80
1.20
1.60
2.00
2.40
Deflection, mm
Fig. 3.8 Initial linear trend of Load-Deflection curve
66
The results of 3-point static bending tests are summarized and are as shown in
table (3.2). The average longitudinal elastic modulus of teakwood is 12328.9 MPa with
standard deviation of 541.48MPa.
Table 3.2 Results of longitudinal elastic modulus
% ρ, B, H, Ls, Ppl, ∆pl, Pmax, ∆max, MOR,
Sample EL, MPa
Moisture Kg/m3 mm mm mm KN mm KN mm Mpa
TWB1 12.43 661.22 25.02 24.98 360.00 1.08 2.70 2.64 11.00 11963.08 91.31
TWB2 12.12 669.40 25.04 24.98 360.00 1.35 3.30 2.16 8.80 12225.19 74.65
TWB3 11.40 670.48 24.96 25.02 360.00 1.02 2.60 2.46 10.80 11704.90 85.02
TWB4 11.11 676.06 25.02 24.98 360.00 1.48 3.40 2.32 10.70 13018.64 80.24
TWB5 11.45 646.23 25.04 25.02 360.00 1.37 3.20 2.09 8.80 12732.74 72.03
Avg. 11.70 664.68 25.02 25.00 360.00 1.26 3.04 2.33 10.02 12328.91 80.65
Std.
0.55 11.60 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.20 0.36 0.22 1.12 541.48 7.80
Dev.
*TWB – Teakwood Bending.
The other mechanical properties considering orthotropic nature of teakwood using

derived relation are shown in table (3.3). For theoretical analysis the teakwood properties
are determine using the same relation throughout this work.
Table 3.3 Material properties of teakwood

Longitudinal Modulus of Elasticity , MPa EL 12328.91
Transverse Modulus of Elasticity, MPa ET 817.82
Through Thickness Modulus of Elasticity, MPa ER 1516.46
Longitudinal Through Thickness Shear Modulus, MPa GLR 1052.07
Longitudinal Inplane Shear Modulus, MPa GLT 914.81
Transverse, Through Thickness Shear Modulus, MPa GRT 271.24
Minor Poisson’s Ratio µ LR 0.39
Major Poisson’s Ratio µ LT 0.52
Transverse Poisson’s Ratio µ RT 0.61
3.4.2 Results and discussion on teakwood properties in

compression
To conduct compression test to determine maximum crushing strength
compression plates are used as shown in figure (3.9). The load in KN is applied uniformly
and deflections are noted from computer interfaced system until the failure of specimen.
The maximum load is recorded and is used in the analysis of compression properties.
67
Fig. 3.9 Experimental setup for compression test
To determine the maximum crushing strength-parallel to grain universal testing

with compression plates is used. Five specimens of square sectioned teakwood were
tested. The load and deflection were recorded. Load vs. deflection plots were obtained as
shown in figure (3.10). It is observed that for all specimens the curves obtained are
consistent. Teakwood failed in brittle manner at the point of contact of compression
plates.
140.00
120.00
100.00
Load, KN
80.00 TWC-1
60.00 TWC-2
40.00 TWC-3
TWC-4
20.00
TWC-5
0.00
0.0
0.7
1.4
2.1
2.8
3.5
4.2
4.9
Deflection, mm
Fig. 3.10 Load vs. Deflection curve in compression

Based on maximum load and area of cross-section of the specimen maximum
crushing strength (MCS) for teakwood was calculated using equation (3.3)
H = IJK/M (3.3)
68
The physical and compression properties of teakwood are shown in table (3.4).
The maximum crushing strength of teakwood is 48.04MPa with standard deviation of
0.28MPa for sample size of five.
Table 3.4 Properties of teakwood under compression
Sample B, mm D, mm Ac, mm2 L, mm Pmax, KN ∆max, mm MCS, Mpa

TWC1 50.02 50.00 2501.00 200.00 121.16 4.00 48.44
TWC2 49.98 50.02 2500.00 200.00 120.44 4.80 48.18
TWC3 50.04 50.02 2503.00 200.00 120.04 4.40 47.96
TWC4 50.00 50.04 2502.00 200.00 119.80 3.90 47.88
TWC5 50.02 50.04 2503.00 200.00 119.48 3.70 47.73
Avg. 50.01 50.02 2501.80 200.00 120.18 4.16 48.04
Std. Dev. 0.02 0.02 1.30 0.00 0.65 0.44 0.28
*Teakwood under compression
3.4.3 Results and discussion on tensile properties of teakwood

The arrangement for tensile testing of teakwood is as shown in figure (3.11)
Fig. 3.11 Tensile test of teakwood specimen
The tensile load in KN is applied uniformly and deflections were noted from
computer interfaced system until the failure of specimen. The maximum load is recorded
and is used in the analysis of tensile properties. The load Vs deflections curves are shown
in figure (3.12). It is observed that for all specimens the curves obtained are same. The
teakwood failed in brittle manner. The tensile strength (TS) was calculated using equation
(3.4)
c = IJK/M (3.4)
69
12.00
10.00
8.00
Load, KN
TWT-1
6.00
TWT-2
4.00 TWT-3
TWT-4
2.00
TWT-5
0.00
0.00
0.40
0.80
1.20
1.60
2.00
2.40
2.80
3.20
3.60
4.00
4.40
4.80
5.20
5.60
6.00
Deflection, mm
Fig. 3.12 Load Vs Deflection curve in tension

Tensile properties of teakwood are shown in Table 4. The average tensile strength
of teakwood is 198.60MPa with standard deviation of 10.89MPa for sample size of five.
Table 3.5 Properties of Teakwood under tension
Sample Pmax ∆max TS

TWT1 8.76 5.60 192.11
TWT2 9.04 5.80 198.25
TWT3 9.92 4.90 217.54
TWT4 8.78 5.20 192.54
TWT5 8.78 5.20 192.54
Avg 9.06 5.34 198.60
SD 0.50 0.36 10.89
*TWT – Teakwood under tension
3.5 Results and discussion on material properties of steel

Tensile properties of steel were desirable for this work. The experimental
considerations and results of tensile properties of steel are discussed in following sections
3.5.1 Results and discussion on tensile properties of steel

Steel specimens were subjected to tensile test at room temperature using the
ASTM E8/E8M procedure. This setup on Universal Testing Machine was used for testing
of steel as shown in figure (3.13), load in KN and deflection in mm were acquired
through computer interfaced acquisition system. The load and deflection curves were
generated to study the properties of steel in tension.
70
Fig. 3.13 Testing of Steel Coupons for Tensile Properties
ASTM E8 method prescribes to determine ultimate tensile stress and yield stress.
The load Vs deflection graphs obtained by tensile test on UTM for specimens are as
shown in Figure (13). It is observed that all five specimens failed in ductile manner. Steel
strip subjected to tensile loading developed crack at the centre. Maximum load (Pmax),
load at yielding (Py) are noted and Ultimate Stress (σu), Yield Stress (σy) were determined
by equations (3.5 & 3.6)
IJK
7 = M
(3.5)
I
7 = (3.6)
M
The Young’s Modulus (E) in this case is calculated using Initial load (Pi) and deflection
(∆) using following equation (3.7).
I∗[
= ∆∗M (3.7)
14
12
10
Load, KN
8 STT-1
STT-2
6
STT-3
4
STT-4
2
STT-5
0
0 0.40.81.21.62.02.4 2.83.23.64.04.44.85.2
Deflection, mm
Fig. 3.14 Load vs. Deflection curves for steel coupons
71
The ultimate stress, yield stress, Young’s modulus and ratio of ultimate stress to
yield stress are as shown in table (3.6). The results obtained show that Ultimate Stress
determined is greater than 410MPa, and Yield Stress is greater than 250MPa for general
purpose structural steel tubes covered under IS2062/2006 (Grades A, B & C), ASTM-
A36M M, DIN 17100. The young’s modulus for this class is taken as 210GPa.
Researchers suggest determining initial young’s modulus while testing thin sheets
considering the difficulties encountered in obtaining the initial slope.
Table 3.6 Tensile Properties of Steel Tubes Material
Sample ∆, mm Pi, KN Py, KN Pmax, KN σy, Mpa σu, Mpa σu/σy E, Gpa
STT1 0.10 2.68 8.96 11.16 357.68 445.51 1.25 213.97
STT2 0.10 2.52 9.68 12.52 386.43 499.80 1.29 201.20
STT3 0.10 2.71 9.50 11.84 379.24 472.65 1.25 216.37
STT4 0.10 2.72 8.88 13.16 354.49 525.35 1.48 217.17
STT5 0.10 2.46 9.04 11.16 360.88 445.51 1.23 196.41
Avg. 0.10 2.62 9.21 11.97 367.74 477.76 1.30 209.02
Std. Dev 0.00 0.12 0.36 0.87 14.19 34.85 0.10 9.55
*STT – Steel tube material under tension
3.6 Coefficient of friction between Teakwood and Steel

To determine coefficient of friction (µ) between the steel and teakwood, inclined
plane apparatus was used A free body diagram of body for analysis and setup is as shown
in Figure 15 & 16. A steel sheet of size 45mm X 420mm X 1.65 mm was cut from the
steel tube. A rectangular section teakwood of size 45mm X 24mm X 160mm was used in
the test. Coefficient of friction was determined using the equation (3.8)
µ = AI − 9 ∗ dE/A9 ∗ H dE (3.8)
Where, ‘P’ is effort in gm, ‘W’ is weight of teakwood block on steel plate in gm, ‘θ’ is
angle of inclined plane in degrees, ‘f’ is frictional force in gm, and ‘N’ is normal force in
gm.
Fig. 3.15 Free body diagram
72
Fig. 3.16 Friction analysis
The results for friction between steel and teakwood are summarized and shown in
table (3.6). The average coefficient of friction between the steel and teakwood material is
0.7029 with standard deviation of 0.0106.
Table 3.7 Results of friction between teakwood and steel
No θ W, gm P, gm F, gm N, gm µ
1 20 117 117 76.986 109.9332 0.7003
2 20 117 117 76.986 109.9332 0.7003
3 20 117 119 78.986 109.9332 0.7185
4 20 117 118 77.986 109.9332 0.7094
5 20 117 115 74.986 109.9332 0.6821
6 30 117 129 70.5 101.322 0.6958
7 30 117 130 71.5 101.322 0.7057
8 30 117 131 72.5 101.322 0.7155
9 30 117 130 71.5 101.322 0.7057
10 30 117 129 70.5 101.322 0.6958
AVG. 0.7029
SD. 0.0106
Following is the summary of experimental results of teakwood and steel properties

The average longitudinal modulus of elasticity of teak wood material was
12328.90MPa (with standard deviation of 541.48), The average value of modulus of
rupture (MOR) was 80.65MPa (with standard deviation of 7.80). The average maximum
crushing strength was 48.04MPa (with standard deviation of 0.28), The average tensile
strength of teakwood was 198.60MPa (with standard deviation of 10.89),the poisons ratio
was 0.52.
Average yield stress, ultimate stress and young’s modulus of steel were
determined by experimentation are 367.74MPa (with Std. Dev. Of 14.19), 477.76MPa
(with Std. Dev. of 34.85), and 209.02GPa (with Std. Dev. of 9.55), Poisons ratio was
taken as 0.29.
73
The coefficient of friction between the steel and teakwood material is 0.7029 with
standard deviation of 0.0106
The commercial teakwood and steel material procured was experimentally tested
for required properties of current work. The results were cross verified with already
published data on teakwood [139], [140], [141], [142], [143], [144], [145], [154], and
steel properties [147], [149], [150], [151], [153]. It is observed that the properties
determined are well within the specified limit and may be used in design and
development of wood-steel composites for strength properties in bending, compression,
fatigue and damping applications.
74
CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF WOOD STEEL
COMPOSITE FOR BENDING STRENGTH
4.1 Introduction
Composite materials play important role in reducing weight of structure; various

possibilities of composites can be obtained by varying the size of the two or more
materials that forms the composite. Strength properties usually reported include modulus
of elasticity, modulus of rupture, compression strength, tensile strength; shear strength,
fastener holding capacity, and hardness.
There are two major reasons of current interest in composite materials. The first
one is to satisfy the need for materials that will outperform the traditional monolith
materials and composite offers engineers the opportunity to design totally new materials
with precise combination of properties needed for specific tasks.
Experimental study presented by Borri and Corradi [155] on the strengthening of
wood beams under loads through the use of very high strength steel cords. An
experimental program based on four-point bending test configuration is proposed to
characterize the stiffness, ductility and strength response of wood beams strengthened
with steel chord. Mechanical tests on the strengthened wood showed that external
bonding of steel fibres produce high increases in flexural stiffness and capacity.
Adherence between the wood and reinforcement was effective up to the fracture in the
wood beams.
Wu, C., Kan Y., et al. [156] presented investigation study on the size effect and
the flexural behaviour of full size reinforced concrete beams with lightweight aggregate
and normal aggregate. A total of 6 flexure beams with various reinforcement ratios and 6
size effect beams with various dimensions were fabricated and tested. The designated
compressive strength of concrete used was 34MPa. Test results indicate that the
reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) beams have similar load capacities
and failure mode as that of normal weight concrete (NWC).
Ghao and Liu [157] presented a study on flexural behaviour of high strength
rectangular concrete filled steel hollow section. The specimens tested to failure under
pure bending. Three different sizes of steel hollow sections were filled with high strength
concrete. A good ductility performance of the specimens was observed in all specimens.
Local buckling was specifically noted on the compression face of the specimens. The
75
study concludes that more studies are needed to understand the behaviour of rectangular
CFSHS with high strength materials.
Concrete structures are designed to satisfy strength requirements and
serviceability requirements related to deflection and crack control. Many codes and
standards such as ACI 318-08 (ACI Committee 318 2008) [125] and CSA A23.3 (2004)
[158] include provisions for deflection control by either requiring a minimum member
thickness based on a limiting span-depth ratio (l/h) or ensuring that computed values of
deflection do not exceed permissible deflection limits under specified service loads.
Satisfying appropriate span-depth ratios is the simplest approach to ensure the member
has sufficient stiffness to avoid deflection problems and implies deflection limits are
satisfied.
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR) are two important
structural properties of beam and desired to be designed accurately. While investigating
these properties of wood filled steel tubes it becomes very essential to recommend the
correct span-to-depth ratio. Also it is necessary to cross verify the span-to-depth ratio
used to obtain flexural properties of wood based composites. ASTM 143 (2009) [159]
recommends the span-to-depth ratio of 14 for testing clear wood specimens; ASTM D
198 (2009) [117] recommended 11 and 15 for lumber in structural sizes in its first edition.
ASTM D 790 (2010) [160] recommends 16:1 span-to-depth ratio in general but
recommends that span-to-depth ratio shall be chosen such that failure occurs in the outer
fibers of the specimens and is due only to the bending moment.
A span-to-depth ratio larger than 16:1 may be necessary for high strength
reinforced composites 32:1 or 40:1 are recommended. For some highly anisotropic
composites an increase in the span-to-depth ratio to 60:1 is recommended to eliminate
shear effects when modulus data are required. From the above discussion it can be noted
that the flexural property is function of span-to-depth ratio and needs to be investigated
for wood filled steel tubes. This chapter presents experimental work carried out to
investigate the effects of span-to-depth ratio on bending properties of mechanically
bonded wood filled steel tube, and adhesively bonded wood steel tube in rectangular cross
section.
4.2 Materials used in preparation of wood filled steel tubes
The materials selected for compositing were teak wood, steel tube and Fevitite
superfast adhesive. Commercially available teakwood, rectangular carbon hollow
sectioned steel tube, and Fevitite superfast adhesive procured from local market. Air dried
76
and seasoned teakwood with moisture content less than 12% was brought and stored. The
general structural purpose rectangular hollow sectioned carbon steel tube categorised
under IS2062/2006 (Grades A, B, & C), ASTM-A36M M, DIN 17100 was considered.
To manufacture adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes a Fevitite superfast structural
grade adhesive was procured and used based on suitability for application.
crushing strength was 48.04MPa (with standard deviation of 0.28), the poisons ratio of
0.52. These properties of teakwood material were determined by preparing specimens and
testing them as per the American Society for Testing and Materials standards ASTM 143
(15) (Ref. – chapter 3).
Average yield stress, ultimate stress and young’s modulus were determined by
experimentation are 367.74MPa (with Std. Dev. of 14.19), 477.76MPa (with Std. Dev. of
34.85) and 209.02GPa (with Std. Dev. of 9.55). Poisons ratio was taken as 0.29.These
steel properties were determined by tensile testing of sheets cut from the tube faces as per
the American Society for Testing and Materials standards ASTM E8 [9] (Ref. – chapter
3).
Fevitite superfast adhesive is a faster setting two-component multipurpose epoxy
adhesive system. Resin and hardener mixed thoroughly in the ratio 1:1 by volume. Faster
setting makes it ideal for those jobs which have to be finished in 3hrs. It can set within 2-
3 hrs at 30°C. This system does not contain volatile matter; hence there is negligible
shrinkage on curing. Fevitite superfast which is internally flexible provides strong joints
with excellent low creep properties hence make it ideal for structural bonding applications
(16). The properties of Fevitite superfast adhesive are taken from manufacturer manual
and are shown in Table (4.1)
Table 4.1 Properties of adhesive- Fevitite super fast [112]
Test Property Value

Overlap Shear Strength (MS-MS), >160 Kg/cm2
Bond cured for 24 Hrs/RT
Cleavage Strength (MS-MS), >60 Kg/cm2
Hardener Density 0.9 g/cm3
Resin Density 1.15 g/cm3
77
4.2.1 Preparation of mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel

tubes
Mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes were fabricated by press fitting the
solid teakwood beam in to the rectangular hollow sectioned carbon steel tube. The press
fitting of teakwood in to steel is carried out on Universal Testing Machine. A special
fixture was fabricated to hold the steel tube. Solid teakwood is forced in to steel tube with
slow speed of ram till assembly is obtained. The setup is as shown in figure (4.1).
Fig. 4.1 Press fitting of teakwood in to steel tube on UTM
Allowable interference is designed based on the functional requirements of solid

teakwood and a steel tube. Allowable interference between solid teakwood and steel tube
is determined using following equations (4.1-4.2) adopted from design guide manual 1 of
DuPont Engineering Polymers [10]
78 9<=> @F=

5=6 : ;6 :?6 :G (4.1)
9 >
A ^D<>^D)
9 = ( ^DF>^D) (4.2)
Where σy is Yield stress in N/mm2, Ds is external size of steel tube in mm, Dw is internal
size of steel tube in mm, Es and Ew are Young’s modulus of steel and teakwood in MPa,
Vs. and Vw are poisons ratio of steel and teakwood respectively.
78
The internal size of the hollow steel tube is taken as basic size. The amount of
interference is added to the basic size to obtain the external size of teakwood beam.
Amount of teakwood and steel used by weight in preparation of mechanically
bonded teakwood filled steel tubes (MWFT) is shown in the table (4.2)
Table 4.2 Proportion of teakwood and steel in MWFT
Specimen mST, kg mTW, kg mMWFT,kg %ST %TW %MWFT

MWFT1_360E 0.6550 0.324 0.979 66.91 33.09 100.00
MWFT2_360E 0.6560 0.317 0.973 67.42 32.58 100.00
MWFT3_360E 0.6660 0.321 0.987 67.48 32.52 100.00
MWFT4_360E 0.6570 0.322 0.979 67.11 32.89 100.00
MWFT5_360E 0.6560 0.314 0.970 67.63 32.37 100.00
MWFT1_360F 0.6590 0.325 0.984 66.97 33.03 100.00
MWFT2_360F 0.6760 0.319 0.995 67.94 32.06 100.00
MWFT3_360F 0.6720 0.322 0.994 67.61 32.39 100.00
MWFT4_360F 0.6570 0.326 0.983 66.84 33.16 100.00
MWFT5_360F 0.6560 0.316 0.972 67.49 32.51 100.00
MWFT1_710E 1.2130 0.598 1.811 66.98 33.02 100.00
MWFT2_710E 1.2670 0.588 1.855 68.30 31.70 100.00
MWFT3_710E 1.2260 0.572 1.798 68.19 31.81 100.00
MWFT4_710E 1.2110 0.592 1.803 67.17 32.83 100.00
MWFT5_710E 1.2760 0.581 1.857 68.71 31.29 100.00
MWFT1_710F 1.2080 0.612 1.820 66.37 33.63 100.00
MWFT2_710F 1.2670 0.578 1.845 68.67 31.33 100.00
MWFT3_710F 1.2260 0.594 1.820 67.36 32.64 100.00
MWFT4_710F 1.2110 0.562 1.773 68.30 31.70 100.00
MWFT5_710F 1.2760 0.621 1.897 67.26 32.74 100.00
79
Measured values of Physical and Geometrical properties of mechanically bonded

wood filled steel tubes (MWFT) specimens are shown in table (4.3)
Table 4.3 Physical and geometrical properties of MWFT

Specimen Bo, mm Ho, mm L, mm Ls Ls/Ho m, kg Ac, mm2 V, mm3 ρ, Kg/m3 Im, mm4
MWFT1_360E 27.94 52.23 410.00 360.00 6.89 0.979 1459.07 598218.35 1636.53 331690.89
MWFT2_360E 27.78 52.12 410.00 360.00 6.91 0.973 1447.96 593662.76 1638.98 327746.66
MWFT3_360E 27.43 52.18 410.00 360.00 6.90 0.987 1431.50 586914.56 1681.68 324792.79
MWFT4_360E 28.04 52.32 410.00 360.00 6.88 0.979 1467.17 601540.50 1627.49 334738.28
MWFT5_360E 27.89 52.37 410.00 360.00 6.87 0.970 1460.69 598881.26 1619.69 333893.07
MWFT1_360F 52.44 28.04 410.00 360.00 12.84 0.984 1470.54 602922.05 1632.05 96350.17
MWFT2_360F 51.51 28.23 410.00 360.00 12.75 0.995 1453.82 596064.79 1669.28 96515.52
MWFT3_360F 51.72 28.28 410.00 360.00 12.73 0.994 1462.39 599578.87 1657.83 97433.27
MWFT4_360F 51.43 28.13 410.00 360.00 12.80 0.983 1446.78 593181.62 1657.17 95424.49
MWFT5_360F 51.29 27.69 410.00 360.00 13.00 0.972 1420.05 582218.55 1669.48 90711.11
MWFT1_710E 28.42 51.66 760.00 710.00 13.74 1.811 1467.86 1115575.32 1623.38 326421.90
MWFT2_710E 27.71 51.30 760.00 710.00 13.84 1.855 1421.33 1080208.72 1717.26 311704.10
MWFT3_710E 28.13 51.43 760.00 710.00 13.81 1.798 1446.78 1099556.17 1635.21 318854.80
MWFT4_710E 27.69 51.29 760.00 710.00 13.84 1.803 1420.05 1079234.38 1670.63 311304.74
MWFT5_710E 28.42 51.66 760.00 710.00 13.74 1.857 1467.86 1115575.32 1664.61 326421.90
MWFT1_710F 52.12 27.78 760.00 710.00 25.56 1.820 1447.96 1100448.04 1653.87 93137.17
MWFT2_710F 52.18 27.43 760.00 710.00 25.88 1.845 1431.50 1087939.19 1695.87 89783.23
MWFT3_710F 52.32 28.04 760.00 710.00 25.32 1.820 1467.17 1115050.68 1632.21 96129.39
MWFT4_710F 51.66 28.42 760.00 710.00 24.99 1.773 1467.86 1115575.32 1589.31 98764.18
MWFT5_710F 51.30 27.71 760.00 710.00 25.63 1.897 1421.33 1080208.72 1756.14 90922.49
80
4.2.2 Preparation of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tube specimens
Adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT) were manufactured in the
same manner as of MWFT. During fitting of teakwood, adhesive was applied with thin
coat of approximately 0.05 to 0.10 mm of Fevitite superfast using a spatula. After fitting
the teakwood the assembly is allowed to cure for 12 Hrs. The amount of steel, teakwood
and adhesive used in manufacturing the AWFT specimens is shown in table (4.4)
Table 4.4 Amount of teakwood, steel, and adhesive in AWFT
Specimen mST, Kg mTW, Kg mAD, Kg mAWFT, Kg %ST %TW %AD %AWFT
AWFT1_360E 0.6550 0.324 0.013 0.9920 66.03 32.66 1.31 100.00
AWFT2_360E 0.6560 0.317 0.013 0.9860 66.53 32.15 1.32 100.00
AWFT3_360E 0.6660 0.321 0.013 1.0000 66.60 32.10 1.30 100.00
AWFT4_360E 0.6570 0.322 0.013 0.9920 66.23 32.46 1.31 100.00
AWFT5_360E 0.6560 0.314 0.013 0.9830 66.73 31.94 1.32 100.00
AWFT1_360F 0.6590 0.325 0.013 0.9970 66.10 32.60 1.30 100.00
AWFT2_360F 0.6760 0.319 0.013 1.0080 67.06 31.65 1.29 100.00
AWFT3_360F 0.6720 0.322 0.013 1.0070 66.73 31.98 1.29 100.00
AWFT4_360F 0.6570 0.326 0.013 0.9960 65.96 32.73 1.31 100.00
AWFT5_360F 0.6560 0.316 0.013 0.9850 66.60 32.08 1.32 100.00
AWFT1_710E 1.2130 0.598 0.024 1.8350 66.10 32.59 1.31 100.00
AWFT2_710E 1.2670 0.588 0.024 1.8790 67.43 31.29 1.28 100.00
AWFT3_710E 1.2260 0.572 0.024 1.8220 67.29 31.39 1.32 100.00
AWFT4_710E 1.2110 0.592 0.024 1.8270 66.28 32.40 1.31 100.00
AWFT5_710E 1.2760 0.581 0.024 1.8810 67.84 30.89 1.28 100.00
AWFT1_710F 1.2080 0.612 0.024 1.8440 65.51 33.19 1.30 100.00
AWFT2_710F 1.2670 0.578 0.024 1.8690 67.79 30.93 1.28 100.00
AWFT3_710F 1.2260 0.594 0.024 1.8440 66.49 32.21 1.30 100.00
AWFT4_710F 1.2110 0.562 0.024 1.7970 67.39 31.27 1.34 100.00
AWFT5_710F 1.2760 0.621 0.024 1.9210 66.42 32.33 1.25 100.00
81
Measured Physical and Geometrical properties of adhesively bonded wood filled

steel tubes (AWFT) specimens are shown in table (4.5)
Table 4.5 Physical and geometrical properties of AWFT

AWFT1_360E 27.94 52.23 410.00 360.00 6.89 0.991 1459.07 598218.35 1656.59 331690.89
AWFT2_360E 27.78 52.12 410.00 360.00 6.91 0.986 1447.96 593662.76 1660.88 327746.66
AWFT3_360E 27.43 52.18 410.00 360.00 6.90 1.000 1431.50 586914.56 1703.83 324792.79
AWFT4_360E 28.04 52.32 410.00 360.00 6.88 0.991 1467.17 601540.50 1647.44 334738.28
AWFT5_360E 27.89 52.37 410.00 360.00 6.87 0.983 1460.69 598881.26 1641.39 333893.07
AWFT1_360F 52.44 28.04 410.00 360.00 12.84 0.997 1470.54 602922.05 1653.61 96350.17
AWFT2_360F 51.51 28.23 410.00 360.00 12.75 1.006 1453.82 596064.79 1687.74 96515.52
AWFT3_360F 51.72 28.28 410.00 360.00 12.73 1.007 1462.39 599578.87 1679.51 97433.27
AWFT4_360F 51.43 28.13 410.00 360.00 12.80 0.996 1446.78 593181.62 1679.08 95424.49
AWFT5_360F 51.29 27.69 410.00 360.00 13.00 0.985 1420.05 582218.55 1691.80 90711.11
AWFT1_710E 28.42 51.66 760.00 710.00 13.74 1.834 1467.86 1115575.32 1643.99 326421.90
AWFT2_710E 27.71 51.30 760.00 710.00 13.84 1.877 1421.33 1080208.72 1737.63 311704.10
AWFT3_710E 28.13 51.43 760.00 710.00 13.81 1.820 1446.78 1099556.17 1655.21 318854.80
AWFT4_710E 27.69 51.29 760.00 710.00 13.84 1.824 1420.05 1079234.38 1690.09 311304.74
AWFT5_710E 28.42 51.66 760.00 710.00 13.74 1.879 1467.86 1115575.32 1684.33 326421.90
AWFT1_710F 52.12 27.78 760.00 710.00 25.56 1.842 1447.96 1100448.04 1673.86 93137.17
AWFT2_710F 52.18 27.43 760.00 710.00 25.88 1.867 1431.50 1087939.19 1716.09 89783.23
AWFT3_710F 52.32 28.04 760.00 710.00 25.32 1.843 1467.17 1115050.68 1652.84 96129.39
AWFT4_710F 51.66 28.42 760.00 710.00 24.99 1.795 1467.86 1115575.32 1609.04 98764.18
AWFT5_710F 51.30 27.71 760.00 710.00 25.63 1.919 1421.33 1080208.72 1776.51 90922.49
4.3 Estimation of gripping strength and residual stresses in

wood filled steel tubes
Residual stresses induced in hollow steel tube and teak wood shaft due to
interference fit were calculated using equation (4.3) from Shigley et al. [163] on press and
shrink fit
@ 5
I = e <e> ∗ f (4.3)
+k l <+& l n
Where gh = (1/jh)[ +kl F+& l ] and gm = (op)[1 − qm]
Where P is residual stress in MPa, Es and Ew are the modulus of elasticity of steel and
teak wood in MPa, Vw is Poison’s ratio for teakwood, Ks and Kw are factors for steel and
82
teakwood respectively, ri is the internal size of the tube in mm, and I is the amount of
interference in mm.
Teakwood experiences an external pressure resulting in compressive tangential
(σwt) and radial stresses (σwr) and are given by equation (4.4) [163].
7> = 7>f = −I (4.4)
Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst) given by
equation (4.5) and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are given by equation (4.6) [163].
7 = I ∗ [(f D + fD )/(f D − fD )] (4.5)
7 f = −I (4.6)
4.3.1 Interference and residual stresses in mechanically bonded

The amount of allowable interference and residual stresses developed are
determined in mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) and are shown in
table (4.6)
Table 4.6 Allowable interference and stresses developed due to interference in MWFT
Specimen Hoe, mm Hie, mm Hse, mm I, mm P, Mpa σwt, σwr, σsr, Mpa σst, Mpa
MWFT1_360E 39.98 36.74 36.86 0.12 74.50 -74.50 818.67
MWFT2_360E 39.71 36.51 36.62 0.12 74.53 -74.53 818.68
MWFT3_360E 40.08 36.54 36.66 0.13 82.42 -82.42 825.99
MWFT4_360E 40.03 36.51 36.63 0.13 82.20 -82.20 825.79
MWFT5_360E 40.14 36.60 36.72 0.13 82.35 -82.35 825.93
MWFT1_360F 39.77 36.59 36.70 0.12 72.66 -72.66 816.97
MWFT2_360F 39.90 36.68 36.80 0.12 73.51 -73.51 817.76
MWFT3_360F 39.39 36.05 36.17 0.12 78.30 -78.30 822.20
MWFT4_360F 39.94 36.78 36.89 0.12 71.66 -71.66 816.04
MWFT5_360F 39.40 36.08 36.20 0.12 77.70 -77.70 821.64
MWFT1_710E 40.14 36.60 36.72 0.13 82.35 -82.35 825.93
MWFT2_710E 39.77 36.59 36.70 0.12 72.66 -72.66 816.97
MWFT3_710E 39.77 36.59 36.70 0.12 72.66 -72.66 816.97
MWFT4_710E 39.90 36.68 36.80 0.12 73.51 -73.51 817.76
MWFT5_710E 39.39 36.05 36.17 0.12 78.30 -78.30 822.20
MWFT1_710F 39.94 36.78 36.89 0.12 71.66 -71.66 816.04
MWFT2_710F 39.40 36.08 36.20 0.12 77.70 -77.70 821.64
MWFT3_710F 40.03 36.51 36.63 0.13 82.20 -82.20 825.79
MWFT4_710F 39.98 36.74 36.86 0.12 74.50 -74.50 818.66
MWFT5_710F 39.71 36.51 36.62 0.12 74.53 -74.53 818.68
AVG 39.81 36.51 36.63 0.12 76.49 -76.49 820.52
SD 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.00 3.99 3.99 3.69
83
The average interference (Ieavg) is 0.12mm with standard deviation of 0.00 and the
average residual stresses (Pavg) induced are 76.49 with standard deviation of 3.99
4.3.1.1 Pull out tests to determine bond and gripping strength

between steel tube and teakwood in MWFT
The steel tube specimen of length 300 mm were cut and the teakwood was press
fitted to the length of 203.20mm. The teakwood is pulled out of the steel tube on
universal testing machine and maximum load was noted for five specimens.
The Gripping strength and Bond strength is calculated by equation (4.7) [164]
IJK
r= M
= μ ∗ 7 (4.7)
Where Pmax is maximum load in kN at which de-bonding occurs, Ac is bonded area in

mm2, and τ is bonding strength in mm, µ is coefficient of friction between steel and teak
wood, σg is radial gripping stress MPa.
The load vs. slip curves were obtained are as shown in figure (4.2). It is observed
that initially the applied load increases due to following reasons
• Gripping of wood by steel tube

• Interference of wood and steel interface
• Friction between wood and steel
The load decreases after attaining maximum limit due to slip between the wood-
steel interfaces. The load remains constant at the end as slip continues at interface due to
applied load.
3.50
3.00
2.50
Laod, kN
BS_MWFT1
2.00
1.50 BS_MWFT2
1.00 BS_MWFT3
0.50 BS_MWFT4
0.00 BS_MWFT5
0.00.5 1.0 1.5 2.02.5 3.0 3.54.0 4.5 5.0
Slip, mm
Fig. 4.2 Load vs. Slip curve for MWFT

84
The bond strength and gripping strength was determined in case of mechanically
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) and is shown in table (4.7). The average bond
strength (τ) and gripping strength were 0.10MPa and 0.15MPa with standard deviation of
0.01.
Table 4.7 Bond strength and gripping strength in MWFT
Specimen Bi, mm Hi, mm Lc, mm Ac, mm2 Pmax, KN τ, MPa µ σg,MPa
BS_MWFT1 24.61 48.87 203.20 29862.27 3.30 0.11 0.70 0.16
BS_MWFT2 24.15 48.86 203.20 29671.26 2.92 0.10 0.70 0.14
BS_MWFT3 24.41 48.66 203.20 29695.65 3.11 0.10 0.70 0.15
BS_MWFT4 24.28 48.73 203.20 29671.26 3.20 0.11 0.70 0.15
BS_MWFT5 24.41 48.78 203.20 29744.42 2.81 0.09 0.70 0.13
AVG 24.37 48.78 203.20 29728.97 3.07 0.10 0.70 0.15
SD 0.17 0.09 0.00 80.28 0.20 0.01 0.00 0.01
4.3.2 Interference and residual stresses in adhesively bonded

wood filled tubes
The amount of allowable interference and residual stresses developed are
determined in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) and are shown in
table (4.8)
Table 4.8 Allowable interference and stresses developed due to interference in AWFT
Specimen Code Hoe, mm Hie, mm Ie, mm Hs, mm P σwt, σwr, σsr, Mpa σst, Mpa
AWFT1_360E 39.98 36.74 0.17 36.91 106.92 -106.92 1173.95
AWFT2_360E 39.71 36.51 0.17 36.68 108.32 -108.32 1187.05
AWFT3_360E 40.08 36.54 0.17 36.71 113.33 -113.33 1134.41
AWFT4_360E 40.03 36.51 0.17 36.68 113.52 -113.52 1138.44
AWFT5_360E 40.14 36.60 0.17 36.77 113.20 -113.20 1133.58
AWFT1_360F 39.77 36.59 0.17 36.76 105.06 -105.06 1183.71
AWFT2_360F 39.90 36.68 0.17 36.85 105.57 -105.57 1176.10
AWFT3_360F 39.39 36.05 0.17 36.22 111.52 -111.52 1171.61
AWFT4_360F 39.94 36.78 0.17 36.95 103.62 -103.62 1182.64
AWFT5_360F 39.40 36.08 0.17 36.25 110.94 -110.94 1173.87
AWFT1_710E 40.14 36.60 0.17 36.77 113.20 -113.20 1133.58
AWFT2_710E 39.77 36.59 0.17 36.76 105.06 -105.06 1183.71
AWFT3_710E 39.77 36.59 0.17 36.76 105.06 -105.06 1183.71
AWFT4_710E 39.90 36.68 0.17 36.85 105.57 -105.57 1176.10
AWFT5_710E 39.39 36.05 0.17 36.22 111.52 -111.52 1171.61
AWFT1_710F 39.94 36.78 0.17 36.95 103.62 -103.62 1182.64
AWFT2_710F 39.40 36.08 0.17 36.25 110.94 -110.94 1173.87
AWFT3_710F 40.03 36.51 0.17 36.68 113.52 -113.52 1138.44
AWFT4_710F 39.98 36.74 0.17 36.91 106.96 -106.96 1174.32
AWFT5_710F 39.71 36.51 0.17 36.68 108.32 -108.32 1187.05
AVG 39.81 36.51 0.17 36.68 108.79 -108.79 1168.02
SD 0.25 0.24 0.00 0.24 3.64 3.64 19.79
85
4.3.2.1 Pullout Tests to determine bond strength between steel tube

and teakwood
fitted to the length of 203.20 mm. During press fitting of teakwood Fevitite superfast
adhesive was applied on the teakwood surface by spatula and cured for 12 hrs. The
teakwood is pulled out of the steel tube on UTM and maximum load was noted for five
specimens.
that Adhesive between the steel and wood surface provides sufficient grip and bond. Due
to interference and adhesive bond between wood and steel sufficient confinement is
achieved. This confinement is greater than the mechanically bonded wood filled steel
tubes (MWFT)
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
Load, kN
BS_AWFT1
5.00
4.00 BS_AWFT2
3.00 BS_AWFT3
2.00 BS_AWFT4
1.00
BS_AWFT5
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Slip, mm
Fig. 4.3 Load vs. Slip Curve for AWFT

The bond strength and gripping strength determined in case of adhesively bonded
wood filled steel tubes (AWFT) are shown in table (4.9).
Table 4.9 Bond Strength and Gripping Strength in AWFT
Specimen Bi, mm Hi, mm Lc, mm Ac, mm2 Pmax, KN τ, Mpa

BS_AWFT1 24.61 48.87 203.20 29862.27 7.73 0.26
BS_AWFT2 24.15 48.86 203.20 29671.26 8.44 0.28
BS_AWFT3 24.41 48.66 203.20 29695.65 7.89 0.27
BS_AWFT4 24.28 48.73 203.20 29671.26 7.65 0.26
BS_AWFT5 24.41 48.78 203.20 29744.42 7.68 0.26
AVG 24.37 48.78 203.20 29728.97 7.88 0.27
SD 0.17 0.09 0.00 80.28 0.33 0.01
86
4.3.2.2 Coefficient of friction in adhesively bonded wood filled tubes

In case of mechanically bonded wood filled tube bond strength is function of
friction and interference. Because of interference and friction, radial gripping stress is
induced. To determine coefficient of friction consider gripping stress, as bond strength is
More in case of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes, gripping is always greater in
case of adhesively bonded wood filled tube. The bond strength is related to interfacial
shear stress [164] is given by equation (4.8)
r = t ∗ 7 (4.8)
Where σg = τ/µ, (σg)AWFT > (σg)MWFT, (τ/µ)AWFT > (τ/µ)MWFT,
(µ)AWFT= (τ/µ)MWFT *(τ) AWFT
Where τ is bond strength in MPa, µ is coefficient of friction. σg is radial gripping stress in

MPa. The coefficients of friction for adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT)
are shown in table (4.10). The Coefficient of friction in case of adhesively bonded wood
filled tube is greater than one, which shows that the gripping is sufficient enough to avoid
slip between the teakwood and steel interface. It is evident from tests conducted to study
the bond strengths that use of adhesive at the interface of steel and teakwood enhances the
bond strength.
Table 4.10 Coefficient of friction in case of AWFT
No. τMWFT, Mpa τAWFT, Mpa µ MWFT µ AWFT

1 0.11 0.26 0.7185 1.70
2 0.10 0.28 0.7094 1.99
3 0.10 0.27 0.6821 1.84
4 0.11 0.26 0.6958 1.64
5 0.09 0.26 0.7057 2.04
AVG 0.10 0.27 0.7023 1.84
SD 0.0084 0.0089 0.0139 0.1726
87
4.4 Evaluation of bending strength of wood filled steel tubes

The universal testing machine consists of a setup for testing the three point
bending test facilities along with the digital data acquisition system and the computer.
The set up consist of two adjustable supports to fix the required span with one plunger
through which load was applied using hydraulic cylinder. The values of load applied and
the respective deflection were digitally noted directly on to the data acquisition system.
Further this load data was connected with the computer for plotting the graph of load
verses deflection directly. Unit of measurements for load and deflections are in KN and
mm respectively. The load verses deflection graph which was obtained is then analysed
for load at proportionality limit, deflection at proportionality, Maximum load and
deflection at maximum load.
ASTM-D790 [160],standard Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced
and Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 2010. Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture (MOR), and
Moment Capacity (M) are important structural properties and desired to be designed
accurately. This standard recommends that both flat wise and edge wise testing are to be
carried to study the effect of orthotropic behaviour and span-to-depth ratio. The figure
(4.4) shows the flat-wise test and figure (4.5) shows the edge-wise test.
Fig. 4.4 Flat-wise three point bending test
Fig. 4.5 Edge-wise three point bending test
88
Three point bending tests were conducted on beams of mechanically bonded wood
filled steel tubes (MWFT), and adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT). Load
at proportionality limit (Ppl), deflection at proportionality limit (∆pl), maximum load
(Pmax), and maximum deflection (∆max) for all specimens were noted for both edge-wise
(E) and flat-wise (F) testing for 360mm and 710mm span of specimens. Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture (MOR) and Moment Capacity (Me) for each beam
are calculated by equation (4.9-4.12)

MfJ = 5 = _ ∗ ` ^]/@D (4.9)

J = = Ppl*Ls^3/48*Δpl*Im (4.10)

Sf = S =1.5*Pmax*Ls/Bo*Ho^2 (4.11)
[
_
= = IJK ∗ P
(4.12)
Where Im is moment of inertia in mm4 for the cross section, MOE is the modulus of
elasticity in MPa, Ppl is the load at proportionality in N, Ls is length of span in mm, ∆pl
deflection at proportionality limit in mm, M is moment capacity in N-mm, and P max is
the maximum load in N.
4.4.1 Experimental analysis of mechanically bonded teakwood

filled steel tube (MWFT) beams
The load Vs. deflection curves obtained for the mechanically bonded teakwood
filled steel tubes (MWFT) with 360 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 6.9) for edge-
wise bending tests are shown in figure (4.6). The curves obtained were coherent and non-
linear. It was observed the materials yields very early due short span. Following
behaviour of material was observed
• Commencement of tensile failure of wood
• Yielding of compressive side of steel
• Yielding of tensile side of steel
• Slip at steel wood interface
• Maximum load carrying capacity
• Wide tearing of steel tube corners at compression side
89
MWFT_360E
30.00
25.00
20.00
Load, KN MWFT1_360E
15.00
MWFT2_360E
10.00
MWFT3_360E
5.00
MWFT4_360E
0.00 MWFT5_360E
0.00
1.80
3.60
5.40
7.20
9.00
10.80
12.60
14.40
16.20
18.00
19.80
21.60
23.40
25.20
27.00
28.80
Deflection , mm
Fig. 4.6 Load vs. Deflection curves for MWFT_360E
filled steel tubes(MWFT) with 360 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 12.8) for flat-
wise bending tests are shown in figure (4.7). The curves obtained were non-linear. It was
observed the material yielding was delayed due increased span. Following behaviour of
material was observed

• Narrow tearing of steel tube corners at compression side
90
MWFT_360F
16.00
14.00
12.00
Load, KN
10.00
MWFT1_360F
8.00
6.00 MWFT2_360F
4.00 MWFT3_360F
2.00 MWFT4_360F
0.00 MWFT5_360F
0.00
0.80
1.60
2.40
3.20
4.00
4.80
5.60
6.40
7.20
8.00
8.80
9.60
10.40
11.20
12.00
Deflection, mm
Fig.4.7 Load vs. Deflection curves for MWFT_360F
filled steel tubes(MWFT) with 710 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 13.4) for
edge-wise bending tests are shown in figure (4.8). The curves obtained were non-linear. It
was observed that the material yielding was delayed due increased span. Following

• V-shape crater formation on compression face
• V-shape bulging on web
91
MWFT_710E
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
Load, KN 10.00 MWFT1_710E
8.00 MWFT2_710E
6.00
MWFT3_710E
4.00
2.00 MWFT4_710E
0.00 MWFT5_710E
0.00
1.60
3.20
4.80
6.40
8.00
9.60
11.20
12.80
14.40
16.00
17.60
19.20
20.80
22.40
24.00
25.60
Deflection, mm
Fig. 4.8 Load vs. Deflection curves for MWFT_710E
filled steel tubes (MWFT) with 710 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 25.5) for flat-
wise bending tests are shown in figure (4.9). The curves obtained were non-linear. It was
observed that the material yielding was delayed due increased span. Following behaviour
of material was observed

• V-shape crater formation on compression face
• V-shape bulging on web
92
MWFT_710F
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
Load, KN 5.00 MWFT1_710F
4.00 MWFT2_710F
3.00
MWFT3_710F
2.00
1.00 MWFT4_710F
0.00 MWFT5_710F
0.00
2.40
4.80
7.20
9.60
12.00
14.40
16.80
19.20
21.60
24.00
26.40
28.80
31.20
33.60
36.00
38.40
Deflection, mm
Fig. 4.9 Load vs. Deflection curves for MWFT_710F
The results of bending tests on mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tubes (MWFT)
are shown in table (4.11)
Table 4.11 Results of Bending Strength of MWFT
Specimen Ls/Ho Ppl, kN ∆pl, mm Pmax, kN ∆max, mm MOE, MPa MOR, MPa Me, N-mm
MWFT1_360E 6.89 13.36 1.00 26.60 15.90 39150.67 188.49 2394000.00
MWFT2_360E 6.91 13.32 1.00 26.84 13.40 39503.19 192.06 2415600.00
MWFT3_360E 6.90 13.34 1.00 26.52 14.80 39922.31 191.72 2386800.00
MWFT4_360E 6.88 13.12 1.00 25.34 14.80 38097.35 178.24 2280600.00
MWFT5_360E 6.87 13.16 1.00 26.76 14.00 38310.23 188.89 2408400.00
MWFT1_360F 12.84 6.92 2.20 14.00 7.50 31731.98 183.34 1260000.00
MWFT2_360F 12.75 7.12 2.20 13.88 8.00 32593.16 182.66 1249200.00
MWFT3_360F 12.73 7.02 2.20 13.90 7.90 31832.70 181.52 1251000.00
MWFT4_360F 12.80 6.88 2.20 13.63 7.90 31854.60 180.83 1226700.00
MWFT5_360F 13.00 6.96 2.20 13.68 7.40 33899.42 187.89 1231200.00
MWFT1_710E 13.74 6.45 3.60 15.85 16.00 40927.17 222.62 2813375.00
MWFT2_710E 13.84 6.80 3.60 15.95 16.20 45185.36 232.97 2831125.00
MWFT3_710E 13.81 6.63 3.60 15.88 16.40 43035.24 227.23 2817812.50
MWFT4_710E 13.84 6.32 3.60 14.43 16.00 42049.68 211.00 2561325.00
MWFT5_710E 13.74 6.20 3.60 15.80 16.30 39340.85 221.91 2804500.00
MWFT1_710F 25.56 2.80 5.60 8.35 28.40 40029.56 221.06 1482125.00
MWFT2_710F 25.88 2.95 5.60 8.20 26.20 43749.45 222.37 1455500.00
MWFT3_710F 25.32 2.88 5.60 8.15 27.60 39822.40 210.98 1446625.00
MWFT4_710F 24.99 2.91 5.60 8.41 26.20 39231.90 214.74 1492775.00
MWFT5_710F 25.63 2.75 5.60 8.15 29.80 40272.37 220.41 1446625.00
93
Application
The averaged values of modulus of elasticity (MOE),

( ), modulus of rupture (MOR),
(
and experimental moment capacity (Me) for mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel
tubes (MWFT) are shown in Table (4.12)
( along with standard deviation.
Table 4.12 Average Value of MOE, MOR,, and Me of MWFT
Specimen Ls/Ho MOE, MPa MOR, MPa Me, N-mm

N
MWFT_360E 6.89 38996.75 187.88 2377080.00
SD 0.01 695.28 5.03 49302.92
MWFT_360F 12.82 32382.37 183.25 1243620.00
SD 0.11 915.09 2.77 14092.98
MWFT_710E 13.80 42107.66 223.15 2765627.50
SD 0.05 2201.41 8.10 114611.96
MWFT_710F 25.47 40621.13 217.91 1464730.00
SD 0.30 1601.62 4.34 19130.51
The effect of span--to-depth ratio

atio on strength properties of mechanically bonded
teakwood filled steel tubes (MWFT) are shown in figure (4.10-4.12)
From figure (4.10)
10) it can concluded that, the
t values of MOE for span-to-depth
ratio of 6.89, 13.80, and 25.47 are almost same. Only lower value is obtained in case of
span-to-depth
depth ratio12.82, and this may be because of flat-wise
wise testing method.
method Hence for
testing of MWFT beams, it is recommended that edge-wise
e wise testing must be used with
span-to-depth ratio of 11 or greater to accommodate the recommendations of ASTM
D143, ASTM
M D198, and ASTM D 790.
790 For flat-wise testing, span-to-depth
depth ratio of 14 or
more is recommended. In general for testing of MWFT span-to-depth
span depth ratio of 14 or more
is recommended to get correct values of Modulus of Elasticity of Mechanically bonded
wood filled steel tubes.
MWFT
50000.00
40000.00
MOE, Mpa
30000.00
20000.00
MoE, MPa
10000.00
0.00
6.89 12.82 13.80 25.47
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.10 Effect of span-to-depth ratio on MOE
94
Application
From the figure (4.

4.11), it can be concluded that the modulus of rupture (MOR)
values for span-to-depth
depth ration of 6.89 and 12.82 are same but are lower than the 13.80
and 25.47 span-to-depth
depth ratio. Hence it is recommended to use span-to
to-depth ratio of 14
or more to obtain correct value of Modulus of Rupture.
MWFT
250.00
200.00
MoR, MPa
150.00
100.00
MoR, MPa
50.00
0.00
6.89 12.82 13.80 25.47
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.11 Effect of span-to-depth ratio on MOR
From figure (4.12)

12) it can be concluded that highest moment capacity (Me) is
achieved when edge-wise
wise testing is carried out because of span-to
span to depth ratio closure to
14 and due to moment of inertia of cross section. When determining the moment
capacities it is recommended that always edge-wise
edge wise testing is to be carried out to establish
the moment capacities. Hence
H to establish the correct values of modulus of elasticity
(MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR),
( and moment capacity (Me) in case of MWFT it is
strongly recommended that span-to-depth
span ratio of about 14 or more with edge-wise
testing is to be carried out.
MWFT
3000000.00
Moment Capacity, N-mm
2500000.00
2000000.00
1500000.00
1000000.00 M, N-mm
N
500000.00
0.00
6.89 12.82 13.80 25.47
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.12 Effect of span-to-depth

span depth ratio on moment capacity
95
4.4.1.1 Nature of failure of MWFT specimens
All mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes (MWFT) fail in the same manner.
Failure takes place on compression face of the specimen and web bulges out on both side
of web as shown in the figure (4.13). V-shape bulging on web was observed along with
V-shape local buckling on compression face. Depth of failure on compression side
increases with increase in span-to-depth ratio. Push out at the end observed uniformly for
all specimens.
Fig. 4.13 Nature of failures in MWFT
Push out of teakwood was observed at the end as shown in figure (4.14), which
may be as a result of slip between teakwood and steel tube and displacement of material
from deformation at the place of application of load.
Fig. 4.14 Push out of teakwood as result of slip
96
4.4.2 Experimental analysis of adhesively bonded teakwood

filled steel tube (AWFT) beams
The load vs. deflection curves obtained for the adhesively bonded teakwood filled
steel tubes (AWFT) for Flat-wise and edge-wise tests are shown in figure (4.15-4.18).
The load Vs. deflection curves obtained for the adhesively bonded teakwood filled
steel tubes(MWFT) with 360 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 6.9) for edge-wise
bending tests are shown in figure (4.15). The curves obtained were coherent and non-
linear. It was observed the materials yields very early due short span. Following

• Bond failure at steel wood interface
• Tearing of steel tube corners at compression side
• Tearing of steel at tensile side
AWFT_360E
35.00
30.00
25.00
Laod, KN
20.00 AWFT1_360E
15.00 AWFT2_360E
10.00 AWFT3_360E
5.00 AWFT4_360E
0.00 AWFT5_360E
0.0
1.6
3.2
4.8
6.4
8.0
9.6
11.2
12.8
14.4
16.0
17.6
19.2
20.8
22.4
24.0
25.6
Deflection, mm
Fig. 4.15 Load vs. Deflection curve in AWFT_360E

steel tubes(AWFT) with 360 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 12.8) for edge-wise
bending tests are shown in figure (4.16). The curves obtained were non-linear. It was
97
observed the material yield was delayed due increased span. The material behaviour was
ductile in nature. Following behaviour of material was observed

• Bond failure at steel-wood interface
AWFT_360F
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
Laod,KN
10.00 AWFT1_360F
8.00 AWFT2_360F
6.00 AWFT3_360F
4.00
2.00 AWFT4_360F
0.00 AWFT5_360F
0.0
1.2
2.4
3.6
4.8
6.0
7.2
8.4
9.6
10.8
12.0
13.2
14.4
15.6
16.8
18.0
19.2
Deflection, mm
Fig. 4.16 Load vs. Deflection curve in AWFT_360F

The load vs. deflection curves obtained for the adhesively bonded teakwood filled
steel tubes(AWFT) with 710 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 13.8) for edge-wise
observed the materials yields were delayed due increased span. The material behaviour
was elastic-plastic in nature. Following behaviour of material was observed
98
AWFT_710E
30.00
25.00
Load, KN 20.00
AWFT1_710E
15.00
AWFT2_710E
10.00 AWFT3_710E
5.00 AWFT4_710E
0.00 AWFT5_710E
12.0
14.4
16.8
19.2
21.6
24.0
26.4
28.8
31.2
33.6
36.0
38.4
0.0
2.4
4.8
7.2
9.6
Deflection, mm
Fig. 4.17 Load vs. Deflection curve in AWFT_710E
steel tubes(AWFT) with 710 mm span(span to depth ratio of around 25.5) for flat-wise
observed the materials yields were delayed due increased span. The material behaviour
was elastic-plastic in nature. Following behaviour of material was observed

99
AWFT_710F
16.00
14.00
12.00
Load, KN
10.00 AWFT1_710F
8.00
AWFT2_710F
6.00
AWFT3_710F
4.00
2.00 AWFT4_710F
0.00 AWFT5_710F
12.0
15.0
18.0
21.0
24.0
27.0
30.0
33.0
36.0
39.0
42.0
45.0
48.0
0.0
3.0
6.0
9.0
Deflection, mm
Fig. 4.18 Load vs. Deflection curve in AWFT_710F

The results of the bending tests on adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes
(AWFT) are summarised in table (4.13)
Table 4.13 Results of Bending Tests on AWFT

Specimen Ls/Ho Ppl, kN ∆pl, mm Pmax, kN ∆max, mm MOE, MPa MOR, MPa Me, N-mm
AWFT1_360E 6.89 14.16 1.00 29.12 17.60 41495.02 206.34 2620800.00
AWFT2_360E 6.91 13.92 1.00 29.00 17.10 41282.62 207.52 2610000.00
AWFT3_360E 6.90 14.04 1.00 29.04 17.60 42017.19 209.94 2613600.00
AWFT4_360E 6.88 14.37 1.00 28.66 17.60 41727.05 201.60 2579400.00
AWFT5_360E 6.87 14.00 1.00 29.04 17.50 40755.56 204.98 2613600.00
AWFT1_360F 12.84 8.20 2.20 15.64 10.00 37601.48 204.82 1407600.00
AWFT2_360F 12.75 7.92 2.20 15.52 13.50 36255.31 204.24 1396800.00
AWFT3_360F 12.73 8.06 2.20 15.16 10.90 36548.65 197.98 1364400.00
AWFT4_360F 12.80 7.82 2.20 15.78 10.50 36206.83 209.35 1420200.00
AWFT5_360F 13.00 8.06 2.20 15.56 13.60 39257.09 213.71 1400400.00
AWFT1_710E 13.74 8.15 4.20 25.60 17.30 44326.44 359.56 4544000.00
AWFT2_710E 13.84 7.70 4.20 27.65 18.20 43856.37 403.86 4907875.00
AWFT3_710E 13.81 7.93 4.20 26.48 17.50 44125.62 379.03 4700200.00
AWFT4_710E 13.84 7.54 4.20 26.06 17.50 43000.17 381.06 4625650.00
AWFT5_710E 13.74 7.75 4.20 26.10 17.60 42150.91 366.58 4632750.00
AWFT1_710F 25.56 4.85 9.70 14.90 27.50 40029.56 394.46 2644750.00
AWFT2_710F 25.88 5.00 9.70 14.70 26.20 42809.17 398.64 2609250.00
AWFT3_710F 25.32 4.93 9.70 14.70 27.60 39383.30 380.55 2609250.00
AWFT4_710F 24.99 4.89 9.70 14.00 27.40 38060.24 357.47 2485000.00
AWFT5_710F 25.63 5.12 9.70 14.85 29.20 43287.32 401.61 2635875.00
100
Application
The averaged values of modulus of elasticity (MOE),

( ), modulus of rupture (MOR),
(
and experimental moment capacity (Me) for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel
tubes (AWFT)) are shown in table
t (4.14) along with standard deviation.
Table 4.14 Average values of MOE, MOR,, and Me of AWFT
Specimen Ls/Ho MOE, MPa MOR, MPa Me,, N-mm

N
AWFT_360E 6.89 41455.49 206.08 2607480.00
SD 17.77 27196.39 260.50 1790631.99
AWFT_360F 12.82 37173.87 206.02 1397880.00
SD 4.63 27720.76 132.89 1798166.21
AWFT_710E 13.80 43491.90 378.02 4682095.00
SD 5.45 7316.69 31.44 617066.58
AWFT_710F 25.47 40713.92 386.55 2596825.00
SD 5.35 7608.61 91.09 1320371.17
The effect of span-to-depth

span ratio on strength properties of AWFT are shown in
figure (4.19-4.21)
From figure ((4.19) it is observed the

t highest value of modulus of elasticity
(MOE)) is obtained in the case of edge-wise
e testing with span-to-depth
depth ratio of 13.80.
Lowest value is obtained in case of Flat-wise
Flat wise testing with the span-to-depth
span ration of
12.82.. It is recommended that edge wise bending with span-to-depth
span depth ratio of 14 or more is
recommended for correct and accurate value of modulus of elasticity of AWFT.
AWFT
44000.00
43000.00
42000.00
41000.00
MoE, MPa
40000.00
39000.00
38000.00
37000.00 MoE, MPa
36000.00
35000.00
34000.00
6.89 12.82 13.80 25.47
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.19 MOE vs. Span-to-Depth ratio in AWFT

101
Application
From figure 4.20,

20, it is observed that modulus of rupture (MOR)) was highest for
span-to-depth
depth ratio of 25.47, and this value is very close to the MOR of span-to-depth
span
ratio of 13.80. For testing modulus of rupture (MOR)
( in case of AWFT it is recommended
to use the span-to-depth
depth ratio
ra of 14 or higher.
AWFT
450.00
400.00
350.00
300.00
MoR, MPa
250.00
200.00
150.00 MoR, MPa
100.00
50.00
0.00
6.89 12.82 13.80 25.47
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.20 MOR vs. Span-to-Depth ratio in AWFT
From figure (4.21) it is observed that moment

moment carrying capacity (Me) is highest in
case of span-to-depth
depth ratio of 13.80 with edge-wise
edge testing. Hence, Edgewise testing with
span-to-depth ratio of 14 and above is recommended.
AWFT
5000000.00
Moment Capacity, N-mm
4500000.00
4000000.00
3500000.00
3000000.00
2500000.00
2000000.00
1500000.00 M, N-mm
1000000.00
500000.00
0.00
6.89 12.82 13.80 25.47
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.21 Me vs. Span-to-Depth ratio in AWFT
102
For both mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) and adhesively
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) beams, edge-wise testing is strongly
recommended with span-to-depth ratio of 14 or More to establish strength properties in
bending applications.
4.4.2.1 Nature of failure of AWFT beams
Nature of failure is same in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT)
for all specimens. A crater was created on compression face with web bulging in the cases
with span-to-depth ratio of 13.80 and 25.47 as shown in figure (4.22). The nature of
failure is similar as in case of MWFT for span-to-depth ratio of 6.89, and 12.82.
Fig. 4.22 Formation of crater on compression face
Tearing of steel tube at tensile face of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel
tube (AWFT) beams is observed in all cases when tests were prolonged after attainment
of maximum load, the failures of such beams is shown in figure (4.23).
Fig. 4.23 tearing of tensile face in prolonged testing
As result of adhesive bonding no slip was observed between the teakwood and
steel tube in all specimens. Figure (4.24) shows the absence of slip in case of adhesively
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) specimens.
103
Fig. 4.24 Absence of slip in case AWFT
4.5 Comparison of experimental results with Euro code
Theoretical analysis to predict the moment capacities of in-filled beams are done
by various design methods. The AIJ [122] code predicts the theoretical moment based on
the combined effect of steel and concrete taking in to account of the plastic section
modulus and angular location of the neutral axis. The property of steel is fully utilised by
taking in to account the plastic section modulus of the steel tube. The ultimate confined
concrete strength is considered here which will give the true value of the in-filled beams.
The BS 5400[123] predicts the flexural behaviour by taking the average compression in
the concrete at failure to the design yield strength of steel considering the composite
action between steel and concrete. The AISC-LRFD [124] codes predict the strength of
concrete filled tube (CFT) beams by the plastic stress distribution in the cross section for
both steel and concrete cross section. This method is limited to concrete cylinder strength
and steel strength less than 55 and 380MPa. The ACI [125] evaluates the flexural strength
based on the assumption that the plane section of column remained plane during bending.
The strength of the concrete in tension is ignored [128]. EC4 [126] code determines
moment resistance of the concrete filled tube (CFT) beams based on plastic stress
distribution and full strain compatibility of the cross section of both steel and concrete.
Strength in tension was omitted in the calculation and this code becomes applicable to the
design of concrete filled tube (CFT) beams with concrete cylinder strength and yield
strength of not higher than 50 and 355MPa [129].
of concrete filled tubes by EC4 show good agreement with experimental results [130],
[131], [132]. It was found that EC4 is best predictor of moment capacity of concrete filled
steel tubes [133] when concrete cylinder strength and yield strength of not higher than 50
104
and 355MPa. In analysing moment capacity of aluminium foam filled thin walled square
tubes under three point bending [134] used values of yield strength of skin material and
tensile strength of foam material. It is observed that in cases of concrete filled tubes, yield
strength of tube material and compressive strength of concrete is used in predicting the
moment capacities by EC4 neglecting the tensile strength which is very low compared to
compression strength of concrete. The tensile strength parallel to grains is the maximum
strength of teakwood. In case of wood tensile strength parallel to grain is greater than
compressive strength-parallel to grain and tensile strength-perpendicular to grain. Hence,
EC4 in moment capacity relations the compressive strength is substituted by tensile
strength-parallel to grain. The ultimate moment capacity as per EC4 is calculated using
the following equations (4.13-4.15)
. S
= JK. S
− . S
(4.13)
JK. S
= 9J ∗
+ 9 ∗
+ 9 ∗
/D (4.14)
. S
= 9J ∗
+ 9 ∗
+ 9 ∗
/D (4.15)
Where, u = (v − 2) ∗ ℎ ^2
ux = y ∗ ℎ z
− u − uh
{|. }v − ~h (2hv − v)

ℎ =
(2y ∗ v + 4(2v − v))
{|. }v = ~ ∗ v
v = 1.0 ∗
Where ‘Wpan’ is the plastic section modulus of the steel tube, ‘Wpsn’ is the
plastic section modulus of steel reinforcement, ‘Wpcn’ is the plastic section modulus of
the concrete core, ‘fyd’ is the yield strength of the steel, ‘fsd’ is the yield strength of the
reinforcement, fcd is the yield strength of the concrete, ‘fck’is the concrete cylinder
strength, ‘Asn’ is the area of reinforcement, ‘Ac’ is the area of the concrete, ‘t’ is the
thickness of the steel tube and ‘b’ is the diameter of the steel tube. The notations used are
from original code and the values for the same are substituted from the steel and
teakwood used in this work.
105
4.5.1 Mechanically Bonded Wood Filled Steel Tube Specimens
The moment capacities of mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube

(MWFT) beams are determined as per EC4 design code and are shown in table (4.15)
Table 4.15 Moment capacities of MWFT beams by EC4 [126]
Area of Steel
Specimen σys, Mpa Aw, mm2 σtw, Mpa Mec4, Mpa Me, Mpa Mec4/Me
(As), mm2
MWFT1_360E 248.57 367.74 1209.83 198.6 2907975.11 2609559.22 1.11

MWFT2_360E 243.87 367.74 1212.83 198.6 2877006.27 2541670.5 1.13
MWFT3_360E 271.2 367.74 1186.98 198.6 3035997.35 2774708.39 1.09
MWFT4_360E 269.39 367.74 1195.21 198.6 3022202.81 2822131.71 1.07
MWFT5_360E 271.62 367.74 1190.55 198.6 3035571.9 2838712.61 1.07
MWFT1_360F 242.79 367.74 1198.16 198.6 1436871.49 1397064.08 1.03
MWFT2_360F 246.56 367.74 1210.38 198.6 1486438.29 1395882.16 1.06
MWFT3_360F 251.94 367.74 1215.17 198.6 1477961.28 1425797.78 1.04
MWFT4_360F 242.4 367.74 1212.7 198.6 1475495.6 1364664 1.08
MWFT5_360F 250.59 367.74 1167.42 198.6 1466230.74 1392285.91 1.05
MWFT1_710E 271.62 367.74 1224.82 198.6 3108588.09 2753140.29 1.13
MWFT2_710E 242.79 367.74 1170.05 198.6 2795276.8 2515837.43 1.11
MWFT3_710E 242.79 367.74 1210.38 198.6 2860320.23 2501301.18 1.14
MWFT4_710E 246.56 367.74 1215.17 198.6 2907587.85 2470136.75 1.18
MWFT5_710E 251.94 367.74 1212.7 198.6 2902447.58 2618697.47 1.11
MWFT1_710F 242.4 367.74 1167.42 198.6 1458778.34 1388733.43 1.05
MWFT2_710F 250.59 367.74 1186.98 198.6 1469282.85 1373117.52 1.07
MWFT3_710F 269.39 367.74 1195.21 198.6 1573143.07 1512351.32 1.04
MWFT4_710F 248.57 367.74 1190.55 198.6 1428709.79 1445967.44 0.99
MWFT5_710F 243.87 367.74 1224.82 198.6 1461941.26 1316356.42 1.11
AVG 252.47 367.74 1199.87 198.60 2209391.34 2022905.78 1.08
SD 11.23 0.00 17.89 0.00 758566.51 646135.55 0.04
4.5.2 Adhesively bonded wood filled steel tube Specimens

To determine moment capacity of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tube
(AWFT) theoretically, let us obtain strength enhancement factor (Ф) considering the
improvement in strength due to use of adhesive. The use of design code EC4 with the
designed value of Ф works very well with span-to-depth ratio greater than 13. This
signifies that for pure bending, strength enhancement factor (Ф) can be used to predict the
moment capacities of AWFT. The equation used to predict the moment capacity in
AWFT can be modified and written as equation (4.16)
Mec4(AWFT) = Фme*Mec4(MWFT)=Фme*Mec4 (4.16)

106
Where, Фme is strength enhancement factor which can be used in prediction formulas of
design codes of EC4 for pure bending. The predicted moment capacities for adhesively
bonded wood filled steel tube (AWFT) with span-to-depth ratio of 13.74 and 25.56 are
shown in table (4.16).
Table 4.16 Predicting the Moment Capacity of AWFT when Span-to-Depth ratio greater than 13
Specimen Ls/Ho Mec4(MWFT) Фme Mec4(AWFT) Me(AWFT) Mec4/Me

AWFT1_710E 13.74 3108588.087 1.62 5020811.043 4544000 1.10
AWFT2_710E 13.84 2795276.803 1.73 4845730.633 4907875 0.99
AWFT3_710E 13.81 2860320.232 1.67 4771104.236 4700200 1.02
AWFT4_710E 13.84 2907587.846 1.81 5250986.781 4625650 1.14
AWFT5_710E 13.74 2902447.582 1.65 4794549.486 4632750 1.03
AWFT1_710F 25.56 1458778.344 1.78 2603089.499 2644750 0.98
AWFT2_710F 25.88 1469282.851 1.79 2633958.282 2609250 1.01
AWFT3_710F 25.32 1573143.066 1.80 2837448.229 2609250 1.09
AWFT4_710F 24.99 1428709.788 1.66 2378351.608 2485000 0.96
AWFT5_710F 25.63 1461941.259 1.82 2663782.54 2635875 1.01
AVG 1.03
SD 0.06
In the cases of Span-to-depth ratios less than 13 where there is effect of shear on
bending properties and there is significant change in bending properties MWFT and
AWFT, Hence it is recommended that the value of strength enhancement factor (Ф) be
taken as unity. The predicted values moment capacities of AWFT with span-to-depth ratio
of 6.89 and 12.84 are shown in table (4.17).
Table 4.17 Prediction of moment capacities in AWFT for span-to-depth ratio less than 13
Specimen Ls/Ho Mec4(MWFT) Фme Mec4(AWFT) Me(AWFT) Mec4/Me

AWFT1_360E 6.89 2907975.113 1.00 2907975.113 2620800 1.11
AWFT2_360E 6.91 2877006.275 1.00 2877006.275 2610000 1.10
AWFT3_360E 6.90 3035997.351 1.00 3035997.351 2613600 1.16
AWFT4_360E 6.88 3022202.807 1.00 3022202.807 2579400 1.17
AWFT5_360E 6.87 3035571.903 1.00 3035571.903 2613600 1.16
AWFT1_360F 12.84 1436871.492 1.00 1436871.492 1407600 1.02
AWFT2_360F 12.75 1486438.287 1.00 1486438.287 1396800 1.06
AWFT3_360F 12.73 1477961.279 1.00 1477961.279 1364400 1.08
AWFT4_360F 12.80 1475495.597 1.00 1475495.597 1420200 1.04
AWFT5_360F 13.00 1466230.74 1.00 1466230.74 1400400 1.05
AVG 1.10
SD 0.05
107
4.6 Results and discussion on bending strength of wood filled

steel tubes
It is evident from tests conducted to study the bond strengths that use of adhesive
at the interface of steel and teakwood enhances the bond strength. The increase in bond
strength increases the bending strength and moment carrying capacity. The ratio of bond
strength of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tube to mechanically bonded wood filled
can be termed as strength enhancement factor(Ф).Similarly, strength enhancement factor
can be defined for tests in bending strength using modulus of rupture(MOR) or Moment
Capacity(Me) and following equation (4.17) can be written

∅ = =Mawft/Mmwft (4.17)
From the data presented in table (4.18) and figure 94.25) following observations
can be drawn
There is no significant change in modulus of elasticity (MOE) because of use of

adhesive and change of span-to-depth ratio. Also there is no significant change in
(modulus of rupture) MOR when adhesive is used for span-to-depth ratio of 6.89 and
12.84, but there is significant and remarkable change in modulus of rupture (MOR) when
adhesive is used and span-to-depth ratio is 13.74 and 25.56. This significant change can
be attributed to effect of shearing. MOE and MOR for both MWFT and AWFT are less
when span-to-depth ratio is less than 13. When span-to-depth ratio is more than 13 there
is no effect of shear and the beams behave in pure bending and hence there is significant
change in MOE and MOR. These findings also validate that span-to-depth ratio
recommended for wood and wood based composites by ASTM standards is correct and
holds good in case of MWFT and AWFT. The minimum value of span to depth ratio for
wood recommended by ASTM - D 143 is 14, and ASTM-D 198 is 11 to 15. The span-
depth ratio of 16 is recommended in ASTM-D790 for reinforced and unreinforced
plastics. For orthotropic and high strength materials the span to depth ratio of 32, 40 and
60 are recommended in ASTM-D 790. Moment carrying capacity in edge-wise test with
span-to-depth ratio of 13.74 is highest compared to others. Hence, both mechanically and
adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes are recommended for use in high span-to-depth
ratio with edge-wise loading. Also, edge-wise testing with span-to-depth ratio of 14 or
more is recommended for testing and application of bending.
108
Table 4.18 Comparison of MOE, MOR, and Me of MWFT and AWFT

Ls/Ho MOE(MWFT) MOR(MWFT) Me(MWFT) MOE(AWFT) MOR(AWFT) Me(AWFT) ФMOE ФMOR ФMe
6.89 39150.67 188.49 2394000.00 41495.01972 206.3430271 2620800 1.06 1.09 1.09
6.91 39503.19 192.06 2415600.00 41282.6179 207.5171643 2610000 1.05 1.08 1.08
6.90 39922.31 191.72 2386800.00 42017.18899 209.9428288 2613600 1.05 1.10 1.10
6.88 38097.35 178.24 2280600.00 41727.04767 201.5979572 2579400 1.10 1.13 1.13
6.87 38310.23 188.89 2408400.00 40755.56241 204.9828899 2613600 1.06 1.09 1.09
12.84 31731.98 183.34 1260000.00 37601.48042 204.8212366 1407600 1.18 1.12 1.12
12.75 32593.16 182.66 1249200.00 36255.30979 204.2403166 1396800 1.11 1.12 1.12
12.73 31832.70 181.52 1251000.00 36548.65226 197.9782476 1364400 1.15 1.09 1.09
12.80 31854.60 180.83 1226700.00 36206.8274 209.352566 1420200 1.14 1.16 1.16
13.00 33899.42 187.89 1231200.00 39257.09219 213.7132211 1400400 1.16 1.14 1.14
13.74 40927.17 222.62 2813375.00 44326.4386 359.5560929 4544000 1.08 1.62 1.62
13.84 45185.36 232.97 2831125.00 43856.37478 403.8646304 4907875 0.97 1.73 1.73
13.81 43035.24 227.23 2817812.50 44125.62103 379.0343518 4700200 1.03 1.67 1.67
13.84 42049.68 211.00 2561325.00 43000.16589 381.056557 4625650 1.02 1.81 1.81
13.74 39340.85 221.91 2804500.00 42150.90787 366.5786729 4632750 1.07 1.65 1.65
25.56 40029.56 221.06 1482125.00 40029.55601 394.4625318 2644750 1.00 1.78 1.78
25.88 43749.45 222.37 1455500.00 42809.1723 398.6421172 2609250 0.98 1.79 1.79
25.32 39822.40 210.98 1446625.00 39383.30071 380.5464829 2609250 0.99 1.80 1.80
24.99 39231.90 214.74 1492775.00 38060.23666 357.47415 2485000 0.97 1.66 1.66
25.63 40272.37 220.41 1446625.00 43287.31981 401.6083427 2635875 1.07 1.82 1.82
Effect of Adhesive
2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
Ф
1.00
ФMOE
0.80
0.60 ФMOR
0.40 ФMe
0.20
0.00
12.84
12.75
12.73
12.80
13.00
13.74
13.84
13.81
13.84
13.74
25.56
25.88
25.32
24.99
25.63
6.89
6.91
6.90
6.88
6.87
Span-to-Depth Ratio
Fig. 4.25 Effect of adhesive and span-to depth ratio on MOE, MOR, and Me
109
CHAPTER 5

COMPOSITE FOR COMPRESSION STRENGTH
5.1 Introduction
Materials such as concrete, wood, metal foam, recycled aggregates filling in steel
tubes provide high strength, high ductility, and high stiffness. The steel tubes surrounding
the materials eliminate permanent formwork which reduces construction time. Steel tubes
assist in carrying axial load and provide confinement to filler material. The behaviour of
thin tubes filled with wood and subjected to axial crushing were studied and results show
that the mode of buckling is changed by presence of the wood filler [165].
The work carried out by Singace [166] to study the influence of foam like wood
filler on the mode of collapse and energy absorption performance. The mode of collapse
of axially crushed PVC tubes has been found to change mode of failure. Compression
tests on wood sawdust were used to extract the mechanical properties. Traditionally wood
is used in either round, square or rectangular section for beam or column. Cabrero et al.
[167] determined load carrying capacity of axially loaded wooden reinforced tubes. The
analytical models presented adequately predict the axial strength of fiber reinforced wood
profiles and were in good agreement with experimental results.
The tests and analysis on concrete filled carbon steel tube columns were carried by
many researchers. Oyawa et al. [168] conducted experimental and analytical studies on
filled steel stub columns and suggested that direct summation of strength of strength
components gives best prediction. They also found that polymers and polymer based
materials present in wide array of strength properties be used to meet the specific
requirements.
Georgis and Dennis [169] studied behaviour of circular-filled steel tubes with
various concrete strengths under axial loading. The effects of steel tube thickness, bond
strength between concrete-steel, and confinement of concrete were examined. It was
found that the design codes predict the lower values than the experimental value of
compressive strength. Filling the tube with concrete delays the local buckling of tube and
concrete. The non-greased columns have higher axial capacity than that of greased. Large
amount of tests were carried out on concrete filled carbon mild steel and steel tube
columns using circular, square, and rectangular hollow sections [170], [171], [172],
110
[173], [174] [175] [176]. The local buckling of the steel tube has considerable effect on
the strength and behaviour of the concrete filled steel tube. Steel tubes fail to provide
confinement to filler material once local buckling occurs. The geometric shape and size of
the steel tube, aspect ratio, thickness of steel tube affect the compression studies on
strength. The concrete strength and yield stress of steel tube also affects the strength.
Majority of the researchers validated their experimental results with design codes [123],
[124], [126], [136], [137], [177].
Very little research data is available on teakwood as filler material. Teak wood is
moderately hard, seasons rapidly and has good machining properties. It is naturally
durable and possesses high dimensional stability. Specific strength of teak wood is better
than that of concrete. This chapter mainly presents the experimental results of Teakwood
filled steel tubes. Carbon steel tube of square cross sections were filled with Teakwood
and tested for compression strength. The results obtained experimentally were verified by
design codes used for the concrete filled tubes.

for compression tests
sectioned steel tube, and Fevitite superfast adhesive procured from local market. The air
dried and seasoned teakwood with moisture content less than 12% was brought and
stored. The general structural purpose rectangular hollow sectioned carbon steel tube
categorised under IS2062/2006 (Grades A, B, & C), ASTM-A36M M, DIN 17100 was
considered. To manufacture adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes a Fevitite superfast
structural grade adhesive was procured and used based on suitability for application.
(15) (Ref. – chapter 3).
111
34.85), 209.02GPa (with Std. Deviation of 9.55). Poisons ratio was taken as 0.29.These
the American Society for Testing and Materials standards ASTM E8 (19) (Ref. – chapter
3).
with excellent low creep properties hence make it ideal for structural bonding applications
(16). The properties of Fevitite superfast adhesive are taken from manufacturer manual
and are shown in table (5.1).
Table 5.1 Properties of Adhesive- Fevitite Super Fast [112]
Test Property Value


tube
Mechanical bonded wood filled steel tubes were fabricated by press fitting the
solid teakwood beam in to the square hollow sectioned carbon steel tube. The press fitting
of teakwood in to steel is carried out on UTM. Solid teakwood is forced in to steel tube
with slow speed of ram till assembly is obtained. The setup is as shown in figure (5.1).
Fig. 5.1 Press fitting of teakwood in to steel tube on UTM
112
The interference is estimated based on the functional requirements of solid

78 9<=> @F=

5=6 : {6 :+6 :} (5.1)
9 >
( ^D<>^D)
9= (5.2)
( ^DF>^D)
Vs and Vw are poisons ratio of steel and teakwood respectively. The internal size of the
hollow steel tube is taken as basic size. The amount of interference is added to the basic
size of steel tube to determine external size of teakwood.

bonded teakwood filled steel tubes (MWFT) is shown in the Table 2
Table 5.2 Amount of teakwood and steel in preparation of MWFT
Specimen mST, kg mTW, kg mMWFT,kg %ST %TW %MWFT

MWFT1 0.297 0.196 0.493 60.24 39.76 100.00
MWFT2 0.297 0.191 0.488 60.86 39.14 100.00
MWFT3 0.292 0.200 0.492 59.35 40.65 100.00
MWFT4 0.293 0.198 0.491 59.67 40.33 100.00
MWFT5 0.291 0.199 0.490 59.39 40.61 100.00
AVG 0.290 0.200 0.490 59.90 40.10 100.00
SD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.64 0.64 0.00
Measured values of physical and geometrical properties of mechanically bonded

teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) specimens are shown in table (5.3)
Table 5.3 Physical and Geometrical Properties of MWFT
Specimen Bo, mm Ho, mm L, mm L/Bo Ho/Bo m, kg Ac, mm2 V, mm3 ρ, Kg/m3

MWFT1 47.03 47.04 150.00 3.19 1.00 0.493 2212.29 331843.68 1485.64
MWFT2 46.77 46.76 150.00 3.21 1.00 0.488 2186.97 328044.78 1487.60
MWFT3 46.84 46.87 150.00 3.20 1.00 0.492 2195.39 329308.62 1494.04
MWFT4 46.92 46.92 150.00 3.20 1.00 0.491 2201.49 330222.96 1486.87
MWFT5 46.99 46.97 150.00 3.19 1.00 0.490 2207.12 331068.05 1480.06
AVG 46.91 46.91 150.00 3.20 1.00 0.491 2200.65 330097.62 1486.84
SD 0.11 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.002 9.91 1486.85 5.00
113
5.2.2 Preparation of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel

tube
same manner as of mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT). During
fitting of teakwood, thin coat of approximately 0.05 to 0.10 mm of Fevitite superfast
adhesive was applied using a spatula. After fitting the teakwood the assembly is allowed
to cure for 12 Hrs. The amount of steel, teakwood and adhesive used in manufacturing the
adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT) specimens is shown in table (5.4)
Table 5.4 Proportion of teakwood and steel in AWFT
Specimen mST, kg mTW, kg mAD, kg Mawft %ST %TW %AD %AWFT

AWFT1 0.297 0.196 0.011 0.504 58.98 38.92 2.10 100.00
AWFT2 0.297 0.191 0.011 0.499 59.57 38.31 2.11 100.00
AWFT3 0.292 0.200 0.011 0.503 58.10 39.80 2.10 100.00
AWFT4 0.293 0.198 0.011 0.502 58.42 39.48 2.11 100.00
AWFT5 0.291 0.199 0.011 0.501 58.13 39.75 2.11 100.00
AVG 0.290 0.200 0.01 0.50 58.64 39.25 2.11 100.00
SD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.63 0.00 0.00
Measured values of Physical and Geometrical properties of adhesively bonded

teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) specimens is shown in table (5.5)
Specimen Bo, mm Ho, mm L, mm L/Bo Ho/Bo m, kg Ac, mm2 V, mm3 ρ, Kg/m3

AWFT1 47.08 47.09 150.00 3.19 1.00 0.504 2217.00 332549.58 1514.34
AWFT2 46.82 46.81 150.00 3.20 1.00 0.499 2191.64 328746.63 1516.46
AWFT3 46.89 46.92 150.00 3.20 1.00 0.503 2200.08 330011.82 1522.87
AWFT4 46.97 46.97 150.00 3.19 1.00 0.502 2206.18 330927.14 1515.66
AWFT5 47.04 47.02 150.00 3.19 1.00 0.501 2211.82 331773.12 1508.79
AVG 46.96 46.96 150.00 3.19 1.00 0.50 2205.34 330801.66 1515.62
SD 0.11 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 9.92 1488.43 5.04

shrink fit
114
@ 5
I= ∗ (5.3)
e <e> f
+k l <+& l n
Where; gh = (1/jh)[ +kl F+& l ] and gm = (op)[1 − qm]
interference in mm.

(σwt) and radial stresses (σwr) and are given by equation (5.4) [163].
7> = 7>f = −I (5.4)
Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst)
given by equation (5.5) and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are given by equation (5.6)
[163].
7 = I ∗ [(f D + fD )/(f D − fD )] (5.5)
7 f = −I (5.6)

Residual stresses in mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) are
due to interference and mechanical bonding. Bond strength is function of shear strength.
Hence, residual stresses in mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) can
be designed using the ratio of residual stresses to bond strength. The interference and
residual stresses developed in mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT)
are shown in table (5.6). The average residual stress (Pavg) induced was 48.11MPa with
standard deviation of 0.53. Teakwood experiences an external pressure resulting in
compressive tangential (σwt) and radial stresses (σwr) and was estimated as 48.11MPa with
standard deviation of 0.53. Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile
tangential stress (σst) and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are estimated as 793.96MPa
and 48.11MPa with standard deviation of 0.51 and 0.53 respectively. The interference
value was estimated at 0.13 mm.
115
Table 5.6 Interference and stresses developed due to interference fit in MWFT
Specime Bo, Bi, I, Bs, P, σwt, σwr, σsr, σst,

n Code mm mm mm mm MPa MPa Mpa
MWFT1 46.90 44.00 0.13 44.13 48.35 -48.35 794.19
MWFT2 46.64 43.76 0.13 43.89 48.27 -48.27 794.12
MWFT3 46.72 43.88 0.13 44.01 47.43 -47.43 793.31
MWFT4 46.79 43.93 0.13 44.06 47.72 -47.72 793.59
MWFT5 46.86 43.94 0.13 44.07 48.77 -48.77 794.59
AVG 46.78 43.90 0.13 44.03 48.11 -48.11 793.96
SD 0.10 0.09 0.00 0.09 0.53 0.53 0.51
5.3.1.1 Pull out tests to determine bond strength between steel

tube and teakwood in MWFT
The steel tube specimen of length 300mm were cut and the teakwood was press
fitted to the length of 203mm. In order to obtain bond strength the teakwood was pulled
out of the steel tube on UTM and maximum load was noted for five specimens and bond
strength was determined.
The Gripping strength and Bond strength is calculated by equation (5.7) [164].
IJK
r= M
= μ ∗ 7 (5.7)


The load decreases after attaining maximum limit due to slip between the wood-steel
interfaces. The load remains constant at the end as slip continues at interface due to
applied load.
116
BS_MWFT
8.00
7.00
6.00
Load, KN 5.00 BS_MWFT1
4.00 BS_MWFT2
3.00 BS_MWFT3
2.00
BS_MWFT4
1.00
BS_MWFT5
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Slip, mm
strength (τ) and gripping strength were 0.20MPa and 0.29MPa with standard deviation of
0.01 and 0.02 respectively.

BS_MWFT1 44.00 44.01 203.00 35732.06 6.82 0.19 0.72 0.27
BS_MWFT2 43.76 43.75 203.00 35529.06 7.36 0.21 0.71 0.29
BS_MWFT3 43.88 43.90 203.00 35638.68 7.58 0.21 0.68 0.31
BS_MWFT4 43.93 43.93 203.00 35671.16 7.13 0.20 0.70 0.29
BS_MWFT5 43.94 43.92 203.00 35671.16 6.78 0.19 0.71 0.27
AVG 43.90 43.90 203.00 35648.42 7.13 0.20 0.70 0.29
SD 0.09 0.09 0.00 74.79 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.02

Residual stresses in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) are due
to interference and adhesive bonding. Bond strength is function of shear strength. Hence
the a residual stresses in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) can be
estimated using the ratio of residual stresses to bond strength. Residual stresses developed
in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) are shown in table (5.8). The
117
average residual stress (Pavg) induced was 55.08MPa with standard deviation of 1.27.
Teakwood experiences an external pressure resulting in compressive tangential (σwt) and
radial stresses (σwr) and was estimated as 55.08MPa with standard deviation of 1.27. Steel
tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst) and
compressive radial stress (σsr) and are estimated as 800.61MPa and 55.08MPa with
standard deviation of 1.21 and 1.27 respectively. The interference value was estimated at
0.13 mm.
Table 5.8 Interference and stresses developed due to interference fit in AWFT
Specimen Code Bo, mm Bi, mm I, mm Bs, mm P σwt, σwr, σsr, MPa σst, Mpa
AWFT1 47.36 44.13 0.13 44.27 53.90 -53.90 799.50
AWFT2 47.27 43.90 0.13 44.03 56.83 -56.83 802.29
AWFT3 47.35 44.02 0.13 44.15 55.97 -55.97 801.47
AWFT4 47.32 44.07 0.13 44.20 54.52 -54.52 800.08
AWFT5 47.31 44.07 0.13 44.21 54.16 -54.16 799.74
AVG 47.32 44.04 0.13 44.17 55.08 -55.08 800.61
SD 0.04 0.09 0.00 0.09 1.27 1.27 1.21

tube and teakwood in AWFT
fitted to the length of 203 mm. During press fitting of teakwood Fevitite superfast
adhesive was applied on the teakwood surface by spatula. The specimen was cured for 12
hrs. In order to obtain bond strength the teakwood was pulled out of the steel tube on
universal testing machine (UTM) and maximum load was noted for five specimens. The
load vs. slip curve obtained for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) is
as shown in the figure (5.3). It is observed that initially the applied load increases due to
following reasons

• Adhesive bond between wood and steel
The load decreases after attaining maximum limit due to de-bonding of the wood-steel
interface and slip. The load remains constant at the end as slip continues at interface due
to applied load.
118
14.00
12.00
10.00
Load, KN
8.00 BS_AWFT1
BS_AWFT2
6.00
BS_AWFT3
4.00 BS_AWFT4
2.00 BS_AWFT5
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Slip, mm
Fig. 5.3 Load vs. Slip curve for AWFT

Details of specimens and bond strength in case of adhesively bonded teakwood
filled steel tube (AWFT) are shown in table (5.9). The average bond strength is estimated
to be 0.35MPa with standard deviation of 0.01.
Table 5.9 Bond strength in AWFT
Specimen Bi, mm Hi, mm Lc, mm Ac, mm2 Pmax, KN τ, MPa

BS_AWFT1 44.00 44.01 203.00 35732.06 11.80 0.33
BS_AWFT2 43.76 43.75 203.00 35529.06 12.44 0.35
BS_AWFT3 43.88 43.90 203.00 35638.68 12.96 0.36
BS_AWFT4 43.93 43.93 203.00 35671.16 12.41 0.35
BS_AWFT5 43.94 43.92 203.00 35671.16 12.07 0.34
AVG 43.90 43.90 203.00 35648.42 12.33 0.35
SD 0.09 0.09 0.00 74.79 0.44 0.01
5.3.2.2 Determination of coefficient of friction in adhesively

bonded wood filled tubes
In case of mechanically bonded wood filled tube (MWFT), bond strength is
function of friction and interference. Because of interference and friction, radial gripping
stress is induced. To determine coefficient of friction consider gripping stress, as bond
strength is more in case of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes, gripping is always
greater in case of adhesively bonded wood filled tube. The bond strength is related to
interfacial shear stress [164] and is given by Equations (5.8-5.9)
r = t ∗ 7 (5.8)
Where, σg = τ/µ, (σg)AWFT > (σg)MWFT, (τ/µ)AWFT > (τ/µ)MWFT
119
(µ)AWFT= (τ/µ)MWFT *(τ)AWFT (5.9)
Where τ is bond strength in MPa, µ is coefficient of friction; σg is radial gripping

stress in MPa. The coefficient of friction for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube
(AWFT) is shown in table (5.10). The Coefficient of friction in case of adhesively bonded
wood filled tube is greater than one, which shows that the gripping is sufficient enough to
avoid slip between the teakwood and steel interface. It is evident from tests conducted to
study the bond strengths that use of adhesive at the interface of steel and teakwood
enhances the bond strength.
Where τMWFT and τAWFT are the bond strengths of mechanically bonded teakwood
filled steel tube (MWFT) and adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT)
respectively. The coefficient of friction is 1.22 with std. dev. of 0.04 for adhesively
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT).
No. τMWFT, Mpa τAWFT, Mpa µMWFT µAWFT

1 0.19 0.33 0.72 1.25
2 0.21 0.35 0.71 1.18
3 0.21 0.36 0.68 1.17
4 0.20 0.35 0.70 1.22
5 0.19 0.34 0.71 1.26
AVG 0.20 0.35 0.70 1.22
SD 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04
5.4 Evaluation of compression strength of wood filled steel

tubes
The computerized universal testing machine consists of a set up for compressive
testing along with the digital data acquisition system. The load is applied using hydraulic
cylinder and the values of load applied, deflections are digitally noted directly on to the
data acquisition system. The load data is connected with the computer and the plot of load
vs. deflection is directly created by the computer which is taken as the output.
The specimens were subjected to concentric axial loading. The load was applied
uniformly and the deflection under the different applied loads is noted down directly by
using the data acquisition system. The applied load increased up to the breaking point or
the failure of the material.
The load v/s displacements were obtained by the testing mechanically and
adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes of square cross sections. Load vs.
120
displacement curves were obtained and maximum load was noted and compressive
strength was determined using equation (5.10)
H = IJK/M (5.10)
Where CS is compression strength in MPa, Pmax is maximum load in N, and Ac is area of

cross section of specimen in mm2.
5.4.1 Compression strength of mechanically bonded wood filled

steel tubes
The square stub columns of mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube
(MWFT) were subjected to compression testing. The load vs. deflection curves obtained
is shown in figure (5.4). The curves obtained were non-linear and similar in nature. It is
observed that wood filling in square steel tube improves ductility. All the mechanically
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) stub columns fail in the same manner as
shown in figure (5.5). Substantial local buckling occurred at the top along with teakwood
crushing failure. Local buckling at walls of the tube at bottom portion of specimen was
observed, this may be due to in-sufficient bond strength and non-uniform distribution of
stresses at the walls of tubes. The results obtained by compression tests on mechanically
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) stub columns are shown in table (5.11). The
average maximum load carrying capacity and compressive strength of mechanically
bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) stub columns was 201.74kN and 91.66MPa
with standard deviation of 11.26 and 4.90.
250.00
200.00
Load, KN
150.00 MWFT1
MWFT2
100.00
MWFT3
50.00 MWFT4
MWFT5
0.00
0 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.3 4.7
Deflection, mm
Fig. 5.4 Load Vs Deflection curves for MWFT stub columns
121
Table 5.11 Results of compression tests of MWFT stub columns
Specimen Bo, mm Ho, mm L, mm L/Bo Ho/Bo Pmax, kN CS, Mpa

MWFT1 47.03 47.04 150.00 3.19 1.00 211.32 95.52
MWFT2 46.77 46.76 150.00 3.21 1.00 184.68 84.45
MWFT3 46.84 46.87 150.00 3.20 1.00 212.32 96.71
MWFT4 46.92 46.92 150.00 3.20 1.00 202.15 91.82
MWFT5 46.99 46.97 150.00 3.19 1.00 198.22 89.81
AVG 46.91 46.91 150.00 3.20 1.00 201.74 91.66
SD 0.11 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.00 11.26 4.90
Fig. 5.5 Nature of failures in MWFT
5.4.2 Compression strength of adhesively bonded wood filled

steel tubes
The square stub columns of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT)
were subjected to compression testing. The load vs. deflection curves obtained are shown
in figure (5.6). The curves obtained were non-linear and similar in nature. It is observed
that wood filling in square steel tube and use of adhesive improves ductility. All the
adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) stub columns fail in the same
manner as shown in figure (5.7). Substantial local buckling occurred at the top along with
teakwood crushing failure. No local buckling at walls was observed, this may be due to
sufficient bond strength and uniform distribution of stresses at the walls of tubes. The
results obtained by compression tests on adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube
122
(AWFT) stub columns are shown in table (5.12). The average maximum load carrying
capacity and compressive strength of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube
(AWFT) stub columns was 238.49kN and 108.15MPa with standard deviation of 5.29 and
2.75.
300.00
250.00
200.00
Load, KN
AWFT1
150.00 AWFT2
100.00 AWFT3
AWFT4
50.00 AWFT5
0.00
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46
Deflection, mm
Fig. 5.6 Load vs. Deflection curves for AWFT stub columns
Table 5.12 Results of compression tests of AWFT stub columns
Specimen Bo, mm Ho, mm L, mm L/Bo Ho/Bo Pmax, kN CS, Mpa

AWFT1 47.08 47.09 150.00 3.19 1.00 230.17 103.82
AWFT2 46.82 46.81 150.00 3.20 1.00 243.52 111.11
AWFT3 46.89 46.92 150.00 3.20 1.00 236.71 107.59
AWFT4 46.97 46.97 150.00 3.19 1.00 241.92 109.66
AWFT5 47.04 47.02 150.00 3.19 1.00 240.11 108.56
AVG 46.96 46.96 150.00 3.19 1.00 238.49 108.15
SD 0.11 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.00 5.29 2.75
Fig. 5.7 Nature of failures in AWFT
123
5.5 Comparison of experimental results with Euro codes
Theoretical analysis to predict the ultimate compressive strength of in-filled stub

columns is done by various design methods. These methods are generally summation of
factored strength of filler material and tube material. The American Concrete
Institute(ACI) [135] and Australian Standards(AS) [136] design guidance for concrete
filled tubes does not differentiate between section type and does not make any explicit
allowance for concrete confinement. The Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) [137] and
American Institute of Steel Construction(AISC-LRFD) [124] ignore the confining effect
of the steel tube on concrete. Chinese Standard (GIJB4142-2000) [127] takes in to
account the confinement effect but ignores the contribution of binding. Eurocode4 (EC4)
by British Standards Institute (BSI) [138] is most recent international standard which
covers concrete encased steel sections and concrete filled sections with or without
reinforcement. Which also consider the confinement effect and gives conservative results.
However the effects of confinement can be included with caution. The beneficial effects
reduce as the load eccentricity and slenderness of column increases. The ultimate axial
force of column is given by equation (5.11)
∗7
IP = M ∗ 7 ∗ + M> ∗ 7> ∗ (@ + ∗ ` ∗7>) (5.11)
Where, ηm = 4.9 − 18.5 + 17z + 1 , ηh = 0.25(3 + 2)
l
Where, = Z~h ∗ h + 0.85 ∗ ~m ∗ m/{, { = (jh ∗ h + jm ∗ m) ∗ l
Where As is area of steel, σys is Yield strength of steel, Aw is Area of teakwood,

σcw is compressive strength of filler material teakwood, ηw, and ηs are coefficients of
confinement for wood and steel respectively, Es and Ew are Modulus of elasticity of steel
and teakwood respectively, Is and Iw are moment of inertia of steel and teakwood cross
section, t is thickness of steel tube, Ho is outside size square steel tube, L is length of stub
column in mm.
The notations used are changed from original code and the values for the same are
substituted for the steel and teakwood used in this work. To determine maximum
compressive strength of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) stub
columns the values of coefficient of confinement ηw, and ηs were calculated and used to
accommodate residual stresses due to interference fit and bond strength leading to full
124
confinement (µ>1). To determine maximum compressive strength of mechanically

bonded teakwood filled steel tube(MWFT) stub columns the values of coefficient of
confinement ηw, and ηs were taken as unity to accommodate residual stresses due to
interference fit and bond strength leading to partial confinement(µ<1).
5.5.1 Comparison of experimental results with euro code for

mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes
The maximum compressive load of mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel

tube (MWFT) stub columns were determined as per euro-code(EC)-4 design code and are
shown in table (5.13). From the predicted results of EC4 it can be concluded that, EC4
predicts 5% higher maximum compressive load than experimental. The EC4 design codes
to predict ultimate compressive load (Pec4) are in good agreement with experimental (Pe)
results.
Table 5.13 Ultimate compressive load of MWFT stub columns by EC4

Sample As, mm2 σys, MPa ηs Aw, mm2 σcw, Mpa ηw t, mm D, mm σys/σcw Pe, MPa Pec4, MPa Pec4/Pe
MWFT1 263.64 367.74 1.00 1947.90 48.04 1.00 1.45 46.91 7.65 211.32 212.67 1.01
MWFT2 260.32 367.74 1.00 1925.89 48.04 1.00 1.44 46.63 7.65 184.68 210.12 1.14
MWFT3 257.36 367.74 1.00 1937.76 48.04 1.00 1.42 46.74 7.65 212.32 209.38 0.99
MWFT4 259.46 367.74 1.00 1941.28 48.04 1.00 1.43 46.79 7.65 202.15 210.49 1.04
MWFT5 265.08 367.74 1.00 1941.28 48.04 1.00 1.46 46.84 7.65 198.22 212.99 1.07
AVG 261.17 367.74 1.00 1938.82 48.04 1.00 1.44 46.78 7.65 201.74 211.13 1.05
SD 3.14 0.00 0.00 8.11 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.11 0.00 11.26 1.61 0.06
5.5.2 Comparison of experimental results with euro-code for

adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes
The maximum compressive load of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube(AWFT)
stub columns were determined as per EC4 design code and are shown in table (5.14).
From the predicted results of EC4 for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube
(AWFT) stub columns it can be concluded that, EC4 predicts 6% higher maximum
compressive load than experimental. The EC4 design codes to predict ultimate
compressive load (Pec4) are in good agreement with experimental (Pe) results.
125
Table 5.14 Ultimate Compressive Load of AWFT stub columns by EC4
Sample As, mm2 Σys, MPa ηs Aw, mm2 σcw, Mpa ηw t, mm D, mm σys/σcw Pe, MPa Pec4, MPa Pec4/Pe
AWFT1 263.64 367.74 0.82 1947.90 48.04 3.68 1.45 46.91 7.65 230.17 254.41 1.11
AWFT2 260.32 367.74 0.82 1925.89 48.04 3.67 1.44 46.63 7.65 243.52 251.15 1.03
AWFT3 257.36 367.74 0.82 1937.76 48.04 3.67 1.42 46.74 7.65 236.71 250.00 1.06
AWFT4 259.46 367.74 0.82 1941.28 48.04 3.67 1.43 46.79 7.65 241.92 251.49 1.04
AWFT5 265.08 367.74 0.82 1941.28 48.04 3.68 1.46 46.84 7.65 240.11 254.93 1.06
AVG 261.17 367.74 0.82 1938.82 48.04 3.67 1.44 46.78 7.65 238.49 252.40 1.06
SD 3.14 0.00 0.00 8.11 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.11 0.00 5.29 2.15 0.03
5.6 Results and discussion on compression strength of wood

filled tubes
Effect of adhesive on compression strength of stub columns is shown in table 5.14

and figure (5.8). From the figure (5.8) and table (5.14) it can concluded that, the values of
the compression strength of adhesively bonded teakwood filled square steel tubes stub
columns is 15.13% greater than mechanically bonded teakwood filled square steel tube
stub columns. The behavior of both type of material is similar in compression. The
improvement in strength is not significant if the improvement in bonding strength is
considered. The bonding strength in case of adhesive bonded specimens is 73.14% greater
than mechanically bonded specimens. The beneficial effect of confined teakwood filling
is countered by the induced hoop stresses, which reduces the strength of steel tube.
However, use of adhesive provides sufficient confinement and helps to distribute the
stresses uniformly in specimens and improves the ductility. Use adhesive also helps to
overcome the problems of local buckling of tube, which was observed in mechanically
bonded wood filled steel tubes.
Table 5.15 Effect of adhesive and % improvement in compressive strength
Sample CSMWFT, MPa CSAWFT, MPa % Improvement

1 95.52 103.82 7.99
2 84.45 111.11 24.00
3 96.71 107.59 10.11
4 91.82 109.66 16.26
5 89.81 108.56 17.27
AVG 91.66 108.15 15.13
SD 4.90 2.75 6.34
126
Application
120.00
100.00
Load, KN
80.00
60.00
CSMWFT, Mpa
40.00
CSAWFT, Mpa
20.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5
Sample
Fig. 5.8 Effect of adhesive on compression strength
127
CHAPTER 6

COMPOSITE FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
6.1 Introduction
Fatigue has a strong effect on the stiffness of a composite material. The steel
retains its most of the stiffness for its major span of life but after some time it drops
suddenly. Composite materials typically have a longer fatigue life compared to steel and
give warning that it is losing its stiffness. These characteristics of composites can be used
advantageously for structural applications. Fatigue is among the most common cause of
failure of circular cross sectioned shafts used for power transmission. American Society
of Metals (ASM) [178] states that fatigue failures start at the most susceptible point in
dynamically stressed area. The susceptible point may be mechanical or metallurgical or
combination of the two. Bao et al. [179] investigated fatigue behaviour of several wood
composites for determining the allowable design stress.
Mannuel [180] presents that the shafts run with steady torsion load superimposed
with bending stress fail either due to shaft self weight or possible misalignment. Berndt
and Van [181] conclude that in spite of the preventive measures fatigue failure can still
occur due to defects introduced during fabrication and/or degradation of shafts during
service. Bhaumik and Ragaraju [182] presented a case study on fatigue failure of hollow
power transmission shaft. They carried out analysis of the failure together with
recommendations for failure prevention. They recommend use of cleaner material,
minimization of stress concentration, and better surface finish to avoid fatigue failure.
Schneider et. al [183] presented best practice guide on statistical analysis of fatigue data.
Miscow et al. [184] designed and built fatigue simulator to test full-scale drill
pipes under rotating cycling bending and constant tension loading. The fundamental
fatigue mechanisms were investigated via laboratory tests in small samples. The fatigue
life curve was obtained for drill pipe API S-135 grade steel from small scale tests. The
full size drill pipe test results are coherent with experimental procedures. West system
[185] on fatigue explains that wood exhibits unusually good fatigue resistance although
its static one time load strength is not high. Chen et al. [186] conducted low cycle fatigue
128
tests to predict fatigue life of 304 stainless steel tubular geometry with an outer diameter
of 12.5 mm and an inner diameter of 10 mm. The fatigue loading applied to the specimen
was tension-compression followed by torsion. They proposed a damage model
considering the effect of non-proportionality in loading due to loading mode changes.
Dawood et al. [187] investigated the steel-concrete bridge beams strengthened

with high modulus carbon fiber reinforced polymer under the overloading and fatigue
conditions. Kim and Heffernan [188] presented progress and achievement in the
application of FRP on strengthening reinforced concrete beams subjected to fatigue.
Mahagaonkar et al. [189] examined the effect of process parameters such as pressure, shot
size, nozzle distance and the exposure time on the fatigue performance of AISI 045 and
316L material. They developed expressions correlating fatigue life and the process
parameters for both materials, which are useful in predicting fatigue life. Zhenyu et al.
[190] conducted field applications and laboratory research which shows the feasibility of
concrete-filled fibre reinforced polymer tube (CFFT) in bridges. They developed
analytical tool to trace the response of CFFTs under fatigue loading. A detailed
parametric study shows that fatigue response of CFFT beams can improve by either
increasing the reinforcement index or the effective modulus of fiber reinforced polymer
(FRP) tube in the longitudinal direction.
Yavari et al.[191] reported increase in fatigue life of fibreglass/epoxy composites

with various weight fractions of graphene platelets. Roeder et al.[192]presents that
concrete infill confined in steel tube delays local and global buckling of the tube.
Concrete filled tubes (CFT) provide significant resistance in shear, compression and
bending. Amiri and Khonshari [193] carried experimental and theoretical study to
investigate temperature evolution of aluminium 6061 and stainless steel 304 specimens
subjected to cyclic fatigue using thermo graphic technique. Results reveal that surface
temperature of specimens can be directly related to number of cycles to failure.
Wood shows their inherent ability to withstand high cyclic wind loads year after
year. This ability of wood is developed by nature for dynamic and adverse environment.
The specific strength and stiffness of woods is greater than metals. When such wood is
used in building composite system for fatigue loads naturally life and strength of
composite gives better results than individual metals. Very little information is available
on the fatigue behaviour and properties of circular hollow sectioned tubes and circular
wood filled hollow sections. In order to find fatigue strength and fatigue life of wood
129
filled hollow sections tests were conducted on 4-point rotating bending fatigue testing
machine. Wood filled tubes were subjected to completely reversed stress cycles with
constant amplitude and results were presented and discussed. From the experimental
results of fatigue bending strength and number of cycle behaviour a relation is developed
by plotting SN curve. The relation developed is used to predict the fatigue life for applied
bending strength. The statistical approach for predicting the fatigue strength and fatigue
life is given. The results obtained experimentally were compared with euro code [126] to
predict moment capacity and bending strength. The experimental results obtained for
fatigue strength and fatigue life are comparable with euro code predictions.

for fatigue tests
Two types of circular cross sectioned beams were prepared for fatigue tests and
they were mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT), and adhesively
bonded steel tube (AWFT).
considered. To manufacture adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes a Fevitite superfast
[18] (Ref. – chapter 3).
34.85), and 209.02GPa (with Std. Dev. of 9.55). Poisons ratio was taken as 0.29.These
130
the American Society for Testing and Materials standards ASTM E8 [161] (Ref. – chapter
3).
with excellent low creep properties hence make it ideal for structural bonding
applications[20]. The properties of Fevitite superfast adhesive are taken from
manufacturer manual and are shown in table (6.1)
Test Property Value


tube
Mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes (MWFT) were fabricated by press
fitting the circular section solid teakwood beam in to the circular hollow sectioned carbon
steel tube. The press fitting of teakwood in to steel is carried out on lathe. The circular
hollow section was held in three jaw check and solid teakwood is forced in to steel tube
with slow speed till assembly is obtained. The setup is as shown in figure (6.1).
Fig. 6.1 Press fitting of teakwood in to steel tube on lathe

131
Carbon steel specimens were prepared on precision lathe by skilled operator and
polished to maintain the dimensions and tolerances. Teak wood specimens were prepared
on lathe to the size to fit in to the circular hollow section of the steel tube. The solid
circular teak wood is fitted in to the circular hollow sectioned steel tube using light to
medium interference fit to produce the composite using suitable hydraulic press.
Interference is chosen based on the functional requirements of solid teakwood and a steel
tube. Interference between solid teakwood and steel tube is determined using following
equations (6.1-6.2) adopted from design guide manual 1 of DuPont Engineering Polymers
[162]
78 9<=> @F=

5=6 : {6 :+6 :} (6.1)
9 >
( ^D<>^D)
9= (6.2)
( ^DF>^D)
Vs and Vw are poisons ratio of steel and teakwood respectively.
The internal size of the hollow steel tube is taken as basic size. The amount of
interference is added to the basic size to obtain the external sizes of teakwood beam.
bonded teakwood filled steel tubes (MWFT) is shown in the table (6.2). On an average
91.78% of steel and 8.22% wood was used to prepare mechanically bonded wood filled
steel tubes (MWFT).
Table 6.2 Proportion of Teakwood and Steel in MWFT
Specimen Code mST, Kg mTW, Kg mMWFT, Kg %ST %TW %MWFT

MWFT_200_1 0.079 0.007 0.086 91.86 8.14 100.00
MWFT_200_2 0.076 0.009 0.085 89.41 10.59 100.00
MWFT_200_3 0.080 0.006 0.086 93.02 6.98 100.00
MWFT_175_1 0.077 0.007 0.084 91.67 8.33 100.00
MWFT_175_2 0.077 0.006 0.083 92.77 7.23 100.00
MWFT_175_3 0.078 0.008 0.086 90.70 9.30 100.00
MWFT_150_1 0.078 0.007 0.085 91.76 8.24 100.00
MWFT_150_2 0.080 0.007 0.087 91.95 8.05 100.00
MWFT_150_3 0.078 0.006 0.084 92.86 7.14 100.00
AVG 0.078 0.007 0.085 91.78 8.22 100.00
SD 0.0014 0.0010 0.0013 1.15 1.15 0.00
132

teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) specimens are shown in table (6.3). The specimens
for fatigue testing are shown in F\figure (6.2-6.3)
Fig. 6.2 Specimens for fatigue testing
Fig. 6.3 Wood filled tube specimen diagram
Specimen Code D, mm do, mm di, mm L, mm Lt, mm Lp, mm ρ, kg/m3 Im, mm4

MWFT_200_1 12.03 10.94 8.75 226 96.00 72.00 3653.40 703.14
MWFT_200_2 11.99 10.92 8.64 226 96.00 72.00 3626.76 698.01
MWFT_200_3 12.01 10.93 8.69 226 96.00 72.00 3640.06 700.57
MWFT_175_1 12.10 10.96 8.55 226 96.00 72.00 3387.42 708.29
MWFT_175_2 12.02 10.93 8.60 226 96.00 72.00 3350.48 700.57
MWFT_175_3 12.06 10.94 8.57 226 96.00 72.00 3362.76 703.14
MWFT_150_1 12.06 10.99 9.06 226 96.00 72.00 3374.73 716.08
MWFT_150_2 12.00 10.95 8.86 226 96.00 72.00 3325.86 705.71
MWFT_150_3 12.03 10.97 8.96 226 96.00 72.00 3350.23 710.88
133

tube
adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT) specimens is shown in Table (6.4)
Table 6.4 Proportion of Teakwood and Steel in AWFT
Specimen Code mST, Kg mTW, Kg mAD, Kg mAWFT, Kg %ST %TW %AD %MWFT
AWFT_200_1 0.079 0.007 0.002 0.088 89.77 7.95 2.27 100.00
AWFT_200_2 0.076 0.009 0.002 0.087 87.36 10.34 2.30 100.00
AWFT_200_3 0.080 0.006 0.003 0.089 89.89 6.74 3.37 100.00
AWFT_175_1 0.077 0.007 0.003 0.087 88.51 8.05 3.45 100.00
AWFT_175_2 0.077 0.006 0.002 0.085 90.59 7.06 2.35 100.00
AWFT_175_3 0.078 0.008 0.003 0.089 87.64 8.99 3.37 100.00
AWFT_150_1 0.078 0.007 0.002 0.087 89.66 8.05 2.30 100.00
AWFT_150_2 0.080 0.007 0.002 0.089 89.59 7.84 2.58 100.00
AWFT_150_3 0.078 0.006 0.002 0.086 90.70 6.98 2.33 100.00
AVG 0.078 0.007 0.002 0.087 89.299 8.00 2.70 100.00
SD 0.0014 0.0010 0.0005 0.0015 1.2017 1.12 0.53 0.00

Table 6.5 Physical and Geometrical Properties of AWFT
Specimen Code D, mm do, mm di, mm L, mm Lt, mm Lp, mm ρ, kg/m3 Ii, mm4

AWFT_200_1 12.03 10.94 8.75 226 96.00 72.00 3738.363 703.14
AWFT_200_2 11.99 10.92 8.64 226 96.00 72.00 3712.096 698.01
AWFT_200_3 12.01 10.93 8.69 226 96.00 72.00 3767.039 700.57
AWFT_175_1 12.10 10.96 8.55 226 96.00 72.00 3508.399 708.29
AWFT_175_2 12.02 10.93 8.60 226 96.00 72.00 3431.214 700.57
AWFT_175_3 12.06 10.94 8.57 226 96.00 72.00 3480.066 703.14
AWFT_150_1 12.06 10.99 9.06 226 96.00 72.00 3454.135 716.08
AWFT_150_2 12.00 10.95 8.86 226 96.00 72.00 3621.943 705.71
AWFT_150_3 12.03 10.97 8.96 226 96.00 72.00 3429.997 710.88
134

shrink fit
@ 5
I= ∗ (6.3)
e <e> f
+k l <+& l n
Where; gh = (1/jh)[ ] and gm = ( )[1 − qm]
+k l F+& l op
interference in mm.

radial stresses (σwr) and are given by equation (6.4) [163].
7> = 7>f = −I (6.4)
Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst) given by
equation 6.5 and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are given by equation (6.6) [163]
7 = I ∗ [(f D + fD )/(f D − fD )] (6.5)
7 f = −I (6.6)
IJK
r= = μ ∗ 7 (6.7)
M


135
are shown in Table 6. The average residual stress (Pavg) induced was 170.66MPa with
compressive tangential (σwt) and radial stresses (σwr) and was estimated as 170.66MPa
with standard deviation of 17.22. Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in
tensile tangential stress (σst) and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are estimated as
788.33MPa and 170.66MPa with standard deviation of 14.86 and 17.22 respectively. The
interference value was estimated at 0.13 mm.
Table 6.6 Allowable interference and stresses developed due to interference
Specimen Code do, mm di, mm W I, mm dw, mm P, Mpa σwr, σsr, σwt, MPa σst, Mpa
MWFT_200_1 10.94 8.75 4.55 0.05 8.80 168.84 -168.84 786.82
MWFT_200_2 10.92 8.64 4.35 0.05 8.69 178.67 -178.67 795.28
MWFT_200_3 10.93 8.69 4.44 0.05 8.74 174.24 -174.24 791.47
MWFT_175_1 10.96 8.55 4.11 0.05 8.60 191.74 -191.74 806.44
MWFT_175_2 10.93 8.60 4.25 0.05 8.65 183.78 -183.78 799.65
MWFT_175_3 10.94 8.57 4.18 0.05 8.62 187.86 -187.86 803.14
MWFT_150_1 10.99 9.06 5.24 0.04 9.10 142.14 -142.14 763.63
MWFT_150_2 10.95 8.86 4.79 0.05 8.91 158.48 -158.48 777.87
MWFT_150_3 10.97 8.96 5.01 0.04 9.00 150.20 -150.20 770.67
AVG 10.95 8.74 4.55 0.05 8.79 170.66 -170.66 788.33
SD 0.02 0.18 0.39 0.00 0.18 17.22 17.22 14.86

fitted to the length of 130 mm. In order to obtain bond strength the teakwood was pulled
out of the steel tube on universal testing machine and maximum load was noted for five
specimens and bond strength was determined. The load vs. slip curves were obtained are
as shown in figure (6.4). It is observed that initially the applied load increases due to
following reasons

136
The load decreases after attaining maximum limit due to slip between the wood-
steel interfaces. The load remains constant at the end as slip continues at interface due to
applied load.
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
Load, KN
0.60 BS_MWFT1
0.50 BS_MWFT2
0.40 BS_MWFT3
0.30 BS_MWFT4
0.20 BS_MWFT5
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Slip, mm
strength (τ) and gripping strength were 0.24MPa and 0.0.34MPa with standard deviation
of 0.01 respectively.
.
Specimen di, mm Lc, mm Ac, mm2 Pmax, KN τ, MPa µ σg,MPa

BS_MWFT1 8.64 130.00 3529.09 0.81 0.23 0.72 0.32
BS_MWFT2 8.60 130.00 3512.76 0.84 0.24 0.71 0.34
BS_MWFT3 8.86 130.00 3618.96 0.83 0.23 0.68 0.34
BS_MWFT4 8.80 130.00 3594.45 0.90 0.25 0.70 0.36
BS_MWFT5 8.69 130.00 3549.52 0.85 0.24 0.71 0.34
AVG 8.72 130.00 3560.95 0.85 0.24 0.70 0.34
SD 0.11 0.00 44.60 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.01
137

the a residual stresses in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) can be
radial stresses (σwr) and was estimated as 188.97MPa with standard deviation of 19.73.
Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst) and
compressive radial stress (σsr) and are estimated as 921.58MPa and 188.97MPa with
standard deviation of 17.15 and 19.73 respectively. The interference value was estimated
at 0.05 mm.
Table 6.8 Residual stress in AWFT
Specimen Code do, mm di, mm W I, mm dw, mm P, Mpa σwr, σsr, σwt, MPa σst, Mpa
AWFT_200_1 10.94 8.85 4.79 0.05 8.90 186.87 -186.87 919.84
AWFT_200_2 10.92 8.74 4.56 0.05 8.79 198.12 -198.12 929.58
AWFT_200_3 10.93 8.79 4.66 0.05 8.84 193.05 -193.05 925.20
AWFT_175_1 10.96 8.65 4.30 0.05 8.71 213.14 -213.14 942.51
AWFT_175_2 10.93 8.70 4.46 0.05 8.76 203.99 -203.99 934.64
AWFT_175_3 10.94 8.67 4.38 0.05 8.73 208.68 -208.68 938.67
AWFT_150_1 10.99 9.16 5.55 0.05 9.21 156.31 -156.31 893.10
AWFT_150_2 10.95 8.96 5.05 0.05 9.01 175.01 -175.01 909.51
AWFT_150_3 10.97 9.06 5.29 0.05 9.11 165.53 -165.53 901.21
AVG 10.95 8.84 4.78 0.05 8.90 188.97 -188.97 921.58
SD 0.02 0.18 0.43 0.00 0.18 19.73 19.73 17.15

fitted to the length of 130mm. During press fitting of teakwood Fevitite superfast
138
load vs. slip curve obtained for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) is
following reasons

to applied load.
4
3.5
3
2.5
Load, KN
AWFT1
2 AWFT2
1.5 AWFT3
1 AWFT4
0.5 AWFT5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Slip, mm
Fig. 6.5 Load vs. Slip curve for AWFT

Table 6.9 Bond strength in AWFT
Specimen di, mm Lc, mm Ac, mm2 Pmax, KN τ, MPa

BS_AWFT1 8.64 130.00 3529.09 3.25 0.92
BS_AWFT2 8.60 130.00 3512.76 3.46 0.98
BS_AWFT3 8.86 130.00 3618.96 3.25 0.90
BS_AWFT4 8.80 130.00 3594.45 3.77 1.05
BS_AWFT5 8.69 130.00 3549.52 3.41 0.96
AVG 8.72 130.00 3560.95 3.43 0.96
SD 0.11 0.00 44.60 0.22 0.06
139
6.3.2.2 Determination of coefficient of friction in Adhesively

Bonded Wood Filled Tubes
In case of mechanically bonded wood filled tube, bond strength is function of
induced. To determine coefficient of friction consider gripping stress. As bond strength is
more in case of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes, gripping is always greater in
shear stress [164] and is given by equations (6.8-6.9)
r = t ∗ 7 (6.8)

Table 6.10 Coefficient of friction case of AWFT
No τMWFT, MPa τAWFT, MPa µMWFT µAWFT

1 0.23 0.92 0.72 2.88
2 0.24 0.98 0.71 2.91
3 0.23 0.89 0.68 2.65
4 0.25 1.05 0.7 2.94
5 0.24 0.96 0.71 2.84
AVG 0.24 0.96 0.70 2.84
SD 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.11
140
6.4 Evaluation of fatigue strength of wood filled steel tubes

In order to find out fatigue strength and fatigue life of wood filled steel tubes
(WFT), 4-point rotating bending fatigue testing machine as shown in figure (6.6) was
used. The specimen is subjected to completely reversed stress cycles with constant
amplitude. During each cycle, the rotating specimen is subjected to both tensile and
compressive stresses alternatively. The specimen loading arrangement is shown in the
figure (6.7).
Fig. 6.6 Fatigue testing machine FTG-8D
Fig. 6.7 Specimen loading arrangement, fine testing machine
A single test consists of applying a known, constant bending load on a rotating

specimen. During the one cycle of rotation, the specimen is subjected to the two types of
bending stresses (tensile and compressive) having same magnitude but opposite signs
and due to these alternative stresses the specimen fails after certain number of cycles. The
141
number of cycles sustained by the specimen up to the failure is recorded by the counter.
The above procedure is repeated for all the specimens by applying different bending
moments at constant spindle rpm. The number of cycles sustained by each specimen up to
the failure is recorded.
The specimens were first subjected to maximum bending moment. The bending
moment is reduced in each step and number of cycles to failure was noted. The results
obtained were plotted to generate S-N curve for both MWFT and AWFT. The bending
strength were calculated using following equations (6.10-6.11)
5 = N/OP(
P −
P ) (6.10)
7R
= = (6.11)
5 S
6.4.1 Fatigue strength of mechanically bonded wood filled steel

tubes
The specimens were first subjected to maximum bending moment of 19620 N-
mm. The bending moment is reduced in each step and number of cycles to failure was
noted. The results of fatigue test results of mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel
tube (MWFT) are summarised in table (6.11). It is observed that the number cycles before
fatigue failure is found minimum for maximum bending moment applied. The number
cycles before failure increase exponentially as the applied bending moment is reduced.
The fatigue bending strength vs. Number of cycles before failure is plotted on logarithmic
graph and is shown in figure (6.8). This graph is also called as S-N curve. The specimen
subjected to fatigue test fail in brittle manner as shown in figure (6.8). All the specimens
failed due to crack initiation on the surface of the specimen and propagation of the crack
ending in failure as shown in figure (6.10).
Table 6.11 Results of Fatigue tests of MWFT
Specimen Code D, mm do, mm Lt, mm Lp, mm ρ, kg/m3 Im, mm4 M, N-mm Nf, σb, MPa
MWFT_200_1 12.03 10.94 96.00 72.00 3653.40 703.14 19620.00 168840 152.58
MWFT_200_2 11.99 10.92 96.00 72.00 3626.76 698.01 19620.00 157245 153.42
MWFT_200_3 12.01 10.93 96.00 72.00 3640.06 700.57 19620.00 145650 153.00
MWFT_175_1 12.10 10.96 96.00 72.00 3387.42 708.29 17167.50 1533000 132.78
MWFT_175_2 12.02 10.93 96.00 72.00 3350.48 700.57 17167.50 1628188 133.87
MWFT_175_3 12.06 10.94 96.00 72.00 3362.76 703.14 17167.50 1680594 133.51
MWFT_150_1 12.06 10.99 96.00 72.00 3374.73 716.08 14715.00 18982273 112.88
MWFT_150_2 12.00 10.95 96.00 72.00 3325.86 705.71 14715.00 18063376 114.12
MWFT_150_3 12.03 10.97 96.00 72.00 3350.23 710.88 14715.00 17901170 113.50
142
180.00
σb, Fatigue Bending strentgh, MPa

160.00
140.00 σb = -8.28ln(Nf) + 252.1
R² = 0.998
120.00
100.00
80.00 σb, MPa
60.00 Log. (σb, MPa)
40.00
20.00
0.00
1 100 10000 1000000 100000000
Nf, No. of Cycles
Fig. 6.8 S-N curve for mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tube
Fig. 6.9 Nature of failures wood filled tubes
Fig. 6.10 Brittle failure of wood filled tube
143
6.4.2 Fatigue strength of adhesively bonded wood filled steel

tubes
The specimens were first subjected to maximum bending moment of 19620 N-
mm. The bending moment is reduced by in each step and number of cycles to failure was
noted. The results of fatigue test results of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube
(AWFT) are summarised in table (6.12). It is observed that the number cycles before
fatigue failure minimum for maximum bending moment applied. The number cycles
before failure increase exponentially as the applied bending moment is reduced. The
fatigue bending strength vs. number of cycles before failure is plotted on logarithmic
graph and is shown in figure (6.11). This graph is also called as S-N curve. The specimen
subjected to fatigue test fail in brittle manner as shown in figure (6.8). All the specimens
failed due to crack initiation on the surface of the specimen and propagation of the crack
ending in failure as shown in figure (6.9).
It is observed that use of adhesive to bond wood-steel interface has no effect on
fatigue life. This may be due to severe combined loading of specimen which was
subjected to tensile-compression and torsional. Also the structral adhesive which used is
suitable for static applications and is not suitable for dynamic applications. Hence, to
equations to pedict the fatigue strentgh is same for both mechanically and adhesivelly
bonded wood filled steel tubes. To determine the fatigue life or fatigue strentgh
followimg equation (6.12) is established with coeficeint of correlation of 0.998
7R = −. D() + DbD. @ (6.12)
Table 6.12 Results of fatigue tests of AWFT
Specimen Code D, mm do, mm Lt, mm Lp, mm ρ, kg/m3 Im, mm4 M, N-mm Nf, σb, MPa
AWFT_200_1 12.03 10.94 96.00 72.00 3653.40 703.14 19620.00 169177 152.58
AWFT_200_2 11.99 10.92 96.00 72.00 3626.76 698.01 19620.00 167559 153.42
AWFT_200_3 12.01 10.93 96.00 72.00 3640.06 700.57 19620.00 155941 153.00
AWFT_175_1 12.10 10.96 96.00 72.00 3387.42 708.29 17167.50 1636066 132.78
AWFT_175_2 12.02 10.93 96.00 72.00 3350.48 700.57 17167.50 1641444 133.87
AWFT_175_3 12.06 10.94 96.00 72.00 3362.76 703.14 17167.50 1689955 133.51
AWFT_150_1 12.06 10.99 96.00 72.00 3374.73 716.08 14715.00 19020237 112.88
AWFT_150_2 12.00 10.95 96.00 72.00 3325.86 705.71 14715.00 18099502 114.12
AWFT_150_3 12.03 10.97 96.00 72.00 3350.23 710.88 14715.00 18936972 113.50
144
180.00
σb, Fatigue Bending strentgh, MPa

160.00
140.00 σb = -8.28ln(Nf) + 252.1
R² = 0.998
120.00
100.00
80.00 σb
60.00 Log. (σb)
40.00
20.00
0.00
1 10 100 1000 10000 1000001000000
10000000
10000000
Nf, No. of Cycles
Fig. 6.11 S-N curve for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube
6.5 Comparison of experimental results with Euro code
S-N curves obtained under torsion or bending load-control test conditions often do
not have data at the shorter fatigue lives (say 103 or 104 cycles and less) due to significant
plastic deformation. The life of specimen is less when the service load are maximum and
life of specimen is large towards minimum service loads, sometimes infinite or too long
life in specific materials. When the material is subjected to maximum load in bending,
tensile, compression or torsion, the material fails purely at static load of failure i.e.,
ultimate strength of material as in shown in figure (6.12) [24]. It means that fatigue
strength approaches the static strength when components are subjected to higher cyclic
loads. And when the service load conditions are far lower than load curve become parallel
to x-axis resulting in to large fatigue life, and load approaches the endurance limit or
fatigue limit.
145
Fig. 6.12 An S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely reversed axial fatigue
tests.
Material: UNS G41300 steel normalized; Sut=116 kpsi; maximum Sut=125 kpsi.
(Data from; NACA Technical Note 3866, December 1966) [194]
by various design methods. Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) [122] code predicts the
theoretical moment based on the combined effect of steel and concrete taking in to
account of the plastic section modulus and angular location of the neutral axis. The
property of steel is fully utilised by taking in to account the plastic section modulus of the
steel tube. The ultimate confined concrete strength is considered here which will give the
true value of the in-filled beams. British Standard Institution (BS) 5400 [123] predicts the
flexural behaviour by taking the average compression in the concrete at failure to the
design yield strength of steel considering the composite action between steel and
concrete. AISC-LRFD [124] codes predict the strength of CFT beams by the plastic stress
distribution in the cross section for both steel and concrete cross section. This method is
limited to concrete cylinder strength and steel strength less than 55 and 380MPa. ACI
[125] evaluates the flexural strength based on the assumption that the plane section of
column remained plane during bending. The strength of the concrete in tension is ignored
[128]. Euro code (EC4) [138] code determines moment resistance of the CFT beams
based on plastic stress distribution and full strain compatibility of the cross section of
both steel and concrete. Strength in tension was omitted in the calculation and this code
146
becomes applicable to the design of CFT beams with concrete cylinder strength and yield
strength of not higher than 50 and 355MPa [129].
of concrete filled tubes by EC4 show good agreement with experimental results obtained
by Elchalakani et al. (23), Chitwadagi et al. [131], and Han [132]. It was found that euro
code (EC4) is best predictor of moment capacity of concrete filled steel tubes [133] when
concrete cylinder strength and yield strength of not higher than 50 and 355MPa. In
analysing moment capacity of aluminium foam filled thin walled square tubes under three
point bending [134] used values of yield strength of skin material and tensile strength of
foam material. In case of concrete filled tubes, yield strength of tube material and
compressive strength of concrete is used in predicting the moment capacities by EC4. The
ultimate moment capacity as per EC4 is calculated using the following equations (6.13-
6.15)
. S
= JK. S
− . S
(6.13)
JK. S
= 9J ∗
+ 9 ∗
+ 9 ∗
/D (6.14)
. S
= 9J ∗
+ 9 ∗
+ 9 ∗
/D (6.15)
Where,u = (v − 2) ∗ ℎ ^2, ux = y ∗ ℎ z

− u − uh , ℎ =
'.F 0,(z¡0F¡¢)
(z£∗¡¢<¤%(z¡1F¡¢))
{|. }v = ~ ∗ v, v = 1.0 ∗
Where Wpan is the plastic section modulus of the steel tube, Wpsn is the plastic section
modulus of steel reinforcement, Wpcn is the plastic section modulus of the concrete core,
fyd is the yield strength of the steel, fsd is the yield strength of the reinforcement, fcd is
the yield strength of the concrete, fck is the concrete cylinder strength, Asn is the area of
reinforcement, Ac is the area of the concrete, t is the thickness of the steel tube and b is
the diameter of the steel tube. The notations used are from original code and the values
for the same are substituted from the steel and teakwood used in this work.
Considering beam under bending load and applying the Euro Code (EC4) static
strength in bending is designed and is shown in table 6.13 for all specimens.
147
Table 6.13 bending moment and bending strength by Euro-Code (EC4)
Specimen Code Mec4, N-mm σbec4, Mpa

M/AWFT_200_1 83460.29 237.39
M/AWFT_200_2 84781.38 242.92
M/AWFT_200_3 84233.76 240.47
M/AWFT_175_1 88461.60 249.79
M/AWFT_175_2 86054.33 245.67
M/AWFT_175_3 87120.74 247.80
M/AWFT_150_1 78948.53 220.50
M/AWFT_150_2 81582.58 231.21
M/AWFT_150_3 80284.04 225.87
AVG 83880.81 237.96
SD 3159.58 10.15
The fatigue bending strength and cycles before failure are shown in Table (6.1) using
equation (6.16)
7R = −. D VW(¥) + DbD. @ (6.16)
Table 6.14 Fatigue Bending Strength for Cycles before Failure
Nf, Cycles 10^0 10^1 10^2 10^3 10^4 10^5 10^6 10^7 10^8 10^9 10^10
σbf, Mpa 252.10 233.03 213.97 194.90 175.84 156.77 137.71 118.64 99.58 80.51 61.45
Fatigue bending strength is 252.10 and 233.03 for 101 and 102 Cycles before
failure from Equation (16). Hence, considering minimum life of 101 the fatigue strength
values of both euro code (EC4) and experimental values can be compared. The values of
static bending strength obtained using Euro-Code (EC4) are in good agreement with these
experimental values of fatigue bending strength as shown in table (6.15).
148
Table 6.15 Comparison of results of EC4 and experimental predictions

Nf, σbf, σec4,
Specimen Code Cycle Mpa Mpa σec4/σbf
M/AWFT_200_1 10^1 233.03 237.39 1.02
M/AWFT_200_2 10^1 233.03 242.92 1.04
M/AWFT_200_3 10^1 233.03 240.47 1.03
M/AWFT_175_1 10^1 233.03 249.79 1.07
M/AWFT_175_2 10^1 233.03 245.67 1.05
M/AWFT_175_3 10^1 233.03 247.80 1.06
M/AWFT_150_1 10^1 233.03 220.50 0.95
M/AWFT_150_2 10^1 233.03 231.21 0.99
M/AWFT_150_3 10^1 233.03 225.87 0.97
AVG 10^1 233.03 237.96 1.02
SD 0.00 0.00 10.15 0.04
6.6 Results and discussion on fatigue strength of wood filled

tubes
Effect of adhesive on fatigue life is shown in table 6.16 and figure 6.13. The use
adhesive for bonding in wood filled steel tubes in fatigue testing has no effect on fatigue
life and fatigue strength. Generally structural adhesive used to produce load-bearing joint.
However, the term is most often applied to those adhesives that are used for engineering
applications where joints will typically have lap shear strengths. Structural adhesive are
suitable for static joint applications and not for dynamic applications.
In the case of fatigue testing the joint is subjected to both tension and compression
repeatedly and severally, hence the structural adhesive has no effect on fatigue life of
adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes. It can be concluded that the fatigue life and
fatigue strength of mechanically and adhesively bonded wood filled steel was same. The
equation which was established to determine fatigue life and fatigue strength can safely
be used for both mechanically and adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes.
However, the wood filling in hollow steel tube is advantages as it greatly
improves the ductility, fatigue strength and fatigue life as compared to hollow sectioned
steel tubes [195]
149
Application
Table 6.16 Effect of adhesive and % improvement in fatigue life
No NfMWFT, NfAWFT % Improvement

200_1 168840 169177 0.20
200_2 157245 167559 6.56
200_3 145650 155941 7.07
175_1 1533000 1636066 6.72
175_2 1628188 1641444 0.81
175_3 1680594 1689955 0.56
150_1 18982273 19020237 0.20
150_2 18063376 18099502 0.20
150_3 17901170 18936972 5.79
AVG 3.12
SD 3.26
20000000
18000000
16000000
No. Of Cycles before failure
14000000
12000000
10000000
NfMWFT
8000000
NfAWFT
6000000
4000000
2000000
0
200_1 200_2 200_3 175_1 175_2 175_3 150_1 150_2 150_3
Sample No.
Fig. 6.13 Effect of adhesive on fatigue life
150
CHAPTER 7
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION WOOD STEEL
COMPOSITES FOR DAMPING CHARACTERISTICS
7.1 Introduction
Vibrations are undesirable for structures, vehicles, and machine tools. Materials
for vibration damping are mainly wood, metals, polymers, and concrete, rubber pads.
Wood, metals and polymers tend to be better than cement for damping due to their visco-
elasticity. Alloys for vibration damping include those based on iron, aluminum, zinc, lead,
tin, titanium, metal-matrix composites, and metal laminates. Polymers providing damping
are PTFE, polyurethane, polypropylene/ butyl rubber blend. In composites, the interface
between the reinforcement and matrix affects the frequency and damping capacity [196].
There are many factors which alter the damping characteristics of fabricated structures. In
service the residual stresses on structures are unavoidable due to clamping, joining,
heating, cooling, slotting, slitting, coating, laminating etc. Wylde and Hubbard [197]
presented theoretical derivation of the changes in resonant frequencies for micro-
machined beams due to residual stress. It was found that the frequency increases with
increasing strain, the change in the square of the frequency was proportional to the strain,
and long slender beams show larger frequency changes. The results were compared with
finite element method.
There are many studies which deal with modeling of the effect of metal coating
and residual stresses on frequency of structures. Zhang et al [198], Pandey et al [199]
concluded that the metal layer or coating in any structure increases the stiffness and
effective mass of composite structure. While residual stresses increases or decrease the
net stiffness. Pandey et al [200] presented effect of metal coating on resonant frequency,
and concluded that metal coating reduces the resonant frequency and observed shift in
resonant frequency due to pre-stress.
Chiou and Lin [201] have proposed the effective computation of flexural rigidity
in the design of composite cantilever beam. Bru et al [202] reported tests made to analyze
the effect of GFRP reinforcement upon the dynamic behavior of structural timber. The
trend is observed between the reinforcement grade and decrease in damping ratio for both
longitudinal and bending vibration modes.
Khan et al [203] studied vibration characteristics of nano-composites and carbon

fiber reinforced polymer composites containing multiwall carbon nano-tube using free
151
and forced vibration. Several parameters are varied to characterize the damping behavior.
It is observed that damping ratio of hybrid composites was enhanced with addition of
nano-tubes and it was attributed to sliding of interface.
Majjid et al [204] presented mechanical properties, damping ratio, fundamental
frequency of simply supported coconut fiber reinforced concrete and observed that
damping increases while frequency decreases. Higher fiber content has higher damping
but lower elasticity. Static bending tests conducted on wood filled steel tubes by
Danawade et al [205,] [206] show that wood filling in steel tube increases stiffness and
load carrying capacity due to interface between the steel tube and wood fill. The
interference fit used to build interface induces residual stresses and affects the stiffness,
stresses and fatigue life [207].
It is evident from the literature that manufacturing methods and service conditions
induce residual stresses in the structures. The frequencies in case of cantilever beams,
rods and pipes for various configurations change as the flexural stiffness due to residual
stress because of joining, clamping, heating, coating, laminating, reinforcement etc. In
case of material filled steel tubes stiffness changes due to interference and compositing
action between the steel tube and material in-fill. It is important to study the damping
characteristics of such in-filled steel tubes which will be used construction and building of
structures.
The objective of this section of work is to determine fundamental frequency and
damping properties of mechanically and adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes by
experimental impact hammer test using modal analysis. The experimental results were
verified and validated by finite element tool ANSYS using harmonic analysis. The error
between the two methods is within acceptable limit for both mechanically and adhesively
bonded teakwood filled tubes. It is also observed that use of adhesive bonding decreases
the frequency and damping ratio compared to mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel
tubes.

for damping tests
Two types of rectangular cross sectioned beams were prepared for damping tests
and they were mechanically bonded teakwood filled steel tubes (MWFT), and adhesively
bonded steel tubes (AWFT).
152
considered. To prepare adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes a Fevitite superfast
[159] (Ref. – chapter 3).
34.85), and 209.02GPa (with Std. Dev. of 9.55). Poisons ratio was taken as 0.29.These
the American Society for Testing and Materials standards ASTM E8 (19) (Ref. – chapter
3).
with excellent low creep properties hence make it ideal for structural bonding
applications[112]. The properties of Fevitite superfast adhesive are taken from
manufacturer manual and are shown in table (7.1)

Test Property Value

153

tube
Mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes were fabricated by press fitting the
solid teakwood beam in to the rectangular hollow sectioned carbon steel tube. The press
fitting of teakwood in to steel is carried out on universal testing machine (UTM). A
special fixture was fabricated to hold the steel tube and teakwood. Solid teakwood is
forced in to steel tube with slow speed of ram till assembly is obtained. The setup is as
Fig.7.1 Press fitting of teakwood in to steel tube on UTM
Allowable interference is designed based on the functional requirements of solid

78 9<=> @F=

5=6 : {6 :+6 :} (7.1)
9 >
( ^D<>^D)
9 = ( ^DF>^D) (7.2)
154
Vs and Vw are poisons ratio of steel and teakwood respectively. The internal size of the
hollow steel tube is taken as basic size. The amount of interference is added to the basic
size to obtain the external size of teakwood beam.
Proportion of teakwood and steel used by weight is shown in the table (7.2) to
prepare mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes (MWFT). On an average 67.59% of
steel and 32.41% wood was used to prepare mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes
(MWFT).
Table 7.2 Proportion of teakwood and steel in MWFT
Specimen mST, kg mTW, kg mMWFT, kg %ST %TW %MWFT

MWFT1 0.731 0.370 1.102 66.37 33.63 100.00
MWFT2 0.767 0.350 1.117 68.67 31.33 100.00
MWFT3 0.742 0.360 1.102 67.36 32.64 100.00
MWFT4 0.733 0.340 1.073 68.30 31.70 100.00
MWFT5 0.772 0.376 1.148 67.26 32.74 100.00
AVG 0.749 0.359 1.108 67.59 32.41 100.00
SD 0.019 0.015 0.027 0.91 0.91 0.00

teakwood filled steel tube (MWFT) specimens are shown in table 7.3.

MWFT1 52.12 27.78 460.00 420.00 15.12 1.102 1447.96 666060.66 1653.87 93137.17
MWFT2 52.18 27.43 460.00 420.00 15.31 1.117 1431.50 658489.51 1695.87 89783.23
MWFT3 52.32 28.04 460.00 420.00 14.98 1.102 1467.17 674899.10 1632.21 96129.39
MWFT4 51.66 28.42 460.00 420.00 14.78 1.073 1467.86 675216.64 1589.31 98764.18
MWFT5 51.30 27.71 460.00 420.00 15.16 1.148 1421.33 653810.54 1756.14 90922.49
AVG 51.92 27.88 460.00 420.00 15.07 1.108 1447.16 665695.29 1665.48 93747.29
SD 0.43 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.027 20.87 9600.39 63.61 3705.03
155

tube
adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT) specimens is shown in table (7.4). On
an average 66.77% of steel, 32.-01% of wood and 1.21% of adhesive was used to prepare
adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes (AWFT).
Table 7.4 Amount of teakwood, steel, and adhesive in AWFT
Specimen mST, kg mTW, kg mAD, kg mAWFT %ST %TW %AD %AWFT

AWFT1 0.731 0.370 0.014 1.115 65.54 33.20 1.25 100.00
AWFT2 0.767 0.350 0.013 1.129 67.88 30.97 1.15 100.00
AWFT3 0.742 0.360 0.014 1.115 66.52 32.23 1.25 100.00
AWFT4 0.733 0.340 0.014 1.087 67.42 31.29 1.29 100.00
AWFT5 0.772 0.376 0.013 1.161 66.51 32.37 1.12 100.00
AVG 0.749 0.359 0.014 1.122 66.77 32.01 1.21 100.000
SD 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.91 0.90 0.07 0.00

AWFT1 52.22 27.83 460 420 15.09 1.115 1447.96 666060.66 1673.86 93137.17
AWFT2 52.26 27.53 460 420 15.26 1.131 1431.5 658489.51 1716.09 89783.23
AWFT3 52.42 28.14 460 420 14.93 1.116 1467.17 674899.1 1652.84 96129.39
AWFT4 51.76 28.52 460 420 14.73 1.086 1467.86 675216.64 1609.04 98764.18
AWFT5 51.4 27.81 460 420 15.10 1.162 1421.33 653810.54 1776.51 90922.49
AVG 52.01 27.97 460.00 420.00 15.02 1.12 1447.16 665695.29 1685.67 93747.29
SD 0.42 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.03 20.87 9600.39 63.77 3705.03
156

shrink fit
@ 5
I= ∗ (7.3)
e <e> f
+k l <+& l n
Where gh = (1/jh)[ ] and gm = ( )[1 − qm]
+k l F+& l op
Where P is residual stress in MPa, Es and Ew is the modulus of elasticity of steel and teak
wood in MPa, Vw is Poison’s ratio for teakwood, Ks and Kw are factors for steel and
interference in mm.

(σwt) and radial stresses(σwr) and are given by equation (7.4).
7> = 7>f = −I (7.4)
Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst)
given by equation (7.5) and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are given by equation
(7.6)
7 = I ∗ [(f D + fD )/(f D − fD )] (7.5)
7 f = −I (7.6)
157

are shown in table (7.6). The average residual stress (Pavg) induced was 76.12MPa with
compressive tangential (σwt) and radial stresses (σwr) and was estimated as 76.12MPa with
standard deviation of 4.01. Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile
tangential stress (σst) and compressive radial stress (σsr) and are estimated as 820.16MPa
and 76.12MPa with standard deviation of 3.71 and 4.01 respectively. The interference
value was estimated at 0.12 mm.
Table 7.6 Allowable interference and stresses developed due to interference in MWFT
Specimen σwt, σwr,

Hoe, mm Hie, mm Hse, mm I, mm P, Mpa σst, Mpa
Code σsr, Mpa
MWFT1 39.94 36.78 36.89 0.12 71.66 -71.66 816.04
MWFT2 39.40 36.08 36.20 0.12 77.70 -77.70 821.64
MWFT3 40.03 36.51 36.63 0.13 82.20 -82.20 825.79
MWFT4 39.98 36.74 36.86 0.12 74.50 -74.50 818.66
MWFT5 39.71 36.51 36.62 0.12 74.53 -74.53 818.68
AVG 39.81 36.52 36.64 0.12 76.12 -76.12 820.16
SD 0.26 0.28 0.28 0.00 4.01 4.01 3.71
7.3.1.1 Pull out tests to determine Bond strength between steel

fitted to the length of 203.20mm. The teakwood is pulled out of the steel tube on
universal testing machine and maximum load was noted for five specimens.
158
IJK
r= = μ ∗ 7 (7.7)
M


The load decreases after attaining maximum limit due to slip between the wood-steel
interfaces. The load remains constant at the end as slip continues at interface due to
applied load.
3.50
3.00
2.50
Laod, kN
2.00 BS_MWFT1
BS_MWFT2
1.50
BS_MWFT3
1.00 BS_MWFT4
0.50 BS_MWFT5
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Slip, mm
159
The bond strength and gripping strength in case of MWFT determined are shown in table
(7.7).
Table 7.7 Bond strength and gripping strength

BS_MWFT1 24.61 48.87 203.20 29862.27 3.30 0.11 0.70 0.16
BS_MWFT2 24.15 48.86 203.20 29671.26 2.92 0.10 0.70 0.14
BS_MWFT3 24.41 48.66 203.20 29695.65 3.11 0.10 0.70 0.15
BS_MWFT4 24.28 48.73 203.20 29671.26 3.20 0.11 0.70 0.15
BS_MWFT5 24.41 48.78 203.20 29744.42 2.81 0.09 0.70 0.13
AVG 24.37 48.78 203.20 29728.97 3.07 0.10 0.70 0.15
SD 0.17 0.09 0.00 80.28 0.20 0.01 0.00 0.01

the residual stresses in adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) can be
radial stresses (σwr) and was estimated as 108.67MPa with standard deviation of 3.78.
Steel tube experiences internal pressure resulting in tensile tangential stress (σst) and
compressive radial stress(σsr) and are estimated as 1171.27MPa and 108.67MPa with
standard deviation of 19.18 and 3.78 respectively. The interference value was estimated
at 0.17 mm.
Table 7.8 Residual stresses in AWFT
Specimen σwt, σwr,

Hoe, mm Hie, mm I, mm Hs, mm P, MPa σst, Mpa
Code σsr, MPa
AWFT1 39.94 36.78 0.17 36.95 103.62 -103.62 1182.64
AWFT2 39.40 36.08 0.17 36.25 110.94 -110.94 1173.87
AWFT3 40.03 36.51 0.17 36.68 113.52 -113.52 1138.44
AWFT4 39.98 36.74 0.17 36.91 106.96 -106.96 1174.32
AWFT5 39.71 36.51 0.17 36.68 108.32 -108.32 1187.05
AVG 39.81 36.52 0.17 36.69 108.67 -108.67 1171.27
SD 0.26 0.28 0.00 0.28 3.78 3.78 19.18
160

fitted to the length of 130mm. During press fitting of teakwood Fevitite superfast
load Vs slip curve obtained for adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tube (AWFT) are
following reasons

to applied load.
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
Load, kN
BS_AWFT1
5.00
4.00 BS_AWFT2
3.00 BS_AWFT3
2.00
BS_AWFT4
1.00
0.00 BS_AWFT5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Slip, mm
Fig. 7.3 Load Vs Slip Curve for AWFT

161
Table 7.9 Bond strength and gripping strength
Specimen Bi, mm Hi, mm Lc, mm Ac, mm2 Pmax, KN τ, Mpa

BS_AWFT1 24.61 48.87 203.20 29862.27 7.73 0.26
BS_AWFT2 24.15 48.86 203.20 29671.26 8.44 0.28
BS_AWFT3 24.41 48.66 203.20 29695.65 7.89 0.27
BS_AWFT4 24.28 48.73 203.20 29671.26 7.65 0.26
BS_AWFT5 24.41 48.78 203.20 29744.42 7.68 0.26
AVG 24.37 48.78 203.20 29728.97 7.88 0.27
SD 0.17 0.09 0.00 80.28 0.33 0.01
7.3.2.2 Determination of coefficient of friction in adhesively

bonded wood filled tubes
In case of mechanically bonded wood filled tube, bond strength is function of
induced. To determine coefficient of friction consider gripping stress. As bond strength is
more in case of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes, gripping is always greater in
shear stress [164] and is given by equations (7.8-7.9)
r = t ∗ 7 (7.8)

162
No. τMWFT, Mpa τAWFT, Mpa µMWFT µAWFT

1 0.11 0.26 0.7185 1.70
2 0.10 0.28 0.7094 1.99
3 0.10 0.27 0.6821 1.84
4 0.11 0.26 0.6958 1.64
5 0.09 0.26 0.7057 2.04
AVG 0.10 0.27 0.7023 1.84
SD 0.0084 0.0089 0.0139 0.1726
7.4 Evaluation of damping characteristics by impact hammer

test
The impact hammer setup for vibration analysis of cantilever beam is shown in
figure (7.5-7.6), which consists of clamp to hold specimen rigidly at one end. A
piezoelectric accelerometer mounted at root of specimen to measure acceleration when
impact hammer was hit to produce pure bending deflection in the specimen. A signal
conditioner was used to manipulate signals to examine the data for further use. Dynamic
analyser was used to detect the deformation caused in a specimen. Computer or Laptop is
loaded with DEWESoft™ software for modal analysis which essentially processes the
signals received from the impact hammer and accelerometer, carrying out their fast
Fourier transform (FFT) and frequency response function (FRF) obtaining mode indicator
function, and finally providing the natural frequencies, mode shapes, and damping ratio.
Damping ratio is calculated with the help of logarithmic decrement method using
equations (7.10-7.11). Damping curve is as shown in figure (7.4).
Fig. 7.4 Damping curve
163
n ©n
¦= [ln 6 :] (7.10)
,Fn ©,
T
Y= (7.11)
ZPND <TD
Where δ is logarithmic decrement, ξ is damping ratio, x1….xn are the values of

amplitude, acceleration, velocity for selected n sample.
Fig.7.5 Elements of impact hammer test setup
Fig. 7.6 Specimen testing by impact hammer
164
Application
7.4.1 Results and discussion on impact hammer test for

mechanically
echanically and adhesively bonded wood filled steel
tubes
Acceleration vs. Frequency and Acceleration vs. Time graphs for mechanically
bonded teakwood filled steel tubes(MWFT) is shown in figure(7.7)
7) and frequency and
damping characteristics measured for
for five specimens are shown in table
t (7.11). The
average value of frequency and damping ratio for mechanically bonded wood filled steel
tube obtained are 98.38 and 0.1250 with standard deviation of 0.58 and 0.0008
respectively.
Fig. 7.7 Acceleration Vs Frequency and Acceleration Vs Time graph

raph for MWFT
Table 7.11 Results of impact analysis of MWFT
Sample Fe, Hz ξe
MWFT1 98.39 0.1253
MWFT2 99.28 0.1262
MWFT3 97.84 0.1244
MWFT4 98.54 0.1247
MWFT5 97.9 0.1244
AVG 98.39 0.1250
SD 0.58 0.0008
165
Acceleration vs. Frequency and Acceleration vs. Time graphs for adhesively
bonded teakwood filled steel tubes(AWFT) is shown in figure(7.8) and frequency and
damping characteristics measured for five specimens are shown in table (7.12). The
average value of frequency and damping ratio for adhesively bonded wood filled steel
tube obtained are 93.97 and 0.0957 with standard deviation of 0.89 and 0.0015
respectively.
From the results obtained, it was observed that both the frequency and damping
ratio were slightly reduced in case of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tube as
compared to mechanically bonded wood filled steel tube. This reduction may be due to
use of adhesive to bond wood-steel interface. Use of adhesive increases the bonding
strength and gripping strength in case of adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes. The
bonding strength and gripping strength in mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes is
lower as compared to adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes.
Fig. 7.8 Acceleration Vs Frequency and Acceleration Vs Time graph for AWFT
Table 7.12 Results of impact analysis of AWFT
Sample fe ξe
AWFT1 94.97 0.0957
AWFT2 94.48 0.0976
AWFT3 93.26 0.0967
AWFT4 94.24 0.0945
AWFT5 92.8 0.0941
AVG 93.95 0.0957
SD 0.89 0.0015
166
7.5 Finite element analysis of wood filled steel tubes
The damping test results obtained are compared with finite element analysis done
by ANSYS12.1 [209]. The peak frequency and damping ratio obtained by impact hammer
test is compared with harmonic analysis done by ANSYS software. The half-power band
width method was used to determine damping ratio. The peak value ‘fn’ was obtained as
shown in figure (7.9) in frequency response curve and ‘Xmax’ was taken as corresponding
amplitude. There are two points corresponding to half power point (fn/√2) which is noted
as f1 and f2 as shown in the figure (7.9). The damping ratio ξ is calculated by equation
(7.12).
Fig. 7.9 Amplitude Vs Excitation frequency
DF@
DY =
(7.12)
ANSYS 12.1 [209] finite element program is used to determine natural

frequencies and damping ratio of both mechanically and adhesively bonded wood filled
steel tube beams. For this purpose, rectangle area is created. This area is extruded in the
third direction to get the 3D model. A 20 node structural solid element (solid 186) is
selected for modelling the beam because of some special features like stress stiffening,
hyper elasticity, large strain, and large deflection. Finite element boundary conditions are
applied on the beam to constrain all degrees of freedom of the extreme left hand end of
the beam. The mesh plot with displacement at free end is shown in figure (7.10). The
Block Lanczos eigen value solver is used to calculate the natural frequencies of the beams
because it is as accurate as subspace solver and it is quicker in Harmonic analysis, to get
the graph between excitation frequency and resonant amplitude. Later, this graph is used
along with band width method to find out the value of damping ratio. In harmonic
analysis, full method is used instead of the reduced method with an excitation frequency
167
sweep from 0-160 Hz and stepped boundary condition is applied. This procedure was
repeated for all beams.
Figure 7.10 Mesh plot of beam
7.5.1 Results and discussion on finite element analysis of

mechanically and adhesively bonded wood filled steel
tubes
Amplitude vs excitation frequency graph obtained for mechanically bonded wood
filled steel (MWFT) tube by ANSYS is shown in figure (7.11) and result obtained for
damping ratio using equation (7.12). The frequency and damping ratio for the
mechanically bonded wood filled steel tube (MWFT) is 95.42 and 0.1174 respectively.
Fig. 7.11 Amplitude Vs Excitation frequency plot for MWFT
Amplitude Vs excitation frequency graph obtained for adhesively bonded wood

filled steel tube (AWFT) by ANSYS is shown in figure (7.12) and result obtained for
168
damping ratio using equation (7.12). The frequency and damping ratio for the adhesively
bonded wood filled steel tube (AWFT) is 95.04 and 0.0894 respectively.
Fig. 7.12 Amplitude Vs Excitation frequency plot for AWFT
7.6 Comparison of damping test results with finite element

analysis
From table (7.13) minor reduction is observed in the frequency and damping ratio
when adhesive is used at interface of the teakwood and steel tube. Use of adhesive does
not affect flexural stiffness and hence the natural frequency. Similar behaviour is
observed in static bending, compression, and fatigue analysis. Flexural stiffness is product
of modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia. The modulus of elasticity is by and large
unaffected by use of adhesive at interface. But modulus of rupture and moment carrying
capacity improves by the use of adhesive.
Table 7.13 Comparison of results of impact hammer and ANSYS
Type of Analysis Impact Hammer ANSYS % Error

Type of Specimen fe, Hz ξe fa, Hz ξa f, Hz ξ
MWFT 98.39 0.1250 95.42 0.1174 3.02 6.08
AWFT 93.95 0.0957 95.04 0.0894 -1.16 6.58
169
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
The present work involves the studies of strength properties of mechanically and
adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes in bending, compression, fatigue, and
damping applications. The mechanically bonded wood filled steel tubes were prepared by
press fitting of solid teakwood in to steel tube. The interference between solid teakwood
and steel tube was determined by design guide manual of DuPont for engineering
polymers. The adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes were prepared in similar
manner, but while inserting teakwood in to steel tube superfast structural adhesive was
applied. The specimen allowed curing for 12 hours. The static bending and compression
tests were carried out to study the properties of these materials for beam and column
applications. Rotary bending fatigue tests were carried out for fatigue applications.
Vibration tests were carried out for damping applications. The experimental results of
bending, compression, and fatigue were validated by means of design codes used in
practice for concrete filled carbon steel tubes. Finite element method is used to compare
the experimental results for damping properties. The major conclusions drawn from the
study are as follows
Rectangular sectioned mechanically and adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel
tubes were prepared for three point bending. For conducting bending tests American
society for testing and materials standards ASTM 143, ASTM D198 and ASTM D790
were considered. All the three standards recommend different span-to-depth ratio for
testing as the bending properties are affected by span-to-depth ratio. To study the effect of
span-to-depth ratio on bending properties the rectangular beams of mechanically and
adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes were tested for span-to-depth ration of
6.89, 12.82, 13.80 and 25.45. Both flat-wise and edge-wise bending tests were carried out.
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture (MOR), and Moment Capacity (M)
are important bending properties which were determined as per the standard under
consideration.
Slip of solid teakwood was observed while testing mechanically bonded teakwood
filled steel tubes for bending. It is observed that modulus of rupture and moment carrying
capacity is lower because of slip. To overcome the slip the epoxy based adhesive was
used to create adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes. The slip was not observed in
case of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes. The use of adhesive has
significantly improved the moment capacity and modulus of rupture of beams (62 to
170
80%) in the cases where span-to-depth ratio was 13.74 or more. However, the modulus of
elasticity was not affected by use of adhesive and span-to-depth ratio.
It was observed that the studies on bending strength confirm the recommended
span-to-depth ratio by American society for testing and materials standards, ASTM 143,
ASTM D198 and ASTM D790 and it should be about 14 or more. For beam applications
edgewise loading is recommended to take advantage of moment of inertia of cross
section.
The studies confirm the findings of previous research that filling material in
hollow sectioned tube delays the yielding of the tube, improves strength, stiffness, and
ductility. The mechanical bonding of teakwood and steel tube by means of interference fit
provide sufficient compositing action and induces residual stresses because of gripping.
Initially local buckling was observed on compression face with web bulging in all
specimens. Further loading beyond ultimate stress leads to tearing of tensile face in case
of adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes.
by various design codes. To verify the experimental results of bending tests euro design
code EC4 was used to predict the moment capacities and bending strength of
mechanically and adhesively bonded wood filled steel tubes. The predictions for the
teakwood filled beams are in good agreement with experimental results (with error in the
range of 3% to 10%) . The tensile strength of teakwood needs to be substituted in place of
compression strength of concrete in the formulations used for prediction.
Square sectioned mechanically and adhesively bonded teakwood filled stub
columns were prepared for compression tests. The compression tests were carried out and
compression strength were determined for both mechanically and adhesively bonded
teakwood filled steel tubes. The use of adhesive enhanced the compression strength by
about 15% and there was no local buckling of steel tube walls of adhesively bonded
teakwood filled steel tubes. The local buckling was observed in mechanically bonded
teakwood filled steel tubes and that may be the reason for lower compression strength.
It was observed that teakwood filling induces the hoop stress in steel tube when
subjected to axial compression; this improves the compression strength and ductility.
Theoretical analysis to predict the ultimate compressive strength of in-filled stub
columns was done by various design methods. These methods are generally summation of
factored strength of filler material and tube material. Eurocode4 (EC4) by British
Standards Institute (BSI) is most recent international standard which covers concrete
encased steel sections and concrete filled sections with or without reinforcement. Which
171
also consider, the confinement effect and gives conservative results. Euro code EC4 was
used to predict the maximum compressive load in both mechanically and adhesively
bonded teakwood filled steel tubes and the predictions are in good agreement (with error
in the range of 5%-6%).
The techniques used for press fitting teakwood in to steel tube depend on the
internal size of the steel tube and working length. Press fitting of smaller cross section
teakwood in to steel tube is challenging and need special attention. Difficulties have been
encountered in producing smaller diameter teakwood and fitting this smaller diameter in
to steel tube, while working on fatigue specimens. Similarly, higher working lengths
require high capacity press for fitting and working space. These limitations pose real
challenge to design and manufacturing of wood filled steel tubes.
Very little work is reported in fatigue strength of material filled tubes. Very little
information is available on the fatigue behaviour and properties of circular wood filled
hollow sections. In order to find fatigue strength and fatigue life of wood filled hollow
sections tests were conducted on 4-point rotating bending fatigue testing machine.
Circular sectioned mechanically and adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes were
prepared and subjected to completely reversed stress cycles with constant amplitude and
results were presented and discussed. The specimens were first subjected to maximum
bending moment of 19620 N-mm. The bending moment is reduced in each step and
number of cycles to failure was noted. From studies on fatigue properties of
mechanically and adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel tubes in rotary bending
applications, no effect of adhesive on fatigue life and fatigue strength was observed. The
statistical relation developed between fatigue bending strength and cycles before failure
remain approximately same and useful for predicting the fatigue life of teakwood filled
steel tube. The possible reasons for use of adhesive being non-effective is, the cyclic
compressive and tensile stresses leading to early de-bonding of adhesive at teakwood and
steel interface. It was also observed that fatigue bending strength tries to approach static
bending strength. The Euro code EC4 predicting moment capacity can be used to predict
static bending strength and which can be compared with the fatigue bending strength at
fatigue life of 10 cycles before failure. The values of static bending strength obtained
using Euro-Code (EC4) are in good agreement with these experimental values of fatigue
bending strength (with an average error of 2%).
Rectangular sectioned mechanically and adhesively bonded teakwood filled steel
tubes were prepared and subjected to impact hammer test to determine frequency and
damping ratio. In vibration analysis, the use of adhesive slightly reduces the frequency
172
and damping ratio. The finite element analysis results are in good agreement with
experimental impact hammer analysis. Use of adhesive does not affect flexural stiffness
and hence the natural frequency. This is also evident from the static tests that modulus of
elasticity is unaffected by use of adhesive, hence flexural stiffness and frequency.
It was observed that little research work and literature is available on wood filled
steel tubes. This study provides a basic input for further studies on wood filled steel tubes.
Further work can be carried out in following areas
The studies can be carried out by using adhesives with higher shear strengths, to
study the effects on strength properties for wood filled steel tubes. The cross section of
beam, length of beam, thickness of steel tube and wood species are likely parameters
which affect the strength properties. Theoretical, experimental and finite element analysis
can be carried out for optimization of performance for applications under considerations.
The wood filled tubes can find applications in building and construction of automobile,
machine tool, aircraft, ship building etc. Studies can be carried out on building
applications and analyzing them for real life use.
173
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183
Appendix A
IMPACT OF WORK
The work carried out on strength properties of wood steel composite and
its application has resulted in following outcomes. The published work has received good
response which is gauged through grants and citations received during the period of work
1. Bharatesh A. Danawade, Ravindra R. Malagi, et.al, “Study of Effect of Tolerance

on Flexural Strength of Wood Reinforced Steel Tube”, International Journal of
Engineering and Innovative Technology, 2012;(IJEIT) 2(1)1: 156-163, ISSN:
2277-3754.(Published)
(ISRA, Impact factor 1.895, Paper adopted as technical reference and white paper
by IDC Technologies Pty Ltd.USA, www.idc-online.com)
2. Bharatesh A. Danawade, Ravindra R. Malagi, et.al., “Flexural Strength Properties
of Teak Wood Filled Rectangular Hollow Sectioned Thin Steel Tube and its
Application in Automobile”, SAE International, 2013, DOI: 10.4271/2013-01-
1179. (Published) (Scopus/Thomson Reuters, Impact factor 0.396)
3. Bharatesh A. Danawade, Ravindra R. Malagi, “Material Properties of Hollow
Sectioned Steel Tubes and Wood Filled Hollow Sectioned Steel Tubes under
Compression”, SAE International, 2014, DOI:10.4271/2014-01-1053. (Published)
(Scopus/Thomson Reuters, Impact factor 0.314)
4. Bharatesh A. Danawade, Ravindra R. Malagi, et al. “Effect of Span-to-Depth
Ratio on Flexural Properties of Wood Filled Steel Tubes”, Procedia Materials
Science, Elsevier, 2014, 10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.246, (Published)( Science
direct/Elsevier Publication)
5. Bharatesh Adappa Danawade, Ravindra Rachappa Malagi. “Effect of Interfacial
Shear Stress on Flexural Properties of Wood Filled Steel Tube”. SAE
International, 2015, DOI:10.4271/2015-01-0728 (Published) (Scopus/Thomson
Reuters, Impact factor 0.312)
6. Ravindra R. Malagi, Bharatesh A. Danawade, “Fatigue behavior of circular
hollow tube and wood filled circular hollow steel tube”, Steel and Composite
Structures, Vol. 19, No. 3, October 2015 (Published) (Scopus/Thomson Reuters,
Impact factor 1.796)
7. Ravindra R. Malagi, Bharatesh A. Danawade, “Evaluation of fundamental
frequency and damping ratio of wood filled steel tubes”, Construction and
184
Building Materials, Elsevier Publication, (Under review)( (Scopus/Thomson

Reuters, Impact factor 3.17)
8. Minor Research Grant by University of Mumbai, Research Project No. 331, 2012-
13.
9. Minor Research Grant by University of Mumbai, Research Project No. 364, 2014-
15.
185
Appendix B
NOTE ON UNCERTAINITIES
Possible sources of uncertainties or errors in the results presented in this study are due to
variations in material properties(density and dimensions), testing machines (accuracy of
measurement), measuring instruments (least count), and rounding or truncating of
numerical values (mathematical operations) . All these sources contributed to variations
in the results presented. The simplest and effective way of accounting all the variations
arising out of material, machine, instrument, processing and other sources by means of
averaging the data obtained and finding the standard deviation for the sample size or lot
size. Average and standard deviation of sample are considered as measures of uncertainty
in this study
J =J ∑
@ 8
M=fJ = Mª« = Rf J f = (1)

J
Jf
=J = = ®¯µ@(°± − ²³´ )/¥ (2)
In this thesis the standard deviation is taken as uncertainty or error. The results obtained
considering the uncertainty can be obtained by
}h¶· = ~qx! ± ¹ x = ~qx! ± º (3)
Following sample analysis will illustrate how to accommodate uncertainty or error in results,
The load P in kN is measured on computerized universal testing machine having least count
of 0.01 kN for five samples. Average of load P in kN and standard deviation(SD) is
calculated as shown in Table A1.
Table A1
Specimen P, kN
MWFT1_710F 8.35
MWFT2_710F 8.20
MWFT3_710F 8.15
MWFT4_710F 8.41
MWFT5_710F 8.15
AVG 8.25
SD 0.12
Result of P in kN considering uncertainty will be »¶ = »xq! ± º, »¶ = 8.25 ± 0.12,

Pu is in the range of 8.37 kN and 8.13 kN.
186
Similarly, all results obtained in this study are presented with average and standard
deviation for the sample size under consideration to facilitate the accounting of
uncertainty.
187

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Studies on Strength Properties of Wood Steel Composites and its Applications

1.1 Introduction to composite and their usage

Fig. 1.1 Concept of composite [3]

Fig.1.2 Composite bridge systems. Vancouver, Canada [5]

conventional materials. These include improved strength, stiffness, fatigue, impact

The Mechanical advantage of composite is measured by specific modulus, and

#$%&'(%) *%+),%-. 23$%

Fig. 1.7 Specific strength of materials Vs time [9], [1]

Fig. 1.8 Comparison of specific strength [1]

Mechanical characterization of composite materials and structures built by

1.2 Classification of composite materials

Fig. 1.9 Schematic presentations of composites [11]

1.2.1 Classification based on matrix materials

Fig. 1.10 Classification composites based on matrices [12]

1.2.2 Classification based on reinforcement materials

Fig. 1.11 Classification of composites based on reinforcements [12]

1.2.3 Classification based on bonding at the interfaces

An interface is a surface between reinforcement and a matrix in composites. It is

Fig. 1.12 Classification of composites based on interfacial bonding (2)

1.2.3.1 Mechanical bonding

Fig. 1.13 Cart wheel an example of shrink fit interface [14]

Mechanical bonding is efficient in load transfer, when applied force is parallel to

1.2.3.2 Chemical bonding

Fig. 1.14 Adhesive bonding [15]

1.3 Wood based composites

Fig. 1.15 Wood structure [15]

Fig. 1.16 Three mutually perpendicular axes of wood orthotropy [19]

1.3.1 Importance of wood

1.4 Literature survey

Fig. 1.17 Classification of wood based composite systems

1.4.1 Open type wood based composites

Enhancement with metallic reinforcements has the difficulty in developing a

Fig. 1.18 Bolted flitch beams [30]

Fig. 1.19 Reinforcement applications: CFRP sheets [36]

• A basic understanding of FRP–wood bond issues.

Fig. 1.20 Reinforcement layouts on wood section [36]

1.4.2 Closed type wood based composites

Fig. 1.28 Tubes filled with material

Filling material in hollow sections is very effective and finds applications in

Fig. 1.31 Wood with knitted fabric [66]

Heiduschke et al. [66] presented the load carrying capacity of light-weight

Fig. 1.32 Timber filled and CFRP confined specimens [73]

Seitzberge et al [74] studied the applicability of aluminium foam as filler material

experimental and analytical results suggest that a non-uni-thickness walled rectangular

Fig. 1.34 Skinned and un-skinned aluminum foam specimens [85]

[101], [102]. The theoretical, experimental and numerical research is reported on

1.5 Motivation for the research work

• Develop “green” or “environmentally benign” products with enhanced

1.6 Objective of the research work

• To conduct experiments and determine the mechanical properties of teakwood and

• To determine and study the compression properties of square sectioned teakwood

1.7 Organization of thesis

Chapter 4 discusses experimental evaluation of static bending test on rectangular cross

Chapter 7 presents the experimental evaluation of damping characteristics of teakwood

2.2 Need and identification of materials for wood filled tubes

Table 2.1 Green features of wood [105]

Wood is most preferred sustainable structural material because of following

• Wood is as stiff as metals

The comparison on of fatigue life of fiber composites, steel, aluminium and

Fig. 2.1 Comparison of fatigue life [108]

Teakwood structures have played an important role in construction. Teak

Table 2.2 Green features of steel [104]

Because wood is porous, one mechanism of adhesion is mechanical interlocking.

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