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Article history: The behaviour of cast-iron tunnel segments used in London Underground tunnels was investigated using
Received 19 October 2012 the 3-D finite element (FE) method. A numerical model of the structural details of cast-iron segmental
Received in revised form 27 December 2013 joints such as bolts, panel and flanges was developed and its performance was validated against a set
Accepted 30 December 2013
of full-scale tests. Using the verified model, the influence of structural features such as caulking groove
Available online 28 January 2014
and bolt pretension was examined for both rotational and shear loading conditions. Since such detailed
modelling of bolts increases the computational time when a full scale segmental tunnel is analysed, it is
Keywords:
proposed to replace the bolt model to a set of spring models. The parameters for the bolt-spring models,
Cast iron segment
Segmental joint
which consider the geometry and material properties of the bolt, are proposed. The performance of the
Bolt model combined bolt-spring and solid segmental models are evaluated against a more conventional shell-spring
Bolt-spring model model.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0886-7798/$ - see front matter Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2013.12.012
Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192 177
18 mm
Wood packing
Clearance
77 mm
100 mm
100 mm
Bolt
Bolt hole L
L Washer
60 mm
60 mm
Back
London Underground tunnels. In particular, rather limited work is iron segment in half due to the limited space in the experimental
done on the details of the cast-iron tunnel joint. To the authors’ bench (see Fig. 2a). Both the segmental joint models were loaded
best knowledge, the laboratory test by Thomas (1977) is the most through two beams placed across the segment at its quarter points
reliable reference in this area of work at present. to produce a constant bending moment between them. Under the
The main objective of this paper is to investigate the structural ends of the cross beams there were wedges as illustrated in Fig. 2.
behaviour of cast-iron linings through careful finite element mod- This arrangement allowed the load from the beams to be effec-
elling of the joints (bolts and contact interfaces) and the lining seg- tively transmitted to the back of the segment at four places on
ments. Results show the details of segmental joint, especially the the circumferential flanges. The test values of flexural rigidity of
bolt behaviour, significantly influence its overall behaviour on both the segment and the moment of resistance were measured by (De-
rotational and shear movements. Based on the results, simplified mec) strain gauges, while the angular movement at the joint was
spring models are proposed for the bolts and their performance deduced from four extensometer measurements along the joint
is verified by comparing the results when the bolts are modelled as illustrated in Fig. 3.
explicitly by solid elements. Use of these simplified spring models
for bolts with a solid element model for tunnel segments allows to
conduct analysis of cast iron segment linings as realistically as 2.1. Finite element model
possible. When a large-scale segmental tunnel is analysed, the
proposed bolt-spring and solid segmental model may provide A series of three dimensional finite element analyses was con-
more reliable results than a more simplified shell-spring model ducted using ABAQUS 6.10 (ABAQUS Inc., 2010). The 1/2 structural
even though more computational resources are needed. model of the two jointed segments (Fig. 4) was used for the simu-
lations on the joints subjected to bending moment. According to
the test arrangement by Thomas (1976, 1977), the boundary of
2. Behaviour of cast iron segmental joint FE model was set to be simply supported beam as illustrated in
Fig. 4a iii. To simulate the bending force transmitted by wedges
In a typical London Underground tunnel, bolted cast iron linings in the test, a couple of uniform loads were applied on the back of
generally consist of six segments or more per ring, with a small key the panel (the red2 area as illustrated in Fig. 4a i). For investigating
segment at the crown. A significant structural feature of the bolted the shear behaviour between segments, only the bolt and the flanges
iron lining is the segmental joint as shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b) for of the joint without the panels were modelled as shown in Fig. 4b.
radial and circumferential joints, respectively. Two segments are This minimised the bending moment caused by the shearing loads
connected using flanges; the height of the flange is usually about that were applied at the two end boundaries. As illustrated in
100 mm, including a groove with the depth about 18 mm for a ra- Fig. 4b ii, the bottom of the left–right flange was fixed (i.e. the red
dial joint or even 77 mm for a circumferential joint. Waterproof area), while the right-hand flange was under bending or shear force.
materials like cement and wood packing are used for the caulking The element type used was C3D8R, an 8-node linear solid ele-
joint gap, but these materials are very flexible in comparison to ment, and typical numbers of elements were 11,000 for one seg-
cast iron. Hence they are not considered to have a significant effect ment and 7000 for each bolt. The interactions at the bolt–
on the mechanical behaviour. segment contact and the segment–segment contact were explicitly
Thomas (1977) studied the structural behaviour of bolted cast simulated using hard contact elements. This type of contact pre-
iron tunnel segments under monotonic loading in the laboratory. vents two structural components from penetrating into each in
In the experiments, two full-scale model tests were conducted compression, whereas allows them to separate when subjected
using two types of cast iron. One was a bending test on two jointed to tension. The effect of the associated washer as shown in Fig. 1
flake cast iron (i.e. ordinary grey cast iron) half-segments and the on the mechanical behaviour is considered in the geometry of
other was on two jointed whole spheroidal graphitic iron (SGI)
tunnel segments as shown in Fig. 2. A grey iron segment is about 2
For interpretation of colour in Fig. 4, the reader is referred to the web version of
twice the length of a SGI segment. Thomas therefore cut the grey this article.
178 Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192
Hydraulic Jack
Wedges
Hydraulic Jack
Bolt Back
Demec Stand
points
Test flake cast iron half-segments Circumferential
Boundary flange
Experimental bench
2017 mm
the bolt head diameter. Both the pretension and the friction tips of the flanges are found to distort significantly after the bend-
between the bolt and the segment and the friction between the ing, while the backs of them still remain in contact. Along the
segments were explicitly modelled. The linear elastic-hardening width of the radial flange, the joint opens more at the edge than
plastic material behaviour of the segments and the linear elastic– the middle. This is confirmed in the photo of Fig. 5b, in which an
perfectly plastic behaviour of the bolts were also considered and obvious joint opening is observed but the bolts show little
their properties are summarised in Table 1. Spheroidal graphitic distortion.
iron (SGI) has both high strength in tension and compression, For the SGI joint, Fig. 6a shows that the computed bending mo-
while flake iron has a lower tensile strength due to their different ment–joint angle curve compare well to the experimental data. In
chemical components and casting technique. The properties of the Fig. 7a, the tensions computed in the middle bolt and in the outside
cast iron segments and the bolt are referred to Thomas (1977), bolt match well with the experimental data. Likewise the bending
Gilbert (1977) and technical reports from Tube Lines (Tube Lines, stiffness of the flake iron radial joint and the tensions in the bolts
2005). are plotted against the angle at joint as shown in Figs. 6b and 7b,
respectively. Unlike the SGI case, the flake iron joint has a non-lin-
2.2. Modelling the behaviour of cast iron segmental joint ear behaviour due to the non-linear stress–strain relationship of
flake cast iron. In both cases, the bolts exhibit elastic behaviour
In this study, the SGI joint and the flake iron joint reported in even when the joint is flexed to an angular deflection far larger
Thomas (1977) are modelled (see Fig. 4). As shown in Fig. 5a, the than that would be encountered in a tunnel. In consideration of
Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192 179
Segments
2
1 Extensometers
Four extensometers were deployed along
the joint: two were deployed at section and
Joint the other two at section .
(a) Illustration of the extensometers deployment
SA
A1 A2
¦È
H
Extensometers
SB
B1 B2
the structural behaviour of bolts and segments under bending around the bolt hole (see Fig. 10), and therefore saves up to 90%
loading, it can be concluded that the angular deflection and hinging computational time, for example, in the shear load test. Because
occur at the joint mainly because of the distortion of the flange in- of the complicated interaction between flange and bolts, the
stead of the yielding of the bolts. proposed spring-contact model offers more realistic solution
against the conventional beam-spring or shell-spring models (e.g.
Murakami and Koizumi, 1980).
3. Bolt models for cast iron segmental joint
In this study, both radial joint (Fig. 1a) and circumferential joint
In this study, the details of segmental joint (e.g. caulking groove
(Fig. 1b) were modelled. The rotational behaviour of the two joints
and bolt pretension) are carefully studied using a continuum mod-
is considered in this section, whereas the shear behaviour is con-
el as shown in Fig. 8. Since flake grey iron is much more widely
sidered in the next section.
used than SGI in London Underground, only the flake grey iron case
is examined. Based on the results, a set of ‘‘equivalent’’ bolt-spring
models is proposed for the radial and circumferential bolts and 3.2.1. Radial joint
associated washers for rotational and shear loads as shown in 3.2.1.1. Groove. In a cast iron lining, groove depth is a critical factor
Fig. 9. Both the rotational moment and shear force resistance result for assessing the bending capacity of the joint (see Fig. 1). When a
from the combined work of the bolts and the segments. For each joint is under positive bending (see Fig. 11a), the contact area when
bolt, the bending and shear behaviour is simplified using a series a joint opens is the same between the case with the groove and
of sets of normal springs (i.e. from 1 to 13 springs) and one shear that without (i.e. the back of the segment) and hence their struc-
spring, respectively. The set of normal springs is distributed as an tural performances will show little difference as shown in
array based on the diameter of the bolt (i.e. 22 mm) as shown in Fig. 12a. However, when negative bending is applied (see
Fig. 9a–e, which in turn creates rotational moment resistance. A Fig. 11b), the contact area for the case without groove is at the
shear spring is placed at the centre of the bolt (see Fig. 9e–g). On tip of the circumferential flanges while that for the case with
the other hand, the segments with flanges are modelled by 3D solid groove is at the bottom of the groove. This difference leads to dif-
elements. By doing so, the bolt-spring models can be used in con- ferent structural behaviour of the segment joint as shown in
junction with contact model between the flanges to simulate the Fig. 12b.
behaviour of both radial and circumferential joints when large- A simulation was conducted without a groove but the contact
scale numerical modelling of tunnel structures is performed. The area was modified as the same area in the model with groove
use of such equivalent bolt-spring models rather than full 3D solid (i.e. the surfaces at the groove section in the tip of flanges do not
model of bolts avoids complex mesh and contact interactions interaction with each other). As shown in Fig. 12b, the result is
180 Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192
(i) The bending test model (top view) (ii) The bending test model (bottom view)
Joint
Flanges
Boundary
Fixed support Roller support
(iii) The illustration of the bending test
(a) Flake iron two half-segments joint model
(i) The shear load model (ii) Illustration of the boundary and load condition
(b) Flake iron local circumferential joint model
Fig. 4. Numerical models of tunnel segments.
Fig. 5. Distortion of cross flanges of SGI segments after a bending test on the joint.
Fig. 6. Stiffness of the radial joint between two cast iron segments.
(f) (g)
Fig. 9. Spring models for a bolt in a cast-iron segmental joint: (a) Illustration of 13 springs model (b) Illustration of nine spring model a (c) Illustration of nine spring model b
(d) Illustration of five spring model (e) Illustration of single spring model (f) The front view of single spring model in a joint (g) The side view of single spring model in a joint.
Fig. 12. Stiffness of the flake cast iron joint with/without groove.
Fig. 17. Stiffness of the circumferential joint under different contact condition.
3.3.2. Circumferential joints up, the shear force increases substantially. As shown by the magni-
Like the radial joints, the behaviour of circumferential joints by fied plot in Fig. 30b, the stiffness at this stage depends on the flexibil-
shear loading depends on pretension and friction between the bolt ity of the contact between the bolt and the flange. If pretension
and the segment. In London Underground tunnels, the bolts in the applied (35 kN for l = 59.75 mm), a joint is tightly clamped by the
circumferential joints may be installed loosely, which in turn de- bolt along with increasing shear movement as shown in Fig. 31a.
creases its shear stiffness. In this study, the bolt length was varied In loose bolt installation (e.g. l = 62 mm), the bolt can displace more
to give different pretension values (35 kN for l = 59.75 mm) or dif- before yielding as shown in Fig. 31b. The incremental displacement
ferent degrees of looseness (l = 61 mm and 62 mm). between the point when the bolt yields and the point after using up
The computed load–displacement curves are shown in Fig. 30a. the clearance has a linear trend with the length of the bolt as shown
As discussed earlier, there is a small shear resistance at the beginning in Fig. 32. All the curves finally levels off at about 60 kN, which indi-
due to friction between the bolt and the flange. The displacement in- cates that the ultimate shear resistance of the circumferential joint is
creases as the clearance becomes smaller. Once the clearance is used independent of bolt tightness.
186 Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192
Fig. 19. Stiffness of the segmental joint using different spring models.
3.3.3. Simplified spring model and then fails at 17 mm (6 mm clearance, plus 11 mm shear to fail-
When tunnel lining analysis is conducted, the sliding friction ure). The 11 mm shear displacement to failure is in line with pre-
between segments will be modelled explicitly if the segments are vious test results (Graham and Brian, 1989) that bolt core can
modelled by solid elements. The bolts can then be modelled by a distort by approximately 50% of its diameter (22 mm) in shear
set of springs in the normal direction and two non-linear springs prior to failure.
in the two shear directions. In this study, the solid line shown in Similar to the radial joints, a bolt-spring model for shear loading
Fig. 28 is proposed for the bolt-spring model for shear loading in in the circumferential joints is proposed as the solid line in Fig. 30.
the radial joints. At the first stage of shear, the maximum friction To reflect that the bolts in the circumferential joints are often in-
value can be defined by multiplying the pretension force with stalled loosely, the model starts from zero point to point (6 mm,
the friction coefficient. After using up the clearance, the joint 2 kN) before using up the clearance and then the load increases
reaches its yield shear strength approximately 46% of the bolt’s dramatically to 60 kN under a further displacement (e.g. 2 mm),
tensile shear strength by a further displacement of about 1 mm which can be defined using the curve in Fig. 32. The failure in shear
Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192 187
Fig. 20. Contact pressure contours of the segment at bending load of 7.6 kN m.
Fig. 24. The effect of springs in different locations on the radial joint.
(a) The thirteen spring model (b) The centre area model (c) The peripheral area model
Fig. 23. The distribution of springs in the two areas of the 13 spring model.
Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192 189
Shear force
3 mm
Clearance
Bolt hole
3 mm
L Bolt
60 mm
Shear force
(a) Illustration of a joint under a shear force (b) Stiffness of the joint with different pretension
Fig. 25. Stiffness of the radial joint in shear load with different pretensions.
Fig. 26. Friction between the bolt and the segment under different pretensions.
Fig. 27. Mises Stress contours of the bolt model at different displacements.
190 Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192
Fig. 32. Further displacement of the joint after using up the clearance.
Fig. 29. Friction between the bolt and the segment different friction coefficients.
array. However, the shell-spring cannot model the contact only considers the general joint deformation in an indirect
pressure explicitly and thus may overly under-predict the way; that is, the magnitude of the deformation has to be
bending resistance by using only one rotational spring. converted from the forces in the spring and shell elements.
(3) The detailed deformation mode in the joint is explicitly pre- (4) Fewer laboratory tests are required for the proposed
sented in the proposed approach but not in the shell-spring approach than the shell-spring model. In the shell-spring
model. For example, Figs. 5 and 31 show the detailed rota- model, the stiffness of the axial, rotational and shear spring
tional distortion and the shear deformation, respectively. has to be calibrated from a series of compression/tension,
The ‘‘small’’ dissimilar deformation mode of the joint may bending and shear tests of the two jointed segments. In
result in radically different structural failure mode and terms of the coupling of the abovementioned forces, rather
water leakage mode of the segmental tunnel (Thomas, more experiment tests are necessarily needed for building
1976; Wang et al., 2012). However, the shell-spring model up their relationships. In the proposed bolt-spring model,
Fig. 30. Shear stiffness of the circumferential joint in different bolt length: (a) Overall behaviour and (b) detailed behaviour after using up the clearance.
Fig. 31. Deformation contours of the joint at different length before and after shear movement: (a) I = 59.75 mm case and (b) I = 62 mm case.
Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192 191
Table 2
Summary of the parametric study on the joint behaviour.
Description Cases
Rotational behaviour
Radial joint
Groove With groove Without groove
Pretension (the bolt length, l) 44 kN 0 kN (l = 60.00 mm) 0 kN 0 kN
(l = 59.90 mm) (l = 60.40 mm) (l = 60.80 mm)
Circumferential joint
Installation Perfect Installation with built
installation tolerance
Contact area Full contact Half contact
Simplified spring model
Different spring models 1 Spring model 5 Spring model 9 Spring model a 9 Spring model b 13 Spring
model
Spring at different locations Centre area Peripheral area model
model
Spring stiffness 1000% Bolt 100% Bolt stiffness 10% Bolt 5% Bolt stiffness
stiffness stiffness
Shear behaviour
Radial joint
Pretension (the bolt length, l) N.B. friction coefficient fixed 62 kN 44 kN (l = 59.90 mm) 0 kN
to be 0.2 (l = 59.86 mm) (l = 60.00 mm)
Friction coefficient N.B. pretension fixed to be 62 kN 0.1 0.2 0.4
Circumferential joint
Pretension (the bolt length, l) N.B. friction coefficient fixed 35 kN 0 kN (l = 60 mm) 0 kN (l = 61 mm) 0 kN (l = 62 mm)
to be 0.2 (l = 59.75 mm)
Simplified spring model
Further displacement after clearance (the bolt length, l) 1 mm (l = 60 mm) 2.3 mm (l = 61 mm) 3.6 mm
(l = 62 mm)
Table 3
Summary of the proposed bolt-spring model.
Shear behaviour
Radial bolt-spring model Pretension (see Fig. 25), Bolt–segment friction (see Figs. 26, 28 and 29)
Circumferential bolt-spring model Bolt–segment interaction (see Figs. 30–32)
the stiffnesses of the normal spring and shear spring are complex behaviour can only be carefully considered using
based on the bolt stiffness, which can be referred to standard the proposed approach rather than conventional shell-
codes. spring models.
(5) When conducting analysis of a large-scale segmental tunnel,
the proposed approach provides more reliable results than In comparison to the conventional shell-spring model, the pro-
the shell-spring model. In special cases (e.g. cross-passage), posed approach necessitates more computational time and re-
the deformation of the lining is subjected to the longitudinal sources. Rather than simple shell elements, more expensive solid
rotation, circumferential relative displacement, lintel bend- elements are used for the simulation on the tunnel segment, and
ing deformation and so forth (Klappers et al., 2006). This also their explicit surface contacts increase iterative computation.
192 Z. Li et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 41 (2014) 176–192
4. Conclusions References
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