Paint coatings

Paint is the most commonly used material to protect steel. Paint systems for steel structures have
developed over the years to comply with industrial environmental legislation and in response to demands
from bridge and building owners for improved durability performance. Previous five and six coat systems
have been replaced by typically three coat alternatives, and the latest formulations have focussed on
application in even fewer numbers of coats, but with increasing individual film thickness. Examples of
this are epoxy and polyester glass flake coatings that are designed for high build thickness in one or two
coat applications, and single coat high build elastomeric urethane coatings, up to 1000μm thick.
Modern specifications usually comprise a sequential coating application of paints or alternatively paints
applied over metal coatings to form a ‘duplex’ coating system. The protective paint systems usually
consist of primer, undercoat(s) and finish coats. Each coating ‘layer’ in any protective system has a
specific function, and the different types are applied in a particular sequence of primer followed by
intermediate / build coats in the shop, and finally the finish or top coat either in the shop or on site.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Composition of paints and film formation

 2 Classification of paints
 3 Paint coatings
 o 3.1 Primers

o 3.2 Intermediate coats

o 3.3 Finish coat

o 3.4 Stripe coats

o 3.5 The paint system

 4 Main generic types of paint and their properties

 5 Prefabrication primers

o 5.1 Etch primers

o 5.2 Epoxy primers

o 5.3 Zinc epoxy primers

o 5.4 Zinc silicate primers

 6 Application of paint coatings

o 6.1 Methods

 6.1.1 Brushing

 6.1.2 Roller

 6.1.3 Air spray

 6.1.4 Airless spray

o 6.2 Conditions of application

o 6.3 Coating applicator training and certification (ICATS)

o 6.4 Additional education

 7 References

 8 Resources

 9 Further reading

 10 See also

 11 External links
 12 CPD
[top]Composition of paints and film formation
Paints are made by mixing and blending three main components:
(a) The pigments
Pigments are finely ground inorganic or organic powders which provide colour, opacity, film cohesion
and sometimes corrosion inhibition.
(b) The binder
Binders are usually resins or oils but can be inorganic compounds such as soluble silicates. The binder is
the film forming component in the paint.
(c) The solvent
Solvents are used to dissolve the binder and to facilitate application at the paint. Solvents are usually
organic liquids or water.
Paints are applied to steel surfaces by many methods but in all cases this produces a 'wet film'. The
thickness of the 'wet film' can be measured, before the solvent evaporates, using a comb-gauge. As the
solvent evaporates, film formation occurs, leaving the binder and pigments on the surface as a 'dry film'.
The thickness of the 'dry film' can be measured, usually with an electro-magnetic induction gauge. The
relationship between the applied 'wet film' thickness and the final 'dry film' thicknesses (dft) is determined
by the percentage volume solids of the paint, i.e. dft = 'wet film' thickness multiplied by the % vol. solids.
In general the corrosion protection afforded by a paint film is directly proportional to its dry film
thickness.

Paint constituents and their function

Schematic diagram of a paint system

[top]Classification of paints
Multi-coat paint system

Since, in the broadest terms, a paint consists of a particular pigment, dispersed in a particular binder,
dissolved in a particular solvent then the number of generic types of paint is limited. The most common
methods of classifying paints are either by their pigmentation or by their binder type.
Primers for steel are usually classified according to the main corrosion inhibitive pigments used in their
formulation, e.g. zinc phosphate primers and metallic zinc primers, etc. Each of these inhibitive pigments
can be incorporated into a range of binder resins giving for example, zinc phosphate alkyd primers, zinc
phosphate epoxy primers, etc.
Intermediate and finish coats are usually classified according to their binders, e.g. epoxies, vinyls,
urethanes, etc.
[top]Paint coatings

Paints are usually applied one coat on top of another and each coat has a specific function / purpose.
These are described as follows.
[top]Primers

The primer is applied directly onto the cleaned steel surface or, in the case of duplex systems, the
sealed metal coating. Its purpose is to wet the surface and to provide good adhesion for subsequently
applied coats. For primers applied directly to steel surfaces, these are also usually required to provide
corrosion inhibition. There are two basic types of primer.
(a) Primers pigmented with metallic elements anodic to steel
These primers are formulated so that, when a break in the coating (due to damage or local corrosion)
exposes the steel substrate, the anodic metal corrodes sacrificially in preference to the steel. This
effectively stifles steel corrosion and under-rusting of the primer until the anodic metal is exhausted.
Zinc-rich primers are the most commonly used of this type.
(b) Primers relying on the high adhesion and chemical-resistance properties of the binder
With these primers, good adhesion is obtained (provided that the surface is very thoroughly cleaned) and
it is sufficient to prevent under-rusting at any break in the coating (due to damage). Two-pack epoxy
primers are typical of this type. These primers may contain inhibitive pigments to interfere with the
corrosion process. Zinc phosphate, for example, is a mildly inhibitive pigment and is widely used in
modern primer formulations.
[top]Intermediate coats

Intermediate coats are applied to ‘build’ the total film thickness of the system. Generally, the thicker the
coating the longer the life. Intermediate coats are specially designed to enhance the overall protection and,
when highly pigmented, decrease permeability to oxygen and water. The incorporation of laminar
pigments, such as micaceous iron oxide (MIO), reduces or delays moisture penetration in humid
atmospheres and improves tensile strength. Modern specifications now include inert pigments such as
glass flakes to act as laminar pigments. Undercoats must remain compatible with finishing coats when
there are unavoidable delays in applying them.
[top]Finish coat

The finish coat provides the required appearance and surface resistance of the system. Depending on the
conditions of exposure, it must also provide the first line of defence against weather and sunlight, open
exposure, and condensation.
[top]Stripe coats

Stripe coats are additional coats of paint that are applied locally to welds, fasteners and external corners.
Their function is to build a satisfactory coating thickness at edges and corners where paint has a tendency
to contract and thin upon drying. Specifications should indicate the type and number of stripe coats
required and state when they are to be applied.
[top]The paint system

The various superimposed coats within a painting system have, of course, to be compatible with one
another. They may be all of the same generic type or may be different, e.g. chemical resistant types, such
as a recoatable polyurethane finish coat, may be applied onto epoxy primer and intermediate coats.
However, as a first precaution, all paints within a system should normally be obtained from the same
manufacturer and used in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
An important factor in the coating system is the definition and measurement of the dry film thickness
(dft). Dry film thicknesses are generally checked on the complete paint system, although individual films
may be checked separately. Usually, nominal dry film thicknesses are specified but sometimes minimum
values are quoted.
For nominal dry film thicknesses, individual values less than 80% of the nominal thickness are not
acceptable. Values between 80% and 100% are acceptable provided that the overall average (mean value)
is equal to or greater than the nominal.
Specifications for minimum dry film thicknesses require careful paint application to avoid excessive film
thickness. The ‘over application’ of paints can result in the formation of high stresses and may cause
premature failure of the system. Wet film thickness (wft) checks may also be required during the
application of the coating to check that a subsequent satisfactory dry film thickness will be achieved.
[top]Main generic types of paint and their properties

(a) Air drying paints

For example alkyds
These materials dry and form a film by an oxidative process, which involves absorption of oxygen from
the atmosphere. They are therefore limited to relatively thin films. Once the film has formed it has limited
solvent resistance and usually poor chemical resistance.
(b) One pack chemical resistant paints
For example acrylated rubbers, vinyls
For these materials, film formation requires only solvent evaporation and no oxidative process is
involved. They can be applied as moderately thick films though retention of solvent in the film can be a
problem at the upper end of this range. The formed film remains relatively soft and has poor solvent
resistance but good chemical resistance. Bituminous paints also dry by solvent evaporation. They are
essentially solutions of either asphaltic bitumen or coal-tar pitch in organic solvents.
(c) Two pack chemical resistant paints
For example epoxy, urethane
These materials are supplied as two separate components, usually referred to as the base and the curing
agent. When these two components are mixed, immediately before use, a chemical reaction occurs. These
materials therefore have a limited 'pot life' before which the mixed coating must be applied. The
polymerisation reaction continues after the paint has been applied and after the solvent has evaporated to
produce a densely cross linked film which can be very hard and has good solvent and chemical resistance.
Liquid resins of low viscosity can be used in the formulation thereby avoiding the need for a solvent.
Such coatings are referred to as 'solvent less' or 'solvent free' and can be applied as very thick films.
Tolerance
System of poor Chemical Solvent Water Overcoating
Binder cost surface resistance resistance resistance after aging Com
Limited
Black Coatings Very good with or dark c
(based on Tar coatings of May sof
products) Low Good Moderate Poor Good same type conditio
Good de
Low – Poor – properti
Alkyds Medium Moderate Poor Moderate Moderate Good solvent
High bu
Acrylated Medium that rem
Rubbers – High Poor Good Poor Good Good and are
 suscepti
sticking
Can be a
Epoxy a range
(Surface Medium surfaces
Tolerant) – High Good Good Good Good Good coatings
Epoxy Suscepti
(High Medium ‘chalkin
performance) – High Very Poor Very Good Good Very Good Poor U.V. lig
Can be m
Urethane and decorati
Polyurethane High Very Poor Very Good Good Very Good Poor epoxies.
Organic Silicate May req
and Inorganic special s
Silicate High Very Poor Moderate Good Good Moderate preparat
Summary of the main generic types of paint and their properties
[top]Prefabrication primers
Also referred to as blast primers, shop primers, temporary primers, holding primers, etc., these primers
are sometimes used on structural steelwork, immediately after blast cleaning, to maintain the reactive
blast cleaned surface in a rust free condition until final painting can be undertaken. They are mainly
applied to steel plates and sections before fabrication. The main requirements of a prefabrication primer
are as follows:
 The primer should be capable of airless spray application to produce a very thin even coating. Dry
film thickness is usually limited between 15-25μm. Below 15μm, the peaks of the blast profile are not
protected and 'rust rashing' occurs on weathering. Above 25μm, the primer affects the quality of
the weld and produces excessive weld fume.
 The primer must dry very quickly. Priming is often done in-line with automatic blast cleaning plant
which may be handling plates and/or sections at a pass rate of between 1-3 metres/minute. The
interval between priming and handling is usually of the order of 1-10 minutes and hence the primer
film must dry within this time.
 Normal fabrication procedures (e.g. welding, gas cutting) must not be significantly impeded by the
coating, and the primer should not cause excessive weld porosity. A welding certificate should be
available from the paint manufacturer.
 Weld fume omitted by the primer must not exceed the appropriate Occupational Exposure Limits.
Proprietary primers are tested and certified by the Newcastle Occupational Health Agency. A health
and safety certificate should be available from the paint manufacturer.
 The primer coating should provide adequate protection until either overcoated or placed within a non
corrosive environment e.g. indoor storage or within a building construction. In practice, such periods
are rarely met except in the least arduous conditions, e.g. indoor storage. In aggressive conditions,
durability can often be measured in weeks rather than months. Zinc rich and zinc silicate primers
provide the highest order of protection of all prefabrication primers.
 The primed surface, after weathering, should require the minimum of re-preparation for subsequent
painting and must be compatible with the intended paint system. Many proprietary prefabrication
primers are available but they can be classified under the following main generic types:

[top]Etch primers
These are based on polyvinyl butyral resin reinforced with a phenolic resin to increase water resistance.
These primers can be supplied in a single pack or two pack form, the latter providing better durability.
[top]Epoxy primers

These are two pack materials utilising epoxy resins and usually have either polyamide or polyamine
curing agents. They are pigmented with a variety of inhibitive and non-inhibitive pigments. Zinc
phosphate epoxy primers are the most frequently encountered and give the best durability within the
group.
[top]Zinc epoxy primers
These primers can be either zinc rich or reduced zinc types. Zinc rich primers produce films which
contain about 85% by weight of metallic zinc powder and the reduced zinc type as low as 55% by weight.
When exposed in either marine or highly industrial environments, zinc epoxy primers are prone to the
formation of insoluble white zinc corrosion products which must be removed from the surface before
subsequent overcoating.
[top]Zinc silicate primers

Zinc silicate primers produce a level of protection which is comparable with the zinc rich epoxy types and
they suffer from the same drawbacks, e.g. formation of zinc salts and production of zinc oxide fume
during welding. There are currently different categories of zinc silicate primers based upon the binder
(organic or inorganic) and the zinc content. Low zinc primers in this group have been developed to
improve their weldability and to minimise weld porosity, however their durability is also reduced. The
organic silicate primers are the most suitable as prefabrication primers.
[top]Application of paint coatings
[top]Methods

The method of application and the conditions under which paints are applied have a significant effect on
the quality and durability of the coating. Standard methods used to apply paints to structural steelwork
include application by brush, roller, conventional air spray and airless spray.
Airless spraying has become the most commonly used method of applying paint coatings to structural
steelwork under controlled shop conditions. Brush and roller application are more commonly used for site
application, though spraying methods are also used.
[top]Brushing

Brush application of paint

This is the simplest method and also the slowest and therefore most expensive. Nevertheless it has certain
advantages over the other methods, e.g. better wetting of the surface and can be used in restricted spaces,
be useful for small areas, with less wastage and contamination of surroundings.
Brush application of paint
(Video courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

[top]Roller

Roller application of paint

This process is much quicker than brushing and is used for large flat areas, but demands suitable
rheological properties of the paint.
Roller application of paint
(Video courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

[top]Air spray
Paint coatings for structural steelwork are usually spray applied. The paint is atomised into fine droplets
and projected onto the surface to be protected where the droplets join together to form a continuous film.
The atomisation can be accomplished in a number of ways.
In air spraying, the paint is atomised by mixing it with a stream of compressed air in a conventional spray
gun. The paint can be either sucked into the air stream (as in the simple suction-cup gun used for
application to small areas) or fed to the spray gun under pressure from a pressure pot. For ideal
application, careful adjustments of the spray nozzle and air pressures must be made by a skilled operator,
according to the consistency and composition of the paint product and the film thickness required. The
application rates for air spray are quicker than for brushing, or rolling, however paint wastage by
overspray is high.
[top]Airless spray

Airless spray application of paint

(Image courtesy of Mabey Bridge Ltd.)

For airless spraying, the paint is hydraulically compressed and, on release through a small orifice in an
airless spray gun, it is atomised and projected onto the surface. By changing the orifice size and shape and
by varying the hydraulic pressure, atomisation can be accomplished for a wide range of paint
consistencies from thin to thick, to give a wide range of rates of deposition. The equipment required is
much more expensive than for conventional air spraying, because it must withstand the much higher
pressures involved. However, the application rates are higher than for air spray with overspray wastage
greatly reduced. For conventional air spraying, the maximum air pressure will normally not exceed 100
psi (6.9 bar); for airless spraying, hydraulic pressures up to 4,000 psi (280 bar) may be required.
A variant of the above involves heating to reduce the consistency of the paint rather than adding diluents.
In this way greater film thickness per application is achieved. This method can be used for the application
of solvent-free materials such as two-pack products, which can be mixed at the spray gun nozzle at the
moment of application. The use of expensive equipment and highly skilled labour is necessary for the
achievement of optimum results but may be justified for the protection of large and important structures.
Airless spray application of paint
(Video courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

[top]Conditions of application
The principal conditions that affect the application of paint coatings are temperature and humidity. These
can be more easily controlled under shop conditions than on site.
(a) Temperature
Air temperature and steel temperature affect solvent evaporation, brushing and spraying properties, drying
and curing times and the pot life of two-pack materials, etc. Where heating is required, this should only be
by indirect methods.
(b) Humidity
Paints should not be applied when there is condensation present on the steel surface or the relative
humidity of the atmosphere is such that it will affect the application or drying of the coating. Normal
practice is to measure the steel temperature with a contact thermometer and to ensure that it is maintained
at least 3°C above the dew point.
However, moisture cured paints are available. These paints are specifically formulated for application in
damp and humid conditions; reference should be made to the manufacturer’s data sheets for details of
limiting conditions of application.
[top]Coating applicator training and certification (ICATS)

ICATS Training Programme

With modern high performance coatings, correct application has become increasingly important to
achieve the intended performance. Industry has recognised this and established a training and certification
scheme for paint applicators (ICATS – Industrial Coating Applicator Training
Scheme). ICATS registration (or to an equivalent scheme) has subsequently become a mandatory
requirement for work on Highways England and Network Rail bridges.
ICATS is owned by the Institute of Corrosion and operated through Correx Ltd., a wholly owned
subsidiary of the Institute. The scheme has a mandatory Basic Unit 'Industrial Coating Applicator' that
comprises 6 modules:
 Health & Safety
 Site Access
 Plant & Equipment
 Surface preparation
 Paint Types & Application
 Quality Control

There are also 2 optional specialist modules:

 Abrasive Blast Cleaning
 Spray Painting

ICATS is a registered training scheme that meets the requirements of NHSS 19A[1] and enables
contractors to provide 'best value' service to maximise coating performance over structure life and to
reduce whole life costs.
[top]Additional education

For engineers and inspectors wishing to further their knowledge of corrosion control in the context of
structural steelwork, there are web based training programmes available from a specialist training
provider, Corrodere:
 Trainthepainter
 Traintheinspector
 Trainthecoatingspecialist

Trainthepainter is an internationally recognised and certified training programme that provides trainee
coating applicators with a comprehensive package of training modules that ensure professionalism and
give an insight into methods of surface treatment and application of protective coatings. As with ICATS,
this is a registered training scheme that meets the requirements of NHSS 19A[1].
[top]References

1. ↑ Jump up to:1.0 1.1 NHSS 19A: National Highways Sector Schemes for Quality Management in Highway Works, 19A.
For corrosion protection of ferrous materials by industrial coatings. UKAS, Issue 2 (9001:2015), October 2016
[top]Resources
  Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C. (2015) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in steel bridge
construction (6th Issue). (P185). SCI
 Guidance Note 8.05 High performance paint coatings
 Steel Buildings, 2003, The British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd.
 Chapter 12 – Corrosion Protection
[top]Further reading
 D.Deacon & R.Hudson (2012), Steel Designer’s Manual (7th Edition), Chapter 36 - Corrosion and
corrosion prevention, The Steel Construction Institute.
 D.A. Bayliss & D.H.Deacon (2002), Steelwork Corrosion Control (2nd edition), Spon Press.
[top]See also
 Corrosion of structural steel
 Influence of design on corrosion
 Surface preparation
 Standard corrosion protection systems for buildings
 Metallic coatings
 Appropriate specifications
 Inspection and quality control
[top]External links

 British Coatings Federation

 Paint Research Association
 ICATS
 Corrodere
[top]CPD

 Corrosion protection
Category:
 Corrosion protection

Surface preparation
Surface preparation is the essential first stage treatment of a steel substrate before the application of any
coating, and is generally accepted as being the most important factor affecting the total success of
a corrosion protection system.
The performance of a coating is significantly influenced by its ability to adhere properly to the substrate
material. Residual millscale on steel surfaces is an unsatisfactory base to apply modern, high performance
 protective coatings and is therefore removed by abrasive blast cleaning. Other surface contaminants on
the rolled steel surface, such as oil and grease are also undesirable and must be removed before the blast
cleaning process.
The surface preparation process not only cleans the steel, but also introduces a suitable profile to receive
the protective coating.

Automatic blast cleaning

Manual blast cleaning

Contents
[hide]

 1 Initial surface condition

 2 Methods of preparation and grades of cleanliness

o 2.1 Hand and power tool cleaning

o 2.2 Abrasive blast cleaning

o 2.3 Flame cleaning

o 2.4 Acid pickling

o 2.5 Removal of soluble iron corrosion products

  2.5.1 Wet abrasive blast cleaning

 2.5.2 Ultra-high pressure water jetting

 3 Surface profile and amplitude

 4 Surface dust

 5 Surface condition immediately before coating

 6 Additional surface treatments

 7 Site painting considerations

o 7.1 Site connections and splices

 7.1.1 Welded connections

 7.1.2 Bolted connections

o 7.2 Surfaces in contact with concrete

o 7.3 Damage during handling

o 7.4 Cleanliness at site

 8 References

 9 Resources

 10 Further reading

 11 See also

 12 CPD
[top]Initial surface condition
Structural steel elements in new structures are usually either hot rolled sections or fabricated plate girders.
The initial steel surfaces normally comply with rust grades A or B according to BS EN ISO 8501-1[1].
Material that is pitted, i.e. rust grades C or D, should be avoided if possible, since it is difficult to clean all
the corrosion products from the pits during surface preparation. Descriptions of rust grades A to D are as
follows
A - Steel surface largely covered with adhering mill scale, but little if any rust
B - Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which mill scale has begun to flake
C - Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be scraped, but with slight
pitting under normal vision
D - Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away and on which general pitting is visible under
normal vision
 Examples of rust grades

Hot rolled sections with millscale (Grade B)

[top]Methods of preparation and grades of cleanliness

Various methods and grades of cleanliness are presented in BS EN ISO 8501-1[1]. This standard
essentially refers to the surface appearance of the steel after hand cleaning, power tool cleaning, abrasive
blast cleaning or flame cleaning and gives descriptions with pictorial references of the grades of
cleanliness.
[top]Hand and power tool cleaning
Surface cleaning by hand tools such as scrapers and wire brushes is relatively ineffective in removing mill
scale or adherent rust. Power tools offer a slight improvement over manual methods and these methods
can be approximately 30% to 50% effective but are not usually utilised for new steelwork fabrications.
Where it is not possible to clean by abrasive blasting, hand and power tool methods may be the only
acceptable alternative methods.
Modern power tooling has been developed not only to achieve a good standard of surface cleanliness and
profile but also to provide near total containment of all dust and debris generated. New equipment is now
available to use percussive reciprocating needles, rotary abrasive coated flaps and right-angle grinders, all
within a vacuum shroud to enable on-site surface preparation to be environmentally acceptable.
The surface preparation by hand and power tools is covered by BS EN ISO 8504-3[2], and the standard
grades of cleanliness in accordance with BS EN ISO 8501-1[1] are:
 St. 2: Thorough hand and power tool cleaning
 St. 3: Very thorough hand and power tool cleaning

Hand wire brush

(Image courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

Rotary wire_brush

(Image courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

Rotary grinder
(Image courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)
 Needle gun

(Image courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

[top]Abrasive blast cleaning

Blast cleaned steel surface to Sa 2½ standard

By far the most significant and important method used for the thorough cleaning of mill-scaled and rusted
surfaces is abrasive blast cleaning. This method involves mechanical cleaning by the continuous impact
of abrasive particles at high velocities on to the steel surface either in a jet stream of compressed air or by
centrifugal impellers. The latter method requires large stationary equipment fitted with radial bladed
wheels onto which the abrasive is fed. As the wheels revolve at high speed, the abrasive is thrown onto
the steel surface, the force of impact being determined by the size of the wheels and their radial velocity.
Modern facilities of this type use several wheels, typically 4 to 8, configured to treat all the surfaces of
the steel being cleaned. The abrasives are recycled with separator screens to remove fine particles. This
process can be 100% efficient in the removal of mill scale and rust.
The standard grades of cleanliness for abrasive blast cleaning in accordance with BS EN ISO 8501-
1[1] are:
 Sa 1 – Light blast cleaning
 Sa 2 – Thorough blast cleaning
 Sa 2½ – Very thorough blast cleaning
 Sa 3 – Blast cleaning to visually clean steel

Specifications for bridge steelwork usually require either Sa 2½ or Sa 3 grades.

The cleaned surfaces should be compared with the appropriate reference photograph in the standard
according to the specification.
A very wide range of abrasives is available. These can be non-metallic (metal slags, aluminium oxide,
etc) and metallic (steel shot or grit, etc)
The particle size of the abrasive is also an important factor affecting the rate and efficiency of cleaning. In
general terms, fine grades are efficient in cleaning relatively new steelwork, whereas coarse grades may
be required for heavily corroded surfaces. The removal of rust from pitted steel is more easily effected by
fine grades and, depending upon the condition of the steel surface, a mixture of grades may be required
initially to break down and remove mill scale and clean in pitted areas.
Manual blast cleaning
(Video courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

[top]Flame cleaning
This method uses an oxy/gas flame that is passed over the steel surface. The sudden heating causes rust
scales to flake off as a result of differential expansion between the scales and the steel surface. All loose
rust can then be removed by scraping and wire brushing followed by dust removal. Flame cleaning is not
an economic method and may damage coatings on the reverse side of the surface being treated. Also the
technique is not very effective in removing all rust from steel, so it is rarely used.
[top]Acid pickling

This process involves immersing the steel in a bath of suitable inhibited acids that dissolve or remove the
millscale and rust but do not appreciably attack the exposed steel surface. The cleaning can be 100%
effective. Acid picking is normally only used for structural steel intended for hot-dip galvanizing.
[top]Removal of soluble iron corrosion products

Depending upon the condition of the steelwork prior to blast cleaning, there may be surface contaminants
present other than mill scale and rust. Initial steel surface conditions of Grades A to C are unlikely to be
affected, however Grade D condition (steelwork that is pitted) could contain contaminants within the pits
that may not be removed by the dry blast cleaning process. The testing for soluble iron corrosion products
is not usually required for new steelwork but is sometimes carried out on steelwork which has been stored
in an external environment for long periods of time and on existing structures undergoing maintenance
treatments.
[top]Wet abrasive blast cleaning
Wet abrasive blast cleaning

The introduction of water into an abrasive blast stream contributes to the reduction of the dust hazard,
particularly when removing old lead based paints and water-soluble contaminants. Several methods of
using water with abrasives have been developed. Conventional wet abrasive blast cleaning uses the same
pressures as for conventional dry blasting and similar equipment. The water is usually introduced
immediately behind the nozzle so that it is atomised and accelerated through the nozzle orifice along with
the air and abrasive. Water can also be introduced in controlled amounts at the base of the blast pot and is
then mixed with the air and abrasive as it passes along the blast hose.
A low pressure system exists in which water is injected into the air stream which then shrouds the
air/abrasive mixture and prevents dust escaping during the blasting operation. The air/water pressure at
the nozzle is relatively low; up to 7.0kgF/cm2 (100lbF/in2). Because of the low water to air ratio of the
system, fine particulates of abrasive can remain on the steel surface and need to be removed by water
washing. This method can produce a high visual standard of cleaning and is effective in removing a high
proportion of soluble salts.
Some wet abrasive processes use inhibitors in the water to prevent rusting of the cleaned surface. It is
important to establish whether any remaining traces of such inhibitors will be compatible with the paint
coating to be applied subsequently. Generally, where inhibitors are not used, any surface rusting after wet
abrasive blasting is usually removed by final light dry blast cleaning.
[top]Ultra-high pressure water jetting

Ultra high water pressure blasting

Ultra-high pressure water jetting over 1,700 bar (25,000psi) is gaining in popularity, partly because of its
ability to remove high percentages of soluble salts from the steel surface. It has the advantage of not
generating spent abrasive and not incurring the cost of abrasive disposal. Also, at the higher pressures,
lower volumes of water are used, and this makes disposal costs lower than with traditional water blasting
methods. Ultra-high pressure water jetting leaves a warm surface from which traces of residual water
quickly dry, but does not generate sufficient heat to cause thermal stress in the steel surface.
The removal of a high proportion of soluble salts from the steel surface is seen to be the major advantage
of ultra-high pressure water jetting. Rust and coatings are sheared and lifted from the surface relatively
easily compared with other blasting methods. Soluble salts are removed more effectively because
the steel profile generally remains unchanged.
Injecting small amounts of abrasive into the water stream can induce a rougher surface profile but can
also increase operating costs. The surface preparation by Ultra-high pressure water jetting is covered by
BS EN ISO 8501-4[3].
Ultra-high pressure water jetting is an extremely versatile and effective method of removing paint and
metal coatings, soluble salts and other contaminants from steel surfaces. It is environmentally friendly
and, although at present it is costly compared with traditional blast cleaning methods, it is considered to
be an emerging technology which will, in the near future, rival and possibly replace traditional
open abrasive blast cleaning methods.
UHP water jetting
(Video courtesy of Corrodere/MPI)

[top]Surface profile and amplitude

The type and size of the abrasive used in blast cleaning have a significant effect on the profile and
amplitude produced. In addition to the degree of cleanliness, surface preparation specifications should
also consider ‘roughness’ relative to the coating to be applied. High build paint coatings and thermally
sprayed metal coatings need a coarse angular surface profile to provide a mechanical key. This is
achieved by using grit abrasives. Shot abrasives are used for thin film paint coatings such as pre-
fabrication primers.
The difference between shot and grit abrasives and the corresponding surface profiles produced is
illustrated below in the three-dimensional diagrams obtained from noncontact surface characterisation
equipment.
 Shot abrasives

Grit abrasives

The surface treatment specification should describe the surface roughness required, usually as an
indication of the average amplitude achieved by the blast cleaning process. Several methods have been
developed to measure or assess the distance between the peaks and troughs of blast cleaned surfaces.
These have included comparator panels, special dial gauges, replica tapes and traversing stylus
equipment. Usually, comparators or replica tapes are used, and the relevant standards are BS EN ISO
8503-1[4] and BS EN ISO 8503-5[5] respectively.

Surface profile comparators

Replica tape method

[top]Surface dust
The blast cleaning operation produces large quantities of dust and debris that must be removed from the
abraded surface. Automatic plants are usually equipped with mechanical brushes and air blowers. Other
methods can utilise sweeping and vacuum cleaning. However, the effectiveness of these cleaning
operations may not be readily visible, and the presence of fine residual dust particles that could interfere
with coating adhesion can be checked for using a pressure sensitive tape pressed onto the blast
cleaned surface. The tape, along with any dust adhering to it, is then placed on a white background and
compared to a pictorial rating. This method is described in BS EN ISO 8502-3[6]. Although the standard
provides a method of checking for dust, there are no recommendations for acceptable levels.
[top]Surface condition immediately before coating
 After the preparation of the surface to an acceptable standard of cleanliness and profile, it is important
that the steelwork is not allowed to deteriorate. Re-rusting can occur very quickly in a damp environment
and unless the steel is maintained in a dry condition coating of the surface should proceed as soon as
possible. Any re-rusting of the surface should be considered as a contaminant and be removed by re-
blasting.
[top]Additional surface treatments
After abrasive blast cleaning, it is possible to examine for surface imperfections and surface alterations
caused during fabrication processes, e.g. welding. Certain surface imperfections introduced during the
original processing of the steel may not be detrimental to the performance of a coating in service,
particularly for structures in relatively low risk environment categories. However, depending upon the
specific requirements of the structure, it may be necessary to remove general surface imperfections on
welds and cut edges to produce an acceptable surface condition for painting.
Weldments on fabricated structural steelwork represent a relatively small but important part of the
structure and can produce variable surface profile and uneven surfaces or sharp projections that can cause
premature failure of the coating. Although welded areas are inspected, the requirements for weld quality
do not usually consider the requirements for coating. Welds must be continuous and free from pinholes,
sharp projections and excessive undercutting. Weld spatter and residual slags should also be removed.
 Examples of surface imperfections produced during welding (Images courtesy of Corrodere / MPI)


 


BS EN ISO 8501-3:2006[7] describes preparation grades of welds, cut edges and other areas,
on steel surfaces with imperfections to make the steel surfaces suitable for the application of coatings.
Three preparation grades are described, with illustrated examples of relevant imperfections, as:
 P1- Light Preparation
 P2 - Thorough Preparation
 P3 - Very Thorough Preparation

The selected preparation grade is correlated with the environment corrosivity category (C1 to C5 as
described in BS EN ISO 12944 Part 2[8]) as appropriate for the structure.
Sawn and flame-cut ends and edges need treatment to ensure that the coating adheres and is of sufficient
thickness.
Cross-section showing reduction in coating thickness at a corner

At outside arrises (i.e. the meeting between two surfaces) there is a potential problem when there is a
sharp (i.e. 90°) edge, because the fluid coating will not cover it properly (see right). Consequently, they
should be smoothed by grinding or filing. It is generally considered sufficient to smooth the corner to a
radius of about 2mm; chamfering to 45° is also effective, but it is difficult to avoid leaving some sharp
edges when attempting this with hand tools. It can be argued that with modern high-build coatings and the
use of stripe coats (an extra coat applied only locally), smoothing to a 1mm radius is adequate. Network
Rail specifies a minimum radius of 3mm and this is considered by some steelworkcontractors to be an
onerous requirement.
In addition to the requirement for smoothing arrises, the Highways England’s Specification for Highway
Works[9], specifies the application of one or more stripe coats for all external corners (and
for welds and fasteners, for a similar reason).
The corners of rolled sections generally do not require grinding, as they are usually smooth as a result of
the rolling process.
For the treatment of flame-cut surfaces, which are harder than the rolled surface, refer to Steel Bridge
Group Guidance Note GN 5.06.
[top]Site painting considerations
[top]Site connections and splices

Girder splices and connection details are often not given full protection in the shop, leaving the
connection zones to be made good on site. A frequent consequence is that these zones are the least well
prepared and protected, and are the first to show signs of breakdown. Hence, it is important to pay special
attention to the corrosion protection of these areas.
[top]Welded connections
At welded connections, the key factors in ensuring the effectiveness of the coating system are the
effectiveness of the protection before final coating. The areas local to welds are usually masked, to
prevent them being coated. The masking stays in place until the joint is welded; this is not an ideal form
of protection if there is prolonged exposure before welding.
After welding, it is essential that the joint surfaces, including the weld itself, are prepared to the specified
standard of cleanliness and profile. Because of the contamination that occurs from the welding flux,
particular attention needs to be paid to cleaning off all residues.
The surfaces of welds themselves should not need any grinding if they comply with the requirements of
BS EN 1011: Part 2[10] for smoothness and blending into the parent metal. However, rough profiles, badly
formed start-stops, sharp undercut and other defects such as adherent weld spatter should be removed by
careful grinding. Particular attention needs to be paid to the blast cleaned profile because weld metal is
harder and site blast cleaning is more difficult than shop blasting.
[top]Bolted connections
Preloaded bolted connections merit particular consideration, both of the surfaces that will remain exposed
and of those that will not (e.g. the faying surfaces). The friction surfaces are usually either unpainted
or metal sprayed without sealer. Hence, they need to be protected (usually by masking tape) until the parts
are finally bolted together.
Attention should be paid to the removal of any adhesive used on the protective films for the faying
surfaces, and to the removal of any lubricants used on the threads of bolts. Care should also be taken to
avoid contamination of surfaces during bolting up. For example, older air-power wrenches tend to
produce a fine oily or misty exhaust which may settle on the surface.
[top]Surfaces in contact with concrete

Surfaces in contact with concrete are usually, with the exception of a marginal strip at the edges of the
interface, blast cleaned bare steel. The marginal strip should be treated as an external surface, except that
only the shop coats need be applied. The width of the marginal strip should ideally be at least equal to the
required cover to the reinforcement, for the same exposure condition. A width of 50mm is common. Any
aluminium metal spray on surfaces in contact with concrete needs to receive at least one coat of paint to
prevent the reaction that may occur between concrete and aluminium. It is recommended that any shear
connectors on composite beams are positioned such that they (and their welds) do not lie within the
marginal strip; they should also be protected against overspray of the coating.
[top]Damage during handling

During handling, turning and assembly, damage to edges and to surfaces by the use of sharp-toothed
clamps must be avoided by taking precautionary measures, such as the use of lifting devices with soft
renewable contact surfaces or properly designed lifting cleats. If damage does occur, it must be carefully
blended out by grinding (and the full protective treatment restored, with specified overlaps between
coats).
[top]Cleanliness at site
Just as surface cleanliness before first coating is fundamental to performance of the system, so is the
cleanliness of painted surfaces prior to the application of subsequent coats. On site, thorough cleaning
shortly before painting is always necessary to remove contamination accumulated over time and
from construction activities including dust, grout leaks from concreting, and the products of blast
cleaning, bolting and welding.
[top]References

1. ↑ Jump up to:1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 BS EN ISO 8501-1: 2007, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and

related products. Visual assessment of surface cleanliness. Rust grades and preparation grades of

uncoated steel substrates and of substrates after overall removal of previous coatings, ISO

2. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 8504-3: 2001, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related

products. Surface preparation methods. Hand- and power-tool cleaning, BSI

3. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 8501-4: 2006, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products.

Visual assessment of surface cleanliness. Initial surface conditions, preparation grades and flash rust grades in

connection with high-pressure water jetting, ISO

4. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 8503-1: 2012, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products.

Surface roughness characteristics of blast cleaned steel substrates. Specifications and definitions for ISO surface

profile comparators for the assessment of abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces, BSI

5. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 8503-5: 2017, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products.

Surface roughness characteristics of blast cleaned steel substrates. Replica tape method for the determination of the

surface profile, BSI

6. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 8502-3: 2017, Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products.

Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness. Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure-

sensitive tape method), BSI

7. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 8501-3: 2007 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products --

Visual assessment of surface cleanliness - Part 3: Preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas with surface

imperfections. BSI

8. Jump up↑ BS EN ISO 12944-2: 1998, Paints and varnishes. Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint

systems. Classification of environments, BSI

9. Jump up↑ Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works: Volume 1 - Specification for Highway Works, Series

1900 Protection of steelwork against corrosion, August 2014, The Stationery Office

10. Jump up↑ BS EN 1011-2, 2001, Welding. Recommendations for welding of metallic materials. Arc welding of

ferritic steels. BSI