International Journal of Coal Geology 37 Ž1998.

179–206

Analytical variation in Australian coals related to

coal type and rank
)
R.P. Suggate
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, P.O. Box 30368, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

Received 18 June 1997; accepted 26 January 1998

Abstract

Analyses of Australian coals, ranging in age from Permian to Miocene, are reviewed
principally by using the van Krevelen diagram Žatomic OrC vs. HrC., but also by plotting
calorific value vs. volatile matter. Groups of coals of particular ages or from particular areas or
seams within coalfields plot in well-defined parts of the diagrams. Each group, however, covers
only part of the rank range from lignite to semi-anthracite. Accordingly, the New Zealand ŽNZ.
Coal Band, based on medium to high HrC Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic coals, is used as a
reference maturation path. The extremes of HrC in low-rank Australian coals are shown by the
particularly high HrC Jurassic Queensland coals and the low HrC Triassic Queensland ŽCallide.
coals. The majority of coals plot between these extremes. These include Cenozoic Victorian
lignites Žbrown coals. which, except for high HrC pale and light lithotypes, are similar to New
Zealand lignites. Vitrains from Australian Permian coals plot across the width of the NZ Coal
Band, and the range of Permian coals extends into much lower HrC parts of the van Krevelen
diagram. The spectrum of all coals is continuous throughout the extensive range of HrC.
Comparison with data on maceral group compositions shows close relations between HrC ratios
and the proportion of vitrinite, provided allowance is made for the counteracting effects of high
HrC liptinite and low HrC inertinite. In most coals, vitrinite is the dominant maceral group, and
the range of HrC ratios of vitrain samples from Permian coals shows that vitrinite composition
also must be significant in influencing the elemental composition of the heterogenous coal.
q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Australia; coal chemical properties; coal macerals; coal rank; coalification

)
Fax: q64-4-5704603.

0166-5162r98r$ - see front matter q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 6 - 5 1 6 2 Ž 9 8 . 0 0 0 0 7 - X
180 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

1. Introduction

Cook Ž1975., in a review of type and rank variations across the whole range of
Australian coals, noted that ‘‘Type can be assessed in terms of a variety of petrographic
analyses, maceral and lithotype analyses . . . being most commonly used.’’ He regarded
coal rank as ‘‘a measure of the maturity of coal . . . normally assessed in terms of some
property of the vitrinite maceral.’’ Analytical properties, which Cook Ž1975. did not
discuss, are comparably valuable in showing the effects of type and rank, and the
present paper is designed to demonstrate both this and type-dependent relations between
analyses and broad maceral group compositions.
At least, since Seyler Ž1900., coal geologists have depicted ‘coal bands’, showing the
distributions of analytical points for related groups of coals; commonly, coals of a small
age range within one country. These bands have been recognised as generalising the
metamorphic progress in the peat to meta-anthracite range, and so are analogous to
maturation paths for kerogens. Early coal bands used axes of C and H Že.g., Seyler,
1900; Ralston, 1915.. Later Že.g., Mott, 1948; Suggate, 1959., the need to calculate
analyses to a mineral-matter-free basis was generally accepted, especially since the study
of Parr Ž1928. of Illinois coal. Mott Ž1948. and Suggate Ž1959. also showed the coal
bands on axes of calorific value ŽCV. and volatile matter ŽVM., using formulas for
calculating CV and VM from the elemental analysis. The bands on C–H axes can be
transferred directly to atomic OrC–HrC Žvan Krevelen. axes, provided C and H have
been adjusted Žcf. Suggate, 1959. for mineral matter, organic sulphur and nitrogen.
The exceptionally wide range of coal types among Australian coals of all ages led to
the representation of a wide coal band for Australian coals ŽFig. 1A., originally
presented in terms of C, H and O by Parkin Ž1953.. It contrasts greatly with the medium
to high H New Zealand Coal Band ŽFig. 1B., which is slightly modified after translation
from C–H axes used by Suggate Ž1959.. In the following discussion, the NZ Coal Band,
which best represents the full rank range from peat to semi-anthracite, will be taken as a

Fig. 1. Coal bands. ŽA. All Australian coals, after Parkin Ž1953., who used a C, H, O diagram. ŽB. New
Zealand Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic coals, after Suggate Ž1959.. Approximate ranges of ASTM ranks:
lig s lignite; subssub-bituminous; hvbs high-volatile bituminous; mvbs medium-volatile bituminous; lvb
s low-volatile bituminous; sa ssemi-anthracite.
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 181

Table 1
Average maceral group contents in principal New Zealand coalfields wfrom data in Black Ž1980.x
Coalfield Vitrinite Exinite Inertinite Rank Age
Waikato 90 6 4 Sub-bit. Paleogene
Kawhia 92 7 1 Sub-bit. Paleogene
Taranaki a 87 9 4 Sub-bit. Neogene
Reefton 89 9 2 Sub-bit–Bit. Paleogene
Buller 93 5 2 Bit. Paleogene
Greymouth 87 11 4 Bit. Late Cret.
E. Otago 87 7 6 Sub-bit. Late Cret.–Pal.
Ohai 90 5 5 Sub-bit. Late Cret.
E. Southland 89 9 2 Lignite Pal.–Neogene
Average 89 8 3
a
Excluding two coals with exinite ) 25%.

reference band with which Australian coals are compared. In Table 1, the petrological
characteristics of the coals making up this band are generalised from the data of Black
Ž1980.. They have high vitrinite–huminite contents Ž87–93%., with liptinite–exinite
Ž5–11%., normally exceeding inertinite Ž1–6%.. 1

1.1. Criteria for adoption of analyses

Many of the Australian coals are high in ash, and some corrections to the published
analyses, to allow estimation of the analyses on a mineral-matter-free basis, are
essential. For this study, only coals with - 20% ash Ždry basis. are normally used. Even
among these, some of the analyses of higher ash coals are likely to be poorly corrected
by the use of standard formulas, some of which need more detailed ash analyses than are
routinely made. Appendix A discusses correction formulas, leading to the adoption of
the relatively simple formulas derived by Suggate Ž1959. for New Zealand coals.
Cross-checking of the ultimate analyses, proximate analyses and calorific values is
possible using formulas for calculating calorific value and volatile matter from the
ultimate Želemental. analyses ŽAppendix A.. Coals from some sets of coal measures,
however, have few or no ultimate analyses, and in order to provide better coverage of
the range of Australian coals, only VM and CV are used for these.

2. Permian coals of Eastern Australia

The analyses and petrographic data are principally from the comprehensive account
of the Permian coals of Eastern Australia by Harrington et al. Ž1989.. They are
supplemented for the Gunnedah Basin from Tadros Ž1993.. Some analyses presented on

1
The term ‘huminite’ in low-rank coals is broadly equivalent to ‘ vitrinite’ in high-rank coals. ‘Exinite’ has
been commonly used for liptinite in high-rank coals. Consistent usages in maceral and maceral group
terminology are not found among the data sources used, and the original usages are normally maintained.
182 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

microfiche in Harrington et al. Ž1989. cannot be used, as the figures for either the
proximate or ultimate analyses do not add-up to 100; for some of these, however, it is
possible to derive the correct moist-basis figures from the dry ash-free values. For coal
measure formations ŽCM. such as the Greta, Illawarra and Newcastle CM for which
many analyses are available, only those with ultimate analyses are normally used,
although a few sets of analyses with only CV and VM are also used for specific reasons.
For coals from other coal measure formations, for which few ultimate analyses are
given, more analytical points are shown using CV and VM than OrC and HrC.
Harrington et al. Ž1989. documented the sources of their analytical data. Almost all
the analyses used here are from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation ŽCSIRO. Location and Investigation Reports, with additional data for the
Bowen Basin from Geological Survey of Queensland ŽGSQ. records and for Gunnedah
Basin from Geological Survey of New South Wales ŽGSNSW. records. In addition,
analyses of Wingen coals ŽGunnedah Basin. were reproduced with permission from
Wancol–BHP Coalex. One group of analyses, of Bandanna Fm. ŽGalilee Basin. coals
recorded in Harrington et al. Ž1989. as coming from GSQ records, is rejected. Values of
dQ Žsee Appendix A. range from y3.5 to q0.7 MJrkg; values of dV range from y9
to q10% VM. Fig. 2 shows that dQ and dV are broadly related to the values of
hydrogen, the determinations of which must accordingly be considered questionable.
In the following account, comparison is made between coal analyses and the
petrographic data of Hunt Ž1989.. For individual coalfields or individual seams, Hunt

Fig. 2. Galilee Basin—differences between calculated and determined calorific value Ž dQ . and volatile matter
Ž dV . in relation to hydrogen. GSQ analyses in Harrington et al. Ž1989..
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 183

presented ternary diagrams representing vitriteq exinite, semifusiniteq fusinite and

other inertinite. Vitrite was stated to be ) 95% vitrinite, and in the text and summary
tables, Hunt uses only vitrinite, the term used in this account.

2.1. Vitrain samples

Analyses of Late Permian Sydney Basin coals from the Newcastle, Illawarra and
Wittingham coal measures include many of vitrains ŽFig. 3.. The vitrain samples were
separated from the seam samples by flotation, and are not pure vitrinites. Nevertheless,
apart from those from the lower seams in the Newcastle CM which have high vitrinite
contents ŽHunt, 1989., they have markedly higher H than the seams from which they
came. The vitrain samples plot essentially within the NZ Coal Band, and it is to be
expected that high vitrinite Australian coals would be closely similar. Accordingly, the
following review of analytical variations among coals from different basins, coal
measures and seams makes comparison between their vitrinite contents was reported by
Hunt Ž1989, tables 19-2 to 19-5. and their positions relative to the NZ Coal Band.

2.2. Early Permian coals

Analyses of coals from the Sydney Basin ŽGreta CM. are plotted on Fig. 4; and from
the Bowen Basin ŽCollinsville, CM and Reids Dome Beds., Gunnedah Basin ŽMaules
Creek Fm.., Blair Athol Basin and Ashford Basin on Fig. 5. Except for Greta and
Collinsville coals, few analyses are usable within the criteria set above. Nevertheless,
significant analytical variations related to coal type are shown in Fig. 5. Comparisons
between vitrinite content and position relative to the NZ Coal Band for Early Permian
coals are summarised in Table 2. High vitrinite coals clearly plot within the NZ Coal
Band, and low-vitrinite coals below it.

Fig. 3. Vitrains from Late Permian coals. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.
184 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 185

Fig. 5. Early Permian coals—various basins. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.

Among Greta coals, three coals plotting above the NZ Coal Band using both
OrC–HrC ŽFig. 4A. and CV–VM ŽFig. 4B. diagrams have 3.7%, 5.4% and 7.8% S;
only on Fig. 4A, two others, for which CV was not determined, are from AOG Loder
Dome-1, and have 3.6% and 4.1% S. The maximum S for the other plotted coals is
1.3%. It seems possible that early introduction of S into the peats may have influenced
the biochemical changes that are parts of the process of setting coal type Žcf. Suggate,
1995..
Hunt Ž1989. reported that ‘‘In the Greta Coal Measures at Muswellbrook, vitrinite
content increases up the sequence, and a low-vitrinite basal seam is sometimes present.’’
In 9 seams in drill-hole DDH2 at Muswellbrook ŽFig. 4B., the values of VM, and also
generally of CV, increase progressively upwards, apart from the highest seam. Increas-
ing vitrinite content, thus, appears to increase the volatile content and calorific value in
these coals which straddle the lower-VM limit of the NZ Coal Band. Ultimate analyses
are not available for these coals. Only 44 m separates the lowest and highest of these
seams, so that there is no significant coal rank difference to be taken into account.
The Greta coals in Balmoral DDHA 2 show the effects of weathering which has
penetrated over 12 m below the surface. The weathering track ŽFig. 4C. is broadly
consistent with those shown for New Zealand coals by Suggate Ž1959, fig. 30..
Within the Maules Creek Fm., three widely separated areas—Emerald Hill, Breeza
and Wingen—are separately distinguished on Fig. 5B. The DM Emerald Hill DDH 1
analyses come from the northeast of the Gunnedah Basin discussed by Hunt Ž1989,

Fig. 4. Early Permian coals—Greta Coal Measures ŽSydney Basin.. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.
ŽC. Balmoral DDHA2, showing effects of weathering.
186 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

Table 2
Permian coals—vitrinite contents and plotted positions with respect to N.Z. Coal Band wvitrinite content from
Hunt Ž1989.x
Coal Seam or Vitrinite Position with respect
measures area to NZ Coal Band
Early Permian
Collinsville Medium–high Within-below
Reids Domea Medium–high Within
Maules Creek Emerald Hill High Within
Blair Athol Low Below to far below
Ashforda Medium–high Below
Greta High-S seams High? Above
Lower seams at Muswellbrook LowŽ –medium?. Below
Other seams High Within

Late Permian — Sydney Basin

Newcastle Upper Low–medium Below
Lower High Within
Wittingham Bayswater and Farrels Ck Low–medium Below
Others High Within
Illawarra Bulli and Balgownie Low–medium Below
Wongawilli High Within
Lithgow Low Within-below
Tomago High Within-close below

Late Permian — other areas

Baralaba Medium–high Within-below
Rangal Medium Within-below
Rangal ŽKemmis Ck. a Low–medium Below
Fairhilla High Below
Moranbah Medium–high Within-below
German Creek a High Below
Black Jack Hoskissons Low–medium Below
Bandannaa Low–medium Within-below
Coorabina Low Far below
a
Fewer than 5 analyses.

p. 215.. Coals from the other areas plot notably differently on Fig. 5B, but were not
discussed by Hunt.
As well as Blair Athol analyses from Harrington et al. Ž1989., an additional analysis
ŽQueensland Coal Board, 1986. with slightly higher OrC ratio and lower CV is plotted
on Fig. 5.

2.3. Late Permian coals— Sydney basin

In Fig. 6, subdivisions of the coal measures follow the stratigraphic divisions of Hunt
Ž1989. based on petrographic characters. For the Illawarra CM, Hunt divided the seams
into the lowest ŽLithgow and Woonona seams., the lower overlying seams Žwhich
include Wongawilli seam. and the upper seams Žwhich include Bulli and Balgownie
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 187

Fig. 6. Late Permian coals—Sydney Basin. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes. Note that for clarity,
Tomago Coal Measures samples are shown on Fig. 7.

seams.. In the Wittingham CM, Hunt distinguished the Bayswater seam from other
seams; the Farrels Creek seam is here included with its correlative Bayswater seam.
Tomago CM are plotted on Fig. 7.
Vitrinite contents and positions relative to the NZ Coal band are summarised in Table
2. Only the Lithgow seam in the Illawarra CM might be expected from the analyses to
have had a higher vitrinite content. Its wide analytical range ŽFig. 6, inset. may indicate
that the seam is significantly variable laterally, and it is possible that the petrographic
study used only coals with low volatile contents.

2.4. Late Permian— other basins

Fig. 7 illustrates the analytical variations resulting from wide ranges of coal type and
coal rank in the Bowen Basin ŽBaralaba CM, Rangal CM, Fairhill Fm., Moranbah CM
and German Creek Fm.., Gunnedah Basin ŽBlack Jack Fm.., Galilee Basin ŽBandanna
Fm.. and Oaklands Basin ŽCoorabin CM.. Vitrinite content and analytical variation are
compared in Table 2. Apart from the Fairhill and German Creek formations, each with
fewer than 5 analyses, the groupings, with respect to the NZ Coal Band, are consistent
with the variations in vitrinite content. Coorabin coal has exceptionally low H and VM
values, consistent with its low vitrinite and high inertinite content ŽHunt, 1989, fig.
19-14A..

2.5. High, high–medium, medium–low and low Õitrinite Permian coals

The high vitrinite coal band on Fig. 8A is based on the analyses of vitrains and of
coals from those sets of coal measures or seams reported by Hunt Ž1989, tables 19-2 to
188 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

Fig. 7. Late Permian—various basins ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.

19-5. as having high vitrinite contents, apart from those for which fewer than 5
acceptable analyses are available. The group includes the Maules Creek CM ŽEmerald
Hill., Greta CM Žexcluding high sulphur seams and lower seams at Muswellbrook.,
Newcastle CM Žlower seams., Wittingham, CM Žexcluding Bayswater and Farrels Creek
seams., Illawarra CM ŽWongawilli seam. and Tomago CM. The medium–high vitrinite
coal band is based on Baralaba, Collinsville and Moranbah CM, and the low–medium
vitrinite coal band is based on analyses from Greta CM Žlower seams at Muswellbrook.,
Newcastle CM Župper seams., Wittingham CM ŽBayswater and Farrels Ck seams.,
Illawarra CM ŽBulli and Balgownie seams. and Black Jack Fm. ŽHoskissons seam..
A small number of low vitrinite coals were reported by Hunt Ž1989. from Blair Athol
ŽBig seam., Coorabin CM and Illawarra CM ŽLithgow seam.. Blair Athol coals ŽFig. 5.
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 189

Fig. 8. Permian coal bands—bands for high vitrinite, medium–high vitrinite and low–medium vitrinite coals
as compared with the NZ Coal Band. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.

plot in and below the low–medium band, but only some of the Lithgow seam samples
do so, others plotting in the likely lower-rank extension of the medium–high vitrinite
band. The Coorabin CM samples have low volatile contents at the low-volatile edge of
the low–medium vitrinite band. All these coals, particularly those from the Coorabin
CM, have low proportions of vitrinite, as low as 25% in Coorabin coals. Blair Athol coal
is reported by Queensland Coal Board Ž1986. to have 29% vitrinite, within the range
Ž25–70%. inferred from Hunt Ž1989. wFig. 19Ž4A. and textx.
Hunt Ž1989, figs. 19-4 to 19-14., together with text descriptionx regarded the maceral
compositions of the Permian coals as being best exemplified in terms of percentages of
vitriniteq exinite, semifusiniteq fusinite and other inertinite. He considered exinite to
be ‘‘only a minor component . . . Žabout 5% in the Late Permian.,’’ but gave some details
in the text for most sets of coal measures or specific seams. Figs. 9 and 10 show large
ranges in the proportions of the different maceral groups, especially vitriniteq exinite,
for coals from many sets of coal measures. Taken together with the sets of coals used for
Figs. 8–10 can be used to infer the average proportions of maceral groups in the high
vitrinite, medium–high vitrinite and low–medium vitrinite coal bands ŽTable 3..
190 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 191

The similar fields ŽFigs. 3 and 8. of vitrains and the high vitrinite coals are
presumably the result of the high H exinite compensating for the low H inertinite in the
coals. The widths and overlaps of the bands representing the three groups of coals reflect
the proportions of the main maceral groups and the tendency for the coal bands to
converge with increasing rank Žsee below..
Fairhill and German Creek coals were excluded in the construction of Fig. 8 because
few analyses conform to the adopted criteria. Hunt Ž1989, table 19-4. reported them to
have high vitrinite contents. He linked the Fairhill with the overlying Burngrove Fm.,
but an apparent conflict with low VM remains even if analyses with ) 20% ash in both
these formations are included; Hunt, however, noted that he had few data for these
formations. Most German Creek analyses also have VM and H lower than might have
been expected for high vitrinite coals.

2.6. Summary of Eastern Australian Permian coals

By examining the coal analyses in conjunction with the proportions of maceral

groups in individual coal measure formations or seams, the effects of increasing coal
rank on three groups of coals—high vitrinite, medium–high vitrinite and low–medium
vitrinite—can be demonstrated. Although their ranks range only through bituminous into
semi-anthracite, the partial coal bands are consistent with that derived from the much
larger rank range in New Zealand coals. Indeed, the Australian Permian high vitrinite
coal band is almost coincident with the NZ Coal Band, which is based on high vitrinite
Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic coals. The low H, low VM character of the Australian
low–medium vitrinite coal band generally results from the substitution of inertinite for
vitrinite, and even greater reduction of vitrinite is seen in the low vitrinite coals.

3. Triassic to Early Cretaceous coals

Data for Triassic to Early Cretaceous coals come principally from:

1. The volume on coal ŽTraves and King, 1975. in the A.I.M.M. series, ‘Economic
Geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea’;
2. ‘Queensland Coals’ ŽQueensland Coal Board, 1986.;
3. Parkin Ž1953. —Leigh Creek coalfield; and
4. Edwards et al. Ž1944. —Victorian Early Cretaceous coals.
Because many of the available analyses are of high ash coals, the A Ždry. limit has
been extended to 30%. Some, for which the dV andror dQ values are marginally
excessive Žsee Appendix A., have also been used. The contrasts between different sets
of coals are, however, so marked ŽFig. 11. that the resultant errors are not significant.
For Leigh Creek, one ultimate analysis with an unrealistically high C value is rejected,

Fig. 9. Ranges of macerals in Permian coals, Sydney Basin. Data from Hunt Ž1989, figs. 19-5, 19-11 to 19-13
and text..
192 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 193

Table 3
Estimated average proportions of macerals in Permian coal groups
Vitrinite Exinite Semifus.qfus. Other inertinite
High vitrinite 68 7 16 9
Medium–high vitrinite 60 5 25 12
Low–medium vitrinite 36 5 37 19

and of the proximate analyses, only ‘typical analyses’ rather than ‘weighted averages’
are used; ultimate and proximate analyses are of different coals and so cannot be
cross-checked.

3.1. Triassic coals

These range in rank from lignite in the Leigh Creek Coalfield ŽSouth Australia. to
high-volatile bituminous at Ipswich ŽQueensland.. The Callide ŽQueensland. coals have
exceptionally low HrC and VM; the Leigh Creek ŽSouth Australia. coals have low VM
and HrC; and Ipswich coals straddle the lower HrC, lower VM limit of the NZ Coal
Band. The average recorded maceral group contents are:
1. Callide: V 27 E 8 I 65 ŽQueensland Coal Board, 1986.;
2. Leigh Creek: V 44 E 10 I 46 ŽWilkins et al., 1992. ŽTable 1.; and
3. Ipswich: V 68 E 6 I 26 ŽQueensland Coal Board, 1986..
Exinite contents do not vary greatly, and the positions of these three groups relative
to the NZ Coal Band reflect the relative amounts of vitrinite and inertinite. Callide coal
is very similar to the Late Permian coal from the Coorabin CM ŽOaklands Basin,
Southern NSW. in both analytical character and petrographic composition.

3.2. Jurassic and Early Cretaceous coals

Western Australia and Queensland provide contrasting sets of Jurassic coals, the
former plotting within the NZ Coal Band, and the latter predominantly above it ŽFig.
11.. The average maceral group contents of coals from the Walloon CM listed by
Queensland Coal Board Ž1986. are V 84 E 10 I 5; those listed by Salehy Ž1986. are V
77, E 22, I 1. High exinite contents are consistent with the plotted positions of these
Jurassic coals, predominantly above the NZ Coal Band.
Early Cretaceous coals from both Victoria Žincluding offshore Gippsland Basin. and
Queensland form a compact group straddling the lower H, lower VM limit of the NZ
Coal Band ŽFig. 10.. Burgowan ŽQueensland. coal ŽBU on Fig. 11. has a maceral

Fig. 10. Ranges of macerals in Permian coals, various basins. Data from Hunt Ž1989, figs. 19-4 to 19-10,
19-14 and text.. Note that Cook Ž1975. ŽFig. 6. showed Bowen Basin coals, which include Collinsville Coal
Measures, as having a maximum of 78% vitrinite.
194 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

Fig. 11. Triassic to Early Cretaceous coals. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.

composition of V 89 E 0 I 9, and the absence of exinite, to balance the inertinite, keeps

the coal at a low-H position, with respect to the NZ Coal Band despite the high vitrinite.

3.3. Summary of Triassic to Early Cretaceous coals

The various groupings, into which these coals fall on both CV–VM and OrC–HrC
diagrams, generally support the inferences from Permian coals that the relative propor-
tions of the maceral groups are the principal influences on the general chemical
characters of the coals.
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 195

4. Cretaceous to Eocene coals—off-shore Gippsland basin

In the offshore Gippsland Basin, the coals are predominantly in the Late Cretaceous
to Eocene Latrobe Group, but some are in the Early Cretaceous Strzeleski Group.
Proximate analyses and calorific values of some of these coals, and of others from the
generally similar Taranaki Basin in New Zealand, were shown by Suggate Ž1974. to be
closely related to depth of burial and temperature; the Gippsland Basin analyses are used
in the following discussion. Smith and Cook Ž1984. showed coal petrography to vary
significantly in relation to depositional environment, and used reflectance to help in
understanding maturation history, but gave no coal analyses. Powell et al. Ž1991, table
5., in discussing the pyrolysis and petrographic analysis of Australian coals and
carbonaceous shales, provided OrC and HrC ratios for 16 samples from the basin, but
the TOC values show many to be carbonaceous shales rather than coals.
Many of the coals have particularly high sulphur contents, the highest being 9.1%
Ždry basis. in the Eocene coal in Barracouta-1. Adjustment of the values of VM and CV
for sulphur is made Žas described in Appendix A. as for New Zealand coals ŽSuggate,
1959., in which sulphur is predominantly organic. Organic sulphur is likely to be high
in, at least, those coals with low ash and high total sulphur contents, for example in
Barracouta-2 Ž2.9% A, 9.1% S. and Marlin-1 Ž2.2% A, 7.1% S.. An analysis of forms of
sulphur in the Barracouta-2 coal showed 96% organic sulphur. There are only 28
samples with both proximate analyses and calorific values; 5 with ash contents ) 20%
are not used on Fig. 12B.
Smith and Cook Ž1984. related coal petrographic variations primarily to ‘organic
matter type facies’, illustrating the distribution of these facies with respect to the
shoreline and continental slope. They also indicated a general relation to age, noting that
the ‘‘ variations are most readily demonstrated as a vertical succession . . . but some of
the vertical trends are probably also present as lateral facies changes.’’ The facies are, in
downward succession, Latrobe Valley, Upper Eastern View and Lower Eastern View.
Although Smith and Cook Ž1984. did not cite any of the wells from which coal analyses
are available, the ages and stratigraphic positions of most of the coal samples can be
gained from Griffith and Hodgson Ž1971, figs. 3 and 5., Threlfall et al. Ž1976, fig. 7. and
Bodard et al. Ž1986, figs. 4–9.. In assigning the samples to organic facies, a distinction
can be made with reasonable confidence between either the Lower Eastern View facies
or the Upper Eastern View and Latrobe Valley facies, and the analytical characters ŽFig.
12B. separate similarly. The two Early Cretaceous Strzeleski Group samples from
Perch-1 are similar to the Lower Eastern View Facies.
As a single group, the coals straddle the NZ Coal Band, and this is confirmed ŽFig.
12A. by the HrC–OrC relations of those samples of Powell et al. Ž1991. with TOC
values of ) 40%. Coals assigned to the Lower Eastern View facies, except for one
exceptionally high volatile coal from Marlin-1, are within or just below the lower
volatile half of the band, whereas the Latrobe Valley and Upper Eastern View facies
coals straddle the upper limit of the band. Smith and Cook Ž1984. ŽTable 4. gave mean
vitrinite contents Žmmf. of 74% for Lower Eastern View and 89% for Latrobe
Valley–Upper Eastern View facies. These contrasts are complemented by contrasts in
mean inertinite content of 17% to 2%; mean exinite contents are 6% and 8%.
196 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

Fig. 12. Upper Cretaceous–Eocene coals, off-shore Gippsland. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes; data Žsamples with
) 40% TOC. from Powell et al. Ž1991.. ŽB. CV–VM axes; data from Suggate Ž1974..

The proportions of maceral groups in the Latrobe Valley–Upper Eastern View coals
are almost the same as the averages of those in the NZ Coal Band ŽTable 1., yet they
have higher HrC values. This may result from the vitrinites having relatively high H,

Table 4
Average maceral compositions of lithotypes, Victorian brown coals wsummarised from George Ž1975.x
Lithotype Humodetrinite Liptinite Inertinite Minerals
qHumotelinite
qHumocollinite
YOC a MOC a YOC MOC YOC MOC YOC MOC
Pale 82.2 72.6 14.8 21.8 3.0 5.3 y 0.3
Light 89.6 87.3 7.7 8.8 2.7 3.7 y 0.2
Medium–light 92.4 89.6 5.3 7.3 1.9 3.1 0.4 y
Medium–dark 94.8 95.2 2.8 2.7 1.2 0.9 1.2 0.2
Dark 92.8 96.5 4.7 2.1 1.8 1.4 0.7 y
a
YOC—Yallourn Open Cut; MOC—Morwell Open Cut.
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 197

and the association of high H coals with very high S is similar to that already noted for
high S Permian Greta coals. Many of the Lower Eastern View and Strzeleski Group
coals have medium to high S, and high H vitrinite could be the reason for most of these
relatively high inertinite coals plotting within or close to the NZ Coal Band.

4.1. Summary of off-shore Gippsland basin coals

Despite the few analyses, the coals show contrasts that are consistent with contrasts
in maceral composition. As with Permian coals, vitrinite content is lower in the
lower-volatile coals, and inertinite is correspondingly higher; exinite is lower. An
association of high S with high H may result from high H vitrinites.

5. Eocene–Miocene Victorian brown coals

The broadest discussion of Victorian brown coals is by Edwards Ž1945., although

subsequent work has provided far more detailed data on many aspects of the chemistry,
lithotypes, petrography and utilization of the major deposits. Edwards Ž1945. figured
data from successive samples in several bores penetrating more than one seam, with
depths between top and bottom samples of up to 250 m. He demonstrated downward
increase of rank from increases in C, H and CV, and, taken as a group, these coals show
a considerable range of rank judged by the dry-basis analyses. As N and S together
rarely exceed 1%, and ash contents are normally very low, atomic OrC and HrC can be
calculated with adequate accuracy to show the increase of rank ŽFig. 13A. as a partial
coal band that is within, but rather narrower than, the NZ Coal Band. Without values of
VM, a corresponding CV–VM diagram cannot be constructed from the published data
of Edwards Ž1945., but a small group of analyses of brown coals from the Latrobe
Valley ŽGloe, 1975. and beyond the Latrobe Valley ŽKnight, 1975., shows a similar
distribution with respect to the NZ Coal Band on a CV–VM diagram ŽFig. 13C..
Chemical and other data on lithotypes in Latrobe Valley lignites have been sum-
marised by George Ž1975., enabling correlations to be made between lithotype and
maceral composition. Some detailed within-seam chemical variations in Narracan Bore
3372 were figured by Kiss Ž1982.. Analytical variations related to lithotypes are
illustrated in Fig. 13B and C, and the lithotype–maceral correlations are shown in Table
4. Also shown in Fig. 13B are three coal types with older designations—pollen coal,
earthy coal and lignitic coal—from Bacchus Marsh ŽEdwards, 1948., as well as four
other pollen coals and four vitrains ŽEdwards, 1947..
Fig. 13B and C show that in all the sequences, particularly in the Yallourn and
Morwell open cuts ŽGeorge, 1975., the pale and light lithotypes show far higher HrC
values than other lithotypes; so does pollen coal Žwith one exception.. Other lithotypes
plot within the lower HrC part of the NZ Coal Band, as do most of the samples and the
vitrains of Edwards Ž1945. ŽFig. 13A.. The general relation between the samples shown
in Fig. 13B and C, that of increasing HrC with decreasing OrC in coals of substantially
the same rank, is consistent with the relations demonstrated from C and H for New
198 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

Fig. 13. Victorian brown coals. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes; data for Maryvale bores 102, 155, 176 and 196, and Loy
Yang bores 93 and 100, from Edwards Ž1945. ŽFigs. 15–18.. ŽB. OrC–HrC axes; data for Morwell and
Yallourn open cuts from George Ž1975., for Narracan bore 3372 from Kiss Ž1982. and for other Victorian
brown coals from Edwards Ž1947, 1948.. ŽC. CV–VM axes; data from George Ž1975.; Kiss Ž1982.; Gloe
Ž1975.; and Knight Ž1975..

Zealand coals by Suggate Ž1959.. From Fig. 13B and C and Table 4, it can be inferred
that high liptinite results in high HrC, although the higher HrC in the pale lithotype at
Yallourn than at Morwell is not matched by higher liptinite. Dark, medium–dark and
medium–light lithotypes plotting in the lower H part of the NZ Coal Band average 4%
liptinite and 94% huminite macerals. Fusain is usually 1–2% in Victorian brown coals,
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 199

although a seam at Wensleydale contains 20–25% ŽEdwards, 1953.; the normal small
fusain percentage has little influence on the analyses. Cook Ž1975. noted ‘‘The Tertiary
coals, as a group, display a very restricted range of coal type. They are very similar to
Tertiary coals from New Zealand, New Guinea, Indonesia and Japan in their maceral
composition . . . ’’. Leaving aside the minor pale and light lithotypes in Victorian brown
coals, and numerous high H New Zealand coals that plot above the NZ Coal Band,
Cook’s generalisation applies also to the general chemical make-up of these coals as
illustrated on OrC–HrC Žvan Krevelen. axes.

5.1. Summary of Victorian brown coals

Taken as a group, these coals provide a partial coal band for low-rank coals.
Composed predominantly of huminite macerals, the precursors of vitrinites, this band
appropriately covers the lower H part of the NZ Coal Band. Pale and light lithotypes
plot within or above the higher H part of the NZ Coal Band. The light lithotypes, in
particular, have markedly greater proportions of liptinite.

6. Rank increase from lignite to semi-anthracite

The principal groups of Australian coals are presented on OrC–HrC Žvan Krevelen.
axes on Fig. 14A and on CV–VM axes on Fig. 14B; the full range of the coals shown
on Fig. 14A presents a substantial contrast with the generalisation of Parkin Ž1953. ŽFig.
1A., particularly in relation to the Permian coals. The best data are for the bituminous
and higher rank Permian coals and for the low-rank Victorian brown coals Žlignites..
Intermediate and overlapping in rank are Mesozoic coals from various onshore basins
and from the offshore Gippsland Basin. Enough petrographic data can be related to
analytical variations to allow the inference of trends of rank increase for separate groups
of coals, each group embracing coals of broadly similar vitrinite content, tempered by
the balance of exinite and inertinite.
In Permian coals, exinite contents are low and the variations in the proportions of
vitriniteq exinite Žas figured by Hunt, 1989. principally reflect the proportions of
relatively high H, high VM vitrinite and relatively low H, low VM inertinite. High
vitrinite coals ŽFig. 9A. have similar bulk elemental compositions to their vitrains, and
reflect the counteracting effects of small proportions of inertinite and exinite. The
resultant partial coal band is almost coincident with the NZ Coal Band, as shown in Fig.
9A. The dark, medium–dark and medium–light lithotypes that make up the bulk of
Victorian lignites have very high huminite and low liptinite contents. These coals
provide a partial coal band predominantly within the lower H part of the NZ Coal Band,
and the few vitrain analyses are consistent with this band. For comparison, New Zealand
lignites from Eastern Southland, on which the lowest-rank part of the NZ Coal Band is
based, average about 90% huminite and nearly 10% liptinite, and they have a corre-
spondingly greater HrC range than most Victorian lignites.
The high vitrinite Permian bituminous coals and vitrains and the high-huminite
Victorian brown coals are accepted as indicative of high-rank and low-rank parts of a
200 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

Fig. 14. Principal groups of Australian coals sunmmarised. ŽA. OrC–HrC axes. ŽB. CV–VM axes.
BA—Blair Athol; C—Callide; Co—Coorabin; EC—Early Cretaceous; I—Ipswich; JQ—Jurassic, Queens-
land; LC—Leigh Creek; OG—Off-shore Gippsland ŽOGLV—Latrobe Valley and Upper Eastern View facies;
OGL—Lower Eastern View Facies.; P—Permian Žexcluding BA and Co.; P and L—Victorian lignites Žpale
and light lithotypes.; VL—Victorian lignites.

coal band that are better represented by the NZ Coal Band, with their full range of coals
from lignite Žbrown coal. to semi-anthracite. Although this band embraces Permian
vitrains, these vitrains have HrC ratios generally higher than those of European
Carboniferous vitrains Žcf. Suggate, 1959, fig. 32; and the ‘band of vitrinite genesis’ of
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 201

van Krevelen, 1961, fig. 2.. The whole range of vitrains, thus, provides a wide
maturation path which embraces also the majority of all coals.
Three sets of coals straddle the higher H, higher VM limit of the NZ Coal
Band—Jurassic Queensland coals, Eocene Latrobe Valley facies coals in off-shore
Gippsland, and pale and light lithotypes in Victorian brown coals. Average maceral
group contents are:
Hum–Vit Lipt–Ex Inert
Jurassic, Queensland 84 10 5
Eocene, off-shore Gippsland 91 1 8
Pale–light lithoypes, Victoria 83 13 4
The low exinite content of the off-shore Gippsland coals makes their high VM
unexpected, unless their vitrinites are generally of a high H type.
Fig. 9 shows that low–medium vitrinite Permian coals have low HrC ratios and low
VM as compared with the NZ Coal band. In the lower rank part of the high-volatile
bituminous range, before the rapid losses of H and VM, the upper HrC limit for these
coals is close to the lower HrC limit of the NZ Coal Band. If the lower limit is extended
to lower ranks parallel to the NZ Coal Band, it would pass through the groups of Blair
Athol ŽFig. 5. and Leigh Creek ŽFig. 11. coals and above the Coorabin ŽFig. 7. and
Callide ŽFig. 11. coals; all these coals, especially Callide and Coorabin, have high
inertinite contents. Neither Victorian nor New Zealand lignites include coal types with
either comparable maceral contents or comparable low HrC and low VM. The depiction
of the NZ Coal Band on OrC–HrC Žvan Krevelen. and CV–VM diagrams provides a
reference maturation path for a broadly homogeneous set of coals ranging in rank from
peat to semi-anthracite. It represents, however, less than half of the full spectrum of coal
types, as shown by the HrC and VM ranges in Australian coals, and by its range of
maceral compositions.
A rapid decrease in H, with a corresponding rapid decrease in VM, marks the range
of increasing rank from the middle of the high-volatile bituminous range to low-volatile
bituminous ŽFig. 1B.. This is the result of the generation and expulsion of liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons resulting from progressive metamorphism of the coals. Although
different maceral types have different potentials for hydrocarbon generation, and the
rank range for this process may differ slightly between coals of different types, the end
results are similar—coals with ) 90% C and - 5% H—from which only gas is
generated with increasing metamorphism. The maturation paths of different coal types,
distinct at lower ranks, progressively merge and are not clearly distinguishable at ranks
higher than low–volatile bituminous. As the rank increases and O decreases, the
difficulty of accurately obtaining values for O becomes more critical. The usual method
is to assume that O s 100 y ŽC q H q N q S., although Cl and some other analytical
determinations, which are usually not available, are sometimes also taken into account.
Oxidation by weathering ŽFig. 4C. or in storage can also lead to an increase in O,
introducing uncertainty into the interpretation of the analyses. The effects of hydrated
clay minerals are more commonly allowed for Žsee Appendix A.. Small errors in the
estimation of O can lead to significant errors in OrC ratios, and these become
particularly significant as O decreases to very low values.
202 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

7. Conclusions

Sufficient analytical and petrographic data are available for Australian coals to allow
identification of partial maturation paths for restricted ranges of macerals or maceral
group combinations, using diagrams with axes of atomic OrC and HrC ratios Žvan
Krevelen diagram. and of CV and VM. The maturation path for Permian vitrains shows
a range in HrC ratios of about 0.1. Coals with a variety of combinations of macerals
can provide analyses that plot within this maturation path.
Although numerous sets of Australian coals plot in restricted areas of the van
Krevelen diagram, no set extends over a large-enough rank range to define a maturation
path from lignite to semi-anthracite. Such a rank range is, however, provided by the very
high vitrinite Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic New Zealand coals; and the NZ Coal Band
provides a reference maturation path with which to compare Australian coals. High
vitrinite Permian coals plot within the NZ Coal Band, medium–high vitrinite coals
straddle its lower HrC limit, and low–medium vitrinite coals have still lower HrC
values. Decreasing HrC through these groups of coals is consistent with increasing
inertinite replacing vitrinite. In contrast to Permian coals, Jurassic Queensland coals,
with about 10% exinite, have the highest HrC ratios, higher than those making up the
NZ Coal Band, although no higher than some New Zealand and Japanese coals.
Cenozoic Victorian lignites, apart from particular high HrC lithotypes, plot within the
NZ Coal Band.
Taken as a whole ŽFig. 14., Australian coals have such a large range of coal types, as
indicated by HrC ratios and maceral contents, that they may represent the full spectrum
of coals.

Acknowledgements

The encouragement of numerous colleagues in New Zealand and Australia is

gratefully acknowledged. In reviewing the manuscript, Dr. A.C. Cook provided numer-
ous useful detailed comments. Pat Bratton and Gael Cutress provided essential services
in the preparation of the manuscript and text figures.

Appendix A. Adjustment of analyses; checks on analyses

A.1. Adjustment for the difference between mineral-matter and ash, and for sulphur

Ward Ž1986., in a review of mineral-matter in Australian coals, demonstrated the

wide variety of mineral compositions. He cited KMC ŽKing et al., 1936. and Parr Ž1928.
correction formulas, noting that neither was fully satisfactory for Australian coals. In
both, the principal factor corrects for water in hydrated minerals: 1.13 ŽKMC., 1.08
 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 203

ŽParr.. The New Zealand formula ŽSuggate, 1959. uses 1.10. For sulphur correction, the
KMC formula requires forms of sulphur to be determined, whereas the Parr formula
assumes all sulphur is pyritic; the New Zealand formula assumes all sulphur is organic.
Almost all Australian coals have low sulphur contents, and the correction for sulphur is
of little significance. Organic sulphur appears to predominate in the high sulphur coals
identified in the discussion of the Greta, CM and off-shore Gippsland Basin.
The following formulas and methods, those derived for New Zealand coals by
Suggate Ž1959., are adopted:

CV Ž dmmsf. s 100 Ž Bturlby Ž 40)S. . r Ž 100 y Ž 1.1)A . y S .

s 100 Ž MJrkgy Ž 0.09)S . . r Ž 100 y Ž 1.1)A . y S .
VM Ž dmmsf. s 100 Ž VM y Ž 0.1)A . y S . r Ž 100 y Ž 1.1)A . y S . %

where Bturlb, MJrkg, S, A and VM are on the dry, not ash-free, basis.
For volatile matter, the empirical correction for sulphur is for coals dominated by
organic sulphur, and, when adjusted, the values are on the dry mineral-matter-and
sulphur-free Ždmmsf. basis. This correction for sulphur is retained for the Australian
coals, most of which are low in sulphur, so that a possibly more precise correction
would produce few significant differences.

C Ž dmmsnf. s 100)Cr Ž 100 y Ž 1.1)A . y N y S .

H Ž dmmsnf. s 100 Ž H y Ž 0.1)A . . r Ž 100 y Ž 1.1)A . y N y S .

where C, H, N, S, and A are on the dry, not ash-free, basis.

The adjustment for N, as well as S, gives the dry mineral-matter-sulphur-and
nitrogen-free Ždmmsnf. basis. Hence: OŽdmmsnf. s 100 y CŽdmmsnf. y HŽdmmsnf..
The dmmsnf basis for C, H and O allows direct derivation of atomic OrC and HrC
ratios for use on the van Krevelen diagram. Particularly important is the correction to H
that has been made Žabove.. This is rarely made in any form when using the van
Krevelen diagram to depict coals.

OrC Ž atomic. s 0.75)O Ž dmmsnf. rC Ž dmmsnf.

HrC Ž atomic. s 12)H Ž dmmsnf. rC Ž dmmsnf.

The factors 1.1 and 0.1 applied to the ash values are used to correct for moisture
derived from hydrated clay minerals in the mineral matter. When these factors are
applied to the highest rank Australian coals of low-volatile bituminous and semi-anthra-
cite ranks, the adjusted values of VM and O become minimal or zero. This is presumed
to arise because of temperature-derived changes in clay minerals. Kisch Ž1968., in a
study of the mineralogy of shales associated with Bowen Basin coal seams, noted the
final replacement of kaolinite by chlorite and illite between 16–17% VM and 12–15%
VM. Accordingly, these factors are phased-out over the ranges, 25–10% VM and 5–4%
H, except that, because of the low values of H in some Australian coals, this phasing-out
is confined to coals with ) 86% C.
204 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206

A.2. Checking analyses

Formulas for calculating values of CVdaf and VMdaf—Q and V, respectively—were

derived for New Zealand coals by Suggate Ž1959.:
Q s 195)Cq 536)Hq 40)S y 45.6) Ž 100 y N y S . Bturlb
s 0.45)C q 1.25)H q 0.09)S y 45.6) Ž 100 y N y S . MJrkg
V s Ž 1110) Ž H y 0.125)C. r Ž 100 y N y S. q 93. Ž Ž 100 y S. r100. q S
The value of dQ—difference between calculated and determined values—is the
principal measure of whether the analyses are mutually consistent, and so are acceptable.
A histogram of dQ for Eastern Australian Permian coals ŽFig. 15. shows the values of
dQ to be perhaps - 50 Bturlb Ž- 0.12 MJrkg. more than expected. Adoption of the
limits of "250 Bturlb Ž"0.58 MJrkg., as used for New Zealand coals, has led to very
few exclusions among all the Australian coals. The VM formula was specifically
restricted to coals with ) 5% H and - 80% C, and is not appropriate for many
low-hydrogen Australian coals. Using limits of "5% for dV, compared with "3.6% for
New Zealand coals, has led to very few rejections.

Fig. 15. Histogram of dQ for Permian coals.

 R.P. Suggater International Journal of Coal Geology 37 (1998) 179–206 205

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