Beruflich Dokumente
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Mapping floods in the middle Zambezi Basin using earth observation and
hydrological modeling techniques
T. Nharo∗, H. Makurira, W. Gumindoga
University of Zimbabwe, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Box MP 167, Mt. Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
Keywords: The Lower Middle Zambezi catchment, on the Zimbabwean side, is vulnerable to floods almost every year. In this
Binary logistic regression work, the causes and impacts of floods in the Mbire District of the Middle Zambezi Basin are investigated. An
Inundated areas algorithm based on the binary logistic regression is used together with MODIS NDVI images to determine the
MODIS spatial and temporal variation of flood inundation. The HEC-HMS model is used to simulate rainfall time series
NDVI
at daily time step. The quantified peak flow is given as an input to a mono-dimensional hydraulic model, HEC-
Geomorphic
Hydraulic model
RAS. Results from the mapped inundated areas for the period 2005 to 2015 showed that 16 January 2006 had
the highest flooded area of 1934 km2. Factors explaining causes of flooding were distance from surface water
bodies. The simulated flooded areas obtained are used to deepen our understanding of the contribution of
geomorphic features towards flooding as well as the extent of flooding. Results obtained contribute towards
defining new strategies for prompt flood risk management in the District.
1. Introduction dry spells though the rainfall variability had not changed. Another
study by Gumindoga et al. (2016) estimated runoff from ungauged
Understanding the spatial and temporal dynamics of floods is im- catchments and reservoir operation in the Zambezi Basin. The study
portant for disaster risk management and water resources management. included the main rivers Musengezi, Kadzi (Angwa) and Manyame that
Sustainable Development Goal number 13, Climate Action, supports the flow through Mbire District into Cahora Bassa Dam, a reservoir
need for disaster risk reduction, early warning systems, adaptation to downstream of the Kariba Dam but upstream of the mouth of the
climate change and strengthened resilience (Gaffney et al., 2013). Zambezi to the Indian Ocean. The study estimated the runoff con-
The Zambezi and Chobe Rivers witnessed water level rises in 2010 tribution to the water balance of Cahora Bassa catchment and con-
which led to severe floods in the Caprivi region, while the Limpopo cluded that operation of the Cahora Bassa Dam was important in re-
Basin further south of the Zambezi Basin experienced devastating floods ducing flood events in the Mbire District using reservoir improved
with about 500 people killed and more than 2 million displaced water balance estimates. Besides the fact that reservoir operation is a
(Trambauer et al., 2014). The exposure of the SADC region to floods contributing factor towards flooding in the district, the current study
cannot be downplayed as extreme flooding and cyclone events have seeks to determine the spatial and temporal variation of flood in-
shown to be on the rise in the last few years (Bola et al., 2014). undated areas in the Mbire District using Remote Sensing Techniques
The Mbire District in the Zambezi Basin is also flood prone since the district experiences both artificial and natural flooding
(Muhonda et al., 2014). The problem in mitigating these floods is as- (Gumindoga et al., 2016). Developments in Geographic Information
sociated with the fact that it is not known to what extent environmental System (GIS) tools and advances in Remote Sensing technology have
factors contribute to floods as well as lack of data to inform flood improved the quick and fairly accurate assessments of flood events, real
mapping. Studies were conducted in the district with regards to these time monitoring and early warning systems for flood events. The
natural and artificial floods. A study by Bola et al. (2014) sought to Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) has vegeta-
understand the way communities in the Mbire District are impacted by tion indices calculated from its spectral bands which help in flood area
extreme weather events and how they cope with such events. The study delineation and global flood hazard mapping (Dottori et al., 2016).
analysed rainfall variability and coping strategies. The results showed Stochastic models have been applied in studying the relationship be-
that there has been an increase in flood events as well as frequency in tween land use changes and flooding (Sanyal and Lu, 2005).
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nharotendai2@gmail.com (T. Nharo).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2019.06.002
Received 21 February 2019; Received in revised form 26 June 2019; Accepted 27 June 2019
1474-7065/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: T. Nharo, H. Makurira and W. Gumindoga, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2019.06.002
T. Nharo, et al. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
In this study, three approaches were used: the binary logistic re- every 1–2 days hence all flood events can be tracked. A total of 39
gression involving regression analysis where the dependent variable is a MODIS NDVI flood images were downloaded from the MODIS Rapid
dummy variable (Coded 0, 1) (Gumindoga et al., 2011). Logistic re- Response System via the Internet (NASA.GOV, 2010). These were ac-
gression (LR) is a multivariate statistical analysis which has been used quired between December and March for each season according to
in mapping natural hazards. It is a simple analysis and its processing evidence of seasons that experienced floods acquired from the Zim-
time is quicker compared to machine learning techniques. LR assesses babwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) and Civil Protection Unit
how individual factors influence on the flood creation as well as cor- (CPU). The hydrological seasons are 2005-2006, 2008-2009, 2013-
relating among conditioning factors (Shafapour Tehrany et al., 2017). 2014 and 2014-2015.
The regression analysis was introduced by Daniel (1974) and used to Landcover maps were developed from, cloud free Landsat 8 OLI and
measure the probability of disasters in an area using formula to gen- TM images acquired from NASA free of charge from the online Landsat
erate conditioning factors. The technique can analyse the relationship archive via GloVis web link (http://glovis.usgs.gov/) for the hydro-
between binary dependent variables, with the scalar and nominal va- logical seasons. The images downloaded for each season were for
lues as the conditioning factors (Shirzadi et al., 2012). September of each year prior to floods. The digital elevation model
Hydrologic Engineering Center- Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC- (DEM) for the study area was used to derive the slope, river network
HMS), a conceptual semi distributed physically based model developed and vertical channel height for the model. The DEM image was ob-
for the rainfall runoff simulation processes with capabilities of model- tained using the Shuttle Radar Terrain Mission (SRTM) output available
ling a wide range of geographic expanses including flood hydrology and for 30 m resolution.
the 1D flow routing method HEC RAS were used. HEC RAS was chosen Daily rainfall data for the years 2004–2015 for the weather stations
due to its flexibility in computations. These approaches, laid the Kanyemba, Rukomechi, Karoi, Mushumbi, Guruve, Mvurwi, Mt Darwin
groundwork for the present research that tackles the problem of iden- and Muzarabani was collected from the Meteorological Office of
tifying factors within Mbire District, and similar catchments, affecting Zimbabwe. For representativeness in data, the weather stations used
flooding as well as the extent of flood prone areas, areas where in- fall within the valley. Daily streamflow data for the years 2004–2015
undation is most likely going to happen. The aim of this study is to fully for the catchments, Angwa, Lower Manyame and Musengezi (Angwa,
understand all factors that contribute to the floods and better equip the Mapomha, and C109 respectively) were made available by ZINWA.
local authorities with tools that help them in their planning.
3.2. Flood inundated area analysis
2. Study area and data
Using the readily available NDVI MODIS images, MODIS look up
2.1. Description of study area tables, water areas were selected as corresponding to: Red = 154,
Green 180–210, Blue < 200 reflectance values (NASA.GOV, 2010). The
Mbire District in Zimbabwe is located between 30.60° and 31.20° area inundated by water was calculated in a GIS environment. A total of
east and 15.60° and 16.40° south. The study area was selected because 68 Ground Control Points (GCPs) were used to validate the MODIS
it was an interesting study area for understanding community vulner- derived flooded areas. GIS participatory mapping was used to collect
ability to floods. The district has an estimated land area of 4700 km2 at the validation data between the 24th and the 25th of December 2015 in
an average elevation of 550 m above mean sea level (Dube et al., Chidodo, Mushumbi Pools, Chikafa and Masoka. In the Statistical
2014a,b). The main rivers within the district are Musengezi, Manyame, Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) analysis tests were carried out to
Kadzi, Angwa and Mwanzamutanda. measure the agreement of the ground control points and the MODIS
Mbire District (Fig. 1) lies in region IV which is one of the five derived flooded area.
natural agro-ecological regions in Zimbabwe, characterised by low
rainfall of approximately 650 mm/year (Muhonda et al., 2014). The
3.3. Assessing factors affecting flood magnitude
rainfall season starts in October to March but due to climate variability
the seasons have changed with rains starting late November to early
The DEM (http://glovis.usgs.gov/) was used to calculate flow di-
December or late January up to late March (Gumindoga et al., 2016).
rection, flow accumulation, network and catchment extraction. The
Mbire District lies on sedimentary geological foundations of lime and
flow accumulation data was used in defining watershed boundaries and
sandstone formations.
stream networks (Hengel et al., 2007). Using the stream network map, a
With four main rivers from upstream flowing through and dis-
distance computation was done assigning to each pixel the least dis-
charging into Zambezi River and Cahora Bassa, the district frequently
tance to the closest stream. Slope was calculated as a percentage with
experiences localised floods. One of the confirmed causes being back-
pixel size of 30 (Hengel et al., 2007).
flows from Cahora Bassa (Gumindoga et al., 2016). These floods come
Using QGIS, dams in and around the district were digitized and
about especially when the high dam levels coincide with large inflows
georeferenced. The Integrated Land and Water Information (ILWIS) was
from upstream contributions including the Manyame Catchment
used to calculate Euclidian distances. Distance from rivers was also
(Gumindoga et al., 2016).
calculated using the segment map of rivers obtained through DEM
Hydroprocessing. DEM terrain model was selected to compute the to-
3. Materials and methods
pographic position index (TPI) (Equation (1)), using the same SRTM
DEM.
3.1. Data acquisition and verification
Tpi< scale factor > = int ((dem focalmean (dem, annulus, irad, orad)
This study used readily available MODIS Normalized Difference
) +5 (1)
Vegetation Index (NDVI) flood images for mapping the areal extent of
water for flood events (inundation extent) in the district. The MODIS where scalefactor = outer radius in map units.
spatial resolution of band 1 and band 2 is 250 m at nadir and a radiance
between 620 and 670 nm (visible red) and 841–876 nm (near infrared) Irad = inner radius of annular in cells
respectively, hence the suitability of these bands in flood water map- Orad = outer radius of annular in cells
ping. In addition, their moderate spatial resolution of 250 m was con-
sidered appropriate in this study for mapping the large area of the The spatial analysis of the raw Landsat images was done in a GIS
district. Terra MODIS and Aqua MODIS view the entire Earth's surface environment. A sample set was created with six landcover classes
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namely, deciduous forest, bareland, water and marsh, floodplain and was carried out and significant (p < 0.05) factors and their days noted.
irrigation, shrubland and grassland. These six classes were picked based
1
on background understanding of the area under study. Supervised P=
1 + exp( 1 * (b0 + x1 × b1 + x2 × b2 + …. + xn × b n ))
(3)
classification was used to classify the images assuming that spectral
values of training pixels are statistically distributed according to a where b = the environmental constant.
multivariate normal probability density function (Gumindoga et al.,
2014b). To validate the classification output, a total of 207 ground x the factor map multiplied by the significant value (p < 0.05) of the
control points (GCPs) were collected in the study area using the Global factor
Position System (GPS) according to the landcover classes. In SPSS,
Cohen’ Kappa was calculated to confirm the measure of agreement The spatial logistic function was applied to each derived variable
between the ground control points and the classified output. map for each flood day in a GIS environment. Continuous probability
maps indicating the probability of flood occurring were developed with
3.3.1. Generation of water and non-water random points maximum likelihood having a probability of 1 and least likelihood of
In a GIS environment, and for each flood day, a total of 50 random flood occurrence having a probability of 0. The probability maps pro-
points representing flooded areas and 50 random points representing duced were reclassified into four flood hazard classes in accordance
non-flood areas were extracted from the MODIS data in order to gen- with the spatio-temporal variation as well as knowledge of study area
erate flood presence flood absence data. The flood presence and flood (Gumindoga et al., 2014a). Histograms of the probability maps classes
absence data was needed as input for the binary logistic regression were used to determine the value ranges of the four hazard classes that
where ‘1’ represented water pixels and ‘0’ represented non-water pixels are very low hazard, low hazard, high hazard and very high hazard.
(Shafapour Tehrany et al., 2017). The multivariate LR analysis was
carried out in SPSS software. The higher the value of a logistic coeffi- 3.4. Hydrologic modelling through HEC-HMS
cient the greater is the impact on the occurrence of flooding (Ayalew
and Yamagishi, 2005). 3.4.1. Model parameterization
The function (Equation (2)) in ILWIS was used to retrieve vertical HEC-HMS rainfall-runoff model was chosen for modelling the Mbire
channel height and other environmental variables including slope, the District watershed runoff. The soil map was obtained from the
Topographic Position Index (TPI), landcover, soil type, distance from Harmonized World Soil Database Classification (Food and Agriculture
dams and distance from rivers that were deemed as important to ex- Organization of the United Nations, 2006).
plain the probability of flooding. The parameters needed for the model, interception storage, surface
TPI = MapValue (TPI, Coordinate) (2) storage, infiltration rate, soil storage, tension zone storage and soil zone
percolation rate were estimated using land use, land cover and soil
information. Different parts in the catchment have different soil depths
3.3.2. Estimating probability of flooding and thus different capacity of holding water. The land use maps and the
Multi-collinearity test was done on the environmental covariates in hydrologic soil groups, the run off Curve Number (CN) map of the
SPSS to reduce redundancy in computations. Regression (Equation (3)) watershed was prepared. Classification of each sub basin into land use,
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land cover classes (water and marsh, floodplain and irrigation, shrub-
land, grass land, and deciduous forest) was carried out using satellite
imageries in ILWIS software. Data from historic events on stream flow
observations helped estimate the groundwater storage depths and sto-
rage coefficients. The soil percolation rate was based on the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil profile.
The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) unit hydrograph was used as
the method for transforming excess precipitation into surface runoff. It
is based on a fixed dimensionless single peaked unit hydrograph. SCS
suggests that the unit hydrograph peak and time to peak is related by
the following formula:
A
Qp = C ×
Tp (4)
where tr is the excess precipitation duration, tlag is the basin lag, the
difference between the centre of mass of rainfall excess and the peak of
the unit hydrograph. Fig. 2. Five study sub basins: Musengezi, Chewore Safari, Karoi, Lower
The lag time was specified then Tp solved and peak discharge from Manyame and Mvurwi.
equation (4).
0.385 bottom width, and shape and river length were obtained from the to-
11.9L3 pographic map. The output values were assessed to determine their
tc = 60
H (6) variation against the base output set and thus a measure of the sensi-
where L is the length of the longest watercourse, H is the elevation tivity. The model was calibrated for the identified sensitive parameters
difference between divide and outlet. Tlag is thus determined by the to improve the agreement between the simulated and observed data.
following formula: Again, the automated calibration procedure in HEC-HMS uses an
iterative method to minimize an objective function, such as sum of the
tlag = 0.6 tc (7) absolute residuals, sum of the squared residuals, peak-weighted root
mean square error. The model evaluation adopted for this study in-
The Muskingum method, X and K parameters of channel routing was
volved using the prediction of overall performance of the model was
used to generate discharge hydrograph at downstream point in channel.
assessed using Nash - Sutcliffe model efficiency (EFF) criterion (Nash
The K parameter is estimated as the interval between similar points on
and Sutcliffe, 1970).
the inflow and outflow hydrographs and X parameter is a constant
The EFF values can vary from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating a perfect fit
coefficient with values from 0 to 0.5 (Flemming and Scharffenberg,
of the data. According to common practice, simulation results are
2013).
considered to be good for values of EFF greater than or equal to 0.75,
The Specified-release method for reservoirs was chosen because of
while for values of EFF between 0.75 and 0.36 the simulation results are
its usefulness during calibration of the model and for observing releases
considered to be satisfactory (Motovilov et al., 1999).
from the reservoirs. For the storage, Elevation-Area-Outflow was se-
The Nash-Sutcliffe Index (Equation (8)) was used to determine the
lected and the elevation-area curves for each reservoir so that the sto-
goodness of fit of the simulated to the observed values. Hence providing
rage-volume relationship of the reservoir can be computed.
an evaluation of the model's predictive abilities.
In processing the meteorological data, delineation of boundary of
the river basin was done using elevation contours extracted from SRTM T
(Q0t Qmt) 2
t=1
data. The study basin was divided into five subbasins (Musengezi, E=1 T
(Q0t Qo)2 (8)
Chewore Safari, Karoi, Lower Manyame and Mvurwi) in order to ac- t=1
count for spatial variability of precipitation and runoff response char- where Qo = observed flow in m /s. 3
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T. Nharo, et al. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
3.5. Flood routing through HEC-RAS cutline was placed downstream of where the bottleneck of the channel
was expected.
The hydraulic model, HEC-RAS was used to outline the positions of The model is calibrated using the Manning's roughness coefficient
the waterway in places where bank overtopping is most likely to occur and data associated with the lower flowrate. The calibrated coefficients
after a certain threshold flood flow is exceeded. The model setup in are then used in the validation process using data associated with the
HEC-HMS was modified to cater for Lower Manyame Catchment only second, higher flowrate. The model was calibrated against the
because that is where the most significant floods occur as well as the Mannings roughness coefficient (n-value) using the measured water
data available in Lower Manyame was sufficient for the model simu- surface elevation data from the low flow case. An n-value was first
lations. estimated based on consultation with field observations, textbook
guidelines and Google Earth images.
3.5.1. Model extent and DEM selection Model validation provides an assessment of the model's ability to
The model geometry was developed displaying the areas significant accurately reproduce known results. This is performed by running the
for the flood hazard analysis and selecting the topographic dataset for model at the high flowrate with the calibrated n-values. The computed
the model development (Pappenberger et al., 2005). Since no previous water surface profile is compared to the measured profile and P and D
flood risk analysis for the region had been done, the model had to start are determined.
sufficiently upstream in order to deliver accurate results for Lower The validation of the HEC-RAS flood inundated areas was further
Manyame. The total length of the modelled reaches between the up and done using 39 GCPs collected in the field using GIS participatory
downstream end as well as the corresponding sub basins areas are mapping and GPS. This was done to confirm the flood areas mapped
shown in Table 1. using the MODIS NDVI images.
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T. Nharo, et al. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 2
Shows the different season against the days floods were mapped with the highest areas.
season Date Inundated area(km2) Place
Table 3
Probability of flood occurrence.
Date Variables B Sig. Equation
22/12/05 Distance_dams 0.000099 0.040 P= exp( 16.519 + 0.000099*DD) /( 1+exp( 16.519 + 0.000099* DD) )
Table 4
Average annual flows during calibration.
CATCHMENT(STATION) OUTFLOW (m3/year) OBSERVED (m3/year)
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The model performance was done during calibration for the three
catchments, Musengezi (C109), Lower Manyame (Mapomha), Angwa
(Angwa). Table 4 shows the average annual outflows recorded against
observed flows at the three stations.
Fig. 6 shows the hydrograph for the calibration period for Mu-
sengezi Catchment. The Nash-Sutcliffe (EFF) coefficient for Musengezi
Catchment was 0.34. These results confirmed the capability of the
model to simulate the catchment response.
Fig. 6 shows that the model responds to hydrological events but
largely under-estimates the discharge. The sensitivity analysis of run off
lag time calculated using the SCS method indicated a high sensitivity of
this parameter in the range of 0–20% showing that the catchment
discharge is sensitive to smaller lag time values.
Fig. 7. Angwa hydrograph for calibration period.
The Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient for Angwa Catchment was 0.63 the
hydrograph in Fig. 7. This is an acceptable statistic which confirms the
capability of the model to simulate the catchment response. Fig. 8
shows the model calibration for Lower Manyame whose RBIAS was
0.001%.
Validation for Musengezi Catchment had an improved EFF of 0.461
indicating a model performance that was acceptable (Fig. 9).
Validation results for Angwa Catchment (Fig. 10) a Nash-Sutcliffe
coefficient of 0.704 indicating an acceptable model performance.
5. Discussion
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T. Nharo, et al. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 5
Lateral flow width for RS 28702.51 and RS 25703.67.
Element Left OB RS 28702.51 Right OB Left OB RS 25703.67 Right OB
2
Flow Area (m ) 1409.37 125.84 136.32 187.17 143.55 1545.44
Area (m2) 1409.37 125.84 136.32 187.17 143.55 1545.44
Top Width (m) 534.2 58.91 152.32 168.28 55.41 522.93
Table 6 iii. The analysis have also found that HEC-HMS can be used to generate
Flood inundated areas in HEC-RAS. missing data and estimate flood from rainfall data providing critical
2008-2009 10 year 25 year 50 year 100 year information required by the HEC RAS model. Hence the derived
Season flood flood flood flood HEC-HMS model can be used as an effective tool to predict flood
levels and flowrates for design purposes.
Inundated Area 56.3 57.93 58.45 58.7 59.1
iv. The flood hazard analysis using HEC-RAS confirmed that distance
(km2)
from rivers helps explain flooding in the district. The 2008-2009
flood event covered an average width of 500 m on both banks and
district with a background knowledge that backflows from reservoir the simulated 100-year return flood had an average width of
operations upstream are a significant factor in flooding. The second 1000 m from the river channel. This shows that areas of settlements
approach was now exploring the extent of inundation using readily and agricultural fields within a kilometre from the river networks
available data. are exposed to a high level of flood related threat.
The probability of flooding is very high in and close to river net- v. For a flood magnitude exceeding 50 m3/s, settlements within 200 m
works in most places (more than 0.6). This can also be explained by a will be affected. The artificial channel was found to mark the be-
study by Dube et al. (2014a,b) on the potential of weight of evidence ginning of the zones with highest hazard. Lateral outflow of flood
modelling for gully erosion hazard assessment in Mbire District where runoff in the area of Mushumbi, Chikafa and parts of Chidodo is
environmental factors they used include stream power and distance likely as also predicted by the binary logistic model. Hydraulic
from river. These two factors were significantly correlated to gully modeling showed that 50 year and 100 year flood events will have a
erosion meaning the channel beds could be decreasing in depth con- devastating impact on the settlements in these areas.
tributing to flooding in areas within and close to rivers. Any develop-
ments in the district should not be close to the river network as these 7. Recommendations
areas are at risk of flooding. The HEC HMS model simulated fairly well
though some exaggeration of observed flows were seen and this was In view of the conclusions made in the study, the following are
explained by flash floods received in 2007-2008. Sensitivity analysis of recommendations suggested for the Mbire District.
the parameters in HEC-HMS showed that the model outputs are more
sensitive to CN compared to initial loss and lag time in the range of i. Development of a flood protection measure framework showing
0–20. Underestimating of the CN value caused more error on prediction practical solutions for the protection of the settlements and agri-
of discharge compared to overestimation of initial loss and lag time. cultural fields against 100 year flood.
The results show that the model was able to simulate the flood in- ii. Future studies in the area need to do an extensive soil analysis and
undated areas well since more than 75% of the ground control points track soil composition changes due to flooding depositions as well
fall within the HEC-RAS flooded area. as consider climate change.
It is evident that the floodplain inundated areas increase with iii. If the flood hazard condition is controlled by sufficient drainage
magnitude of flow within river networks confirming the high flood infrastructure, a flood emergency management strategy would be
hazard level for settlements and activities near river networks in the implemented for the settlements. The design should contain com-
district. munication strategies of the flood risk with the communities, a flash
A study in Iran's Halilrud basin, used HEC-RAS to map flood in- flood warning system as well as an emergency evacuation plan. The
undated area for a 1993 flood of magnitude of 3800 m3/s (Sarhadi emergency strategy should clearly show the areas that are to be
et al., 2012). The flood was declared a 1000 year return flood. In their evacuated when flooding is predicted as well as shelters in the
study, the area inundated was 73.15 km2 and a width of 496.6 m. closer area that are not exposed to flood hazard.
6. Conclusions Acknowledgements
Based on the findings of this study the following conclusions can be This work was supported by Waternet/Ecohydro Project 2016 ,
drawn: Harare, Zimbabwe.
i. The Mbire District is prone to repeated floods nearly every season. Appendix A. Supplementary data
Remote Sensing was used to calculate inundated areas of different
flood events. It can thus be concluded that remote sensing provides Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
a sound basis to analyse the flood extent areas required for opera- doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2019.06.002.
tional use in planning flood related emergency responses.
ii. Using geostatistical modeling and the inundated areas, areas of References
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