Stones, Bricks and

UNIT 1 STONES, BRICKS AND CLAY Clay Products

PRODUCTS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Stone
1.2.1 Uses of Stones
1.2.2 Classification of Stones
1.2.3 Characteristics of Good Building Stones
1.2.4 Tests of Stones
1.2.5 Quarrying of Stones
1.2.6 Natural Bed
1.2.7 Deterioration of Stone
1.2.8 Preservation of Stone Work
1.2.9 Dressing of Stones
1.3 Bricks
1.3.1 Classification and Characteristics of Bricks
1.3.2 Uses of Bricks
1.3.3 Brick Sizes
1.3.4 Brick Earth
1.3.5 Manufacturing of Bricks
1.3.6 Qualities of Good Bricks
1.3.7 Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks
1.4 Tiles
1.4.1 Classification of Tiles
1.4.2 Manufacture of Tiles
1.4.3 Properties of Good Tiles
1.4.4 Types of Tiles
1.5 Summary
1.6 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Stones, Bricks and clay products are inert materials used in building construction,
roads, dockyards, airfields etc. Stone is a natural material of construction and it is
in use since prehistoric days. Bricks are blocks of tempered day moulded to
suitable shape and sizes, used for most of the building works. Sometime bricks
are used as substitute for stone, where stone is not cheaply available. Tile is one
of the clay product used for roof covering and paving. The focus of this unit will
be on stone, bricks and tile and we will be studying their classification, uses,
characteristics, manufacturing and tests.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• classify rocks, bricks and tiles,
• describe uses of stones, bricks and tiles, 5
Engineering Materials • explain characteristics of good building stones, bricks and tiles,
• appreciate the importance of tests of stones and bricks, and
• distinguish between stone and brick as a material of construction.

1.2 STONE
Stone is a natural material of construction and is obtained from quarries. It has
been used for constructing different components of buildings like foundations,
walls, lintels, floors, roofs, bridges, weirs, dams etc.
Stones that are used for construction of structures are known as building stones.
1.2.1 Uses of Stones
Stones are extensively used for the following purposes :
(i) It is used as stones ballast for railway track, for road construction, for
preparing cement concrete required for foundations, flooring, hollow
and solid blocks, artificial stones and reinforced cement concrete.
(ii) It is used as a crushed stone (stone dust) as a substitute for sand.
(iii) It is used as blocks in the construction of buildings, lintels, arches,
walls, columns, abutments and piers of bridges, in weirs and in dams
etc.
(iv) It is used as blocks and slabs for face work of buildings requiring
architectural treatments.
(v) It is used as thin slabs for roofing and for flooring buildings and
pavements.
(vi) It is used as lime stone in the manufacture of lime, cement and in
various other chemical processes.
(vii) Thin slabs of impervious stones are used for laying Damp Proof
Course in buildings.
(viii) Base material for water and sewage filters, in case of water works and
sewage treatment plants.
(ix) Stone may be used to give massive and pleasing appearance.
(x) Lime stone is also used as a flux in the blast furnaces.
Limitations in Uses of Stones
Stones are gradually losing their Universal use as a building material
because of following reasons :
(i) Important buildings these days are being constructed of steel or RCC,
because of their being less bulky, stronger and more durable.
(ii) Strength of structures made of stones cannot be so rationally analysed
as of those made with steel and RCC.
(iii) Suitable, durable and more easily workable alternatives materials are
now available.
(iv) Cast stone, sand faced rusticated bricks, furnace ware etc. can be
given architectural treatment more easily and have, therefore,
overshadowed the use of stones.
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 (v) Stones are not cheaply and conveniently available in the plains. Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
(vi) Bringing the stone to required shape and size is time-consuming and
results in slow pace of construction.
1.2.2 Classification of Stones
Stones are obtained from rocks. A rock forms portion of earth’s crust having no
definite shape or chemical composition. It is usually a mixture of two or more
minerals and is not homogeneous.
Rocks from which stones can be had for building purposes are classified in the
three different ways :
(i) Geologically
(ii) Physically
(iii) Chemically
Classification based on hardness of the stone are :
Geological Classification
This classification depends upon how the rock was originally formed.
Geologists classify rocks into three main categories:
Igneous Rocks
Inner layers of earth are at such high temperatures that masses of
silicates melt. This molten mass, known as magma, is forced up.
Magma solidifies into rocks when it reaches the surface of earth and
forms basalts and traps. If, however, the magma solidifies before
reaching the surface of earth it forms solid crystalline rock known as
Granite. Basalt, Trap and Granite are Igneous rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
Surface of earth is subjected to the destructive action of rain, frost,
winds and chemical actions. These destructive agents break up the
surface of earth which gets further broken up when carried down by
rains and rivers. In the journey of river from mountains to sea the
velocity goes on decreasing as the river moves further. Figure 1.1
shows the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Figure 1.1: Sedimentary Rock Formation

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
(i) Sedimentary rocks are often well stratified and show
well-defined bedding planes.
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Engineering Materials (ii) Sedimentary rocks can be split and cleared easily both in the
bedding direction and normal to the bedding planes giving
building blocks of fairly regular shape.
(iii) Properties of sedimentary rocks vary considerably depending
upon the nature of sediment and the type of bonding that exists
between the adjacent sediment grains.
(iv) Sand stone formed by consolidation of sand deposits consist
primarily of small rounded grains of silica. The sand stone will
be relatively soft or hard depending upon the nature of binding
material.
Metamorphic Rocks
Due to structural changes in earth, igneous or sedimentary rocks find
their way deep in earth where they are subject to high temperature and
heavy pressure which cause changes in texture or in mineral
composition or in both resulting in the formation of new types of
rocks known as metamorphic rocks.
Following are some of the changes to “metamorphic rocks”.
Sl. Name of Original Rock Name of Metamorphic
No Rock
1. Granite (igneous rocks) Gneiss
2. Sand stone (sedimentary rock ) Quartzite
3. Lime stone (sedimentary rock) Marble
4. Shale (sedimentary rock) Slate

Physical Classification of Rocks

This classification depends upon the structure of rock. Physically rocks are
classified in three types :
(i) Stratified rocks,
(ii) Unstratified rocks, and
(iii) Foliated or laminated rocks.
Stratified Rocks
These rocks show distinct layers along which it can be easily split into
thin slabs. Slate, sand stone and lime stone belong to this category.
Unstratified Rocks
These rocks do not show any sign of stratification and cannot be
easily split into thin layers. Granite, Basalt and Trap belong to this
category.
Foliated or Laminated Rocks
These rocks comprise of thin laminations. They can be split in
definite direction and size. Metamorphic rocks come under this
category.
Chemical Classification of Rocks

8
 This classification depends upon the chief constituent mineral of the rock. Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
Chemically, rocks are classified into three categories :
(i) Agrillaceous Rocks
The chief constituent of agrillaceous rocks is clay (Alumina, Al2O3).
Slate and laterite belong to this category.
(ii) Silicious Rocks
The chief constituent of silicious rocks is sand (Silica, SiO2).
Quartzite and Granite come under this category.
(iii) Calcareous Rock
The chief constituent of calcareous rocks is lime. Lime stone and
marble stone belong to this category.
Classification Based on Hardness of the Stone
According to this classification stone may be classified as
(i) very hard ,
(ii) hard,
(iii) medium, and
(iv) soft.
Very Hard Rocks
Granite, trap, taconite are the very hard varieties of rocks.
Hard Rocks
Granite, basalt, trap, gravel, quartzite are the hard varieties of rocks.
Medium Rocks
Dolomite and lime stone are the medium varieties.
Soft Rocks
Talc, gypsum, sand stone, slate etc. are the soft varieties of stones.
1.2.3 Characteristics of Good Building Stones
A good building stone should essentially have the following qualities:
(i) Appearance
This property is of extreme importance for face work of buildings.
Also, from architectural point of view, colour of the stone should be
such as to go well with the surroundings. Stones should be of uniform
colour and free from clay holes, bands or spots of colour whatsoever.
(ii) General Structure
It should show uniformity of texture. It must be either crystalline in
structure or homogeneous and close-grained. It should be free from
cavities, cracks or patches of soft or loose material.
(iii) Heaviness
Heavier varieties of stones are more compact, less porous and have
greater specific gravities. Heavier varieties of stones are preferred for
constructions in water like weirs, barrages, dams, docks, harbours and 9
Engineering Materials retaining walls. Lighter varieties of stones are used for construction of
domes and roof coverings and similar other usages.
(iv) Strength
The stones used should be quite strong to withstand the forces likely
to be encountered yet in case of construction where unusually bigger
forces are likely to come the stone to be used should be tested for its
strength.
(v) Hardness
It is the resistance of stone to abrasive forces caused by much wear
and friction as in floors, pavements and aprons of bridges and weirs in
rivers. Stones to be used at such places should be hard.
(vi) Toughness
It is a measure of the impact that a stone can withstand. Stones used at
places subjected to vibrations of machinery and to moving loads
should be tough.
(vii) Ease of Working
The ease with which the stone can be worked upon, i.e. cut, dressed,
carved and mounded etc. is an important consideration from economy
point of view. The ease of working is opposed to strength, durability
and hardness.
(viii) Porosity
More porous building stones are unsuitable for use in construction
especially for exposed surfaces of structures. These stones should be
used at places where they are not likely to encounter frost, rain or
moisture in any other form.
(ix) Seasoning
All freshly quarried stones contain a certain amount of moisture
known as quarry sap, which makes them soft and easier to work upon.
Dressing, carving and moulding etc., should be done as early after
quarrying as possible. The stones should be left for seasoning after
quarrying when all the work has been done. Stones become
considerably harder on seasoning.
(x) Weathering
It is the extent to which the face of a stone resists the action of
weather. Stones with good weathering properties only should be used
in the construction of important buildings.
(xi) Resistance of Fire
To be fire resistant stones should be free from calcium carbonate and
oxide of iron and be not composed of minerals with differing
co-efficients of thermal expansion.
(xii) Fineness of Grains
Fine grained stones are considered most suitable for carving and
moulding works. Stones having non crystalline or amorphous texture
are liable to be easily disintegrated. A good building stone should
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 have crystalline structure, because such stones are generally durable Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
and strong.
(xiii) Compactness
Compact stones are generally more durable. The stones found at
larger depths under earth are considered the best stones, as they have
been subjected to a larger pressure of earth above them.
(xiv) Durability
A good building stone should be durable. The durability of stone
depends on its chemical composition, physical structure, homogeneity
and closeness of grains and type of cementing material. Location of
the stone in the structure also affects durability.
(xv) Presence of Wear
Resistance to wear is measured by attrition test. Good stone should
not show wear of more than 3%. This property is useful for the stone
to be used as road aggregate and railway ballast.
1.2.4 Tests of Stones
Building stones are required to be tested for their different properties before they
may be recommended for any specific use. Following are the tests which can be
carried out on stones :
(i) Smith’s test
(ii) Freezing and thawing test
(iii) Water absorption test
(iv) Frost action test
(v) Impact test
(vi) Attrition test
(vii) Crushing strength test
(viii) Hardness test
(ix) Acid test
(x) Microscopic examination
(xi) Crystallization test
You may go through any book on building material listed in the section “Further
Readings” for details of these tests.
1.2.5 Quarrying of Stones
The site from where stones are excavated is known as quarry or quarry site. The
process of taking out stones of various sizes from quarry is known as quarrying of
stones. Purpose of quarrying is to obtain stones for masonry or ballast in concrete
or road construction or railway track or for any other purpose.
Selection of Quarry Site
Selection of site for quarrying of stones should be done very carefully. The
following points should be considered while making selection of site :
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(i) Distance of quarry from road, railways, etc. should not be very large.
Engineering Materials (ii) Sufficient stone should be assured from the site.
(iii) Availability of equipment, labour, power, water etc. also affect the
selection of site.
(iv) Quality of stone available from quarry should be good.
(v) Drainage from quarry should be easy.
(vi) Adequate facilities for transportation of stone should be available.
(vii) Geological formation of the site should be properly studied.
(viii) The site should be away from built up areas, in case blasting has to be
resorted to.
(ix) Site for the dumping of refuse should be easily available nearby.
Methods of Quarrying Stones
Depending upon the nature and structure of rocks and the purpose for which
stones are needed, quarrying is done by one of the following methods in
common use :
(i) Excavating or digging
(ii) Wedging
(iii) Heating
(iv) Use of channelling machine
(v) Blasting
Excavating or Digging
The method is employed when stones to be quarried are lying buried
in earth or under loose overburden. Tools like crow bars, pick-axes,
kassi, etc. are mainly required.
Wedging
This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rocks. In this
method, first of all naturally occurring cracks or fissures are located in
the rocks, to be excavated. The steel wedges or points are then driven
with the help of hammer, in such fissures or cracks and stones are
detached. The split out blocks of stone can be converted into
marketable forms and supplied to users.
This method is employed for the rock of sedimentary type, which are
comparatively soft, such as sand stone, lime stone, marble, slate and
laterite.
Heating
In this method of quarrying, fire wood is piled on the surface of the
stone to be excavated. The fire is burnt steadily for some time.
Heating of the stone causes upper layers of stone expand, in relation
to the lower layers. Due to unequal expansion, upper layers of rock
separate from the lower layers. Splitting of the rock is indicated by
dull bursting sound. The detached stones are then taken out of quarry
with the help of wedges and crow bars etc. The stones are suitably,
12 shaped with the help of hammers and marketed.
 This method is suitable where only smaller blocks of more or less Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
regular shape are required and suitable rocks bedded in horizontal
layers of not much thickness are to be quarried.
Blasting
Blasting is a method in which quarrying of stone is done with the help
of explosives first. This method is used when stone to be excavated is
of very hard variety and it has no cracks or fissures. Moreover, if
stone is to be excavated on very large scale, blasting method will have
to be adopted. No definite size blocks can be excavated by this
method. After blasting, the excavated stone is sorted out in different
sizes and categories.
Channelling Machine Method
This method of excavation or rocks is adopted when stone in definite
large sizes is required, and stone involved is of softer variety. Marble,
lime stone, and soft sand stones can be quarried by this method. In
this method a special machine channelling machine is used. It is such
a machine which can make vertical as well as oblique grooves in the
stone. This machine can cut out 5 to 8 cm wide and 2 to 4 m deep
grooves. A groove is cut around the stone block to be excavated with
the help of this machine. The stone block is then detached from the
bottom by drilling horizontal holes and then by wedging.
1.2.6 Natural Bed
The stone used in buildings is obtained from rocks. The rocks, particularly
sedimentary type have distinct planes of division along which stones can be easily
split. The plane alongwhich stones can be easily split is known as natural bed of
stone. In stone masonry work, stones should always be placed in such a manner
that the natural bed is at right angles to the pressure that the stone is to carry. In
other words, the position of the stone blocks in the walls should be same in which
they were originally deposited. This position gives maximum strength to the stone
work in the walls.
Stone in the walls should further be placed with layers at right angle to the face of
wall. This will offer greatest resistance to disintegration of the stone by frost and
other weather actions (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 : Natural Bed of Stone

In the case of arches, the bedding plane should be radial and at right angles to the
face of the arch. Such an arrangement causes the thrust of arch, act normal to the
direction of the natural bed.
In the case of cornices and strong courses, stones remain unsupported. In their
case, natural bed of the stone should be kept vertical.
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Engineering Materials 1.2.7 Deterioration of Stones
Deterioration of stones is caused by the chemical and physical changes brought
about by various agencies of weather. Following are the main climatic agencies
bringing about deterioration of stones.
Rain
Frequent wetting and drying of stones by rains and sun causes internal
stresses thereby resulting in the disintegration of stones causing its
deterioration.
Frost
At very cold places, frost on entering the pores of stones freezes and
consequent increase in volume resulted in its disintegration.
Wind
Dusty winds cause deterioration of stones because of the abrasive effect of
dust particles. Also wind force, rain water and frost enter the pores of stones
deeper resulting in deterioration of stone as explained above.
Atmospheric Impurities
Atmosphere, especially in big industrial towns, is generally polluted with
smoke and acidic gases. These react readily with stones containing
carbonate of lime resulting in their deterioration.
Nature of Binding Material Used
Binding materials used for laying stones sometimes are such that they react
chemically with any one of the constituents of stones, thereby causing the
stones to disintegrate. Such a combination should be avoided.
Vegetable Growth
Roots of trees that penetrate the joints of stone masonry keep stones damp
and secrete organic and acidic matters which cause deterioration of stones.
Temperature Variations
Stones should not be used at places where temperature variations are too
much or quite frequent. Stones, if used at these places, would crumble
because of the setting up of internal stresses.
Mutual Decay
If materials having different physical characteristics are used together then
they may cause mutual decay. For example, if sand stone were used under a
lime stone then the chemicals brought down from the lime stone by rain
water will cause decay of the sand stone.
Living Organism
There are some living organism which slowly act upon stones and cause
their disintegration. Lichens destroy lime stone, and worms or molluses
destroy all the stones except granite.
Water
Sea water, river water, or ground water may also cause deterioration of
stone. The water coming in contact with stone may dissolve some of the
mineral constituents of stone and cause their decay.

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1.2.8 Preservation of Stone Work
To increase the life of a stone structure, it should be cleaned with water or with Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
steam so that dirt and soluble salts are removed and threat of decay is reduced.
The following points, if given due consideration, will help to increase the life of a
stone structure particularly in the polluted atmosphere of big industrial towns.
Selection
It is suggested to initially use a durable compact and crystalline stone rather
than to depend upon preservatives later.
Seasoning
Use of seasoned stones after they had been cut and dressed immediately
after quarrying will increase the life of structure. Also, seasoned stones are
less liable to deterioration because of frost and acids.
Size
Bigger sized stones are more durable than the smaller ones.
Natural Bed
Care should be taken to place the stones in such a way that loads act at right
angles to the natural bed of stones used as otherwise the stone will flake off.
Also with the natural bed vertical, effect of rain and frost shall be more
detrimental.
Surface Finish
Well dressed, smoothly finished and polished surfaces are more durable
than the rough and rugged ones.
Workmanship
Good workmanship helps in the preservation of stone work. All joints
should be properly filled in leaving no hollows or cavities inside the
masonry.
External Rendering
Either the entire external surface should be plastered with cement sand
plaster or at least it should be properly pointed so as to stop rain water from
entering the joints.
Proper Maintenance
Maintenance of structure in neat condition is quite effective in preserving it.
To ensure this, it should be washed with water or with steam so that the dirt
and soluble salts are removed and the rate of decay is reduced.
Application of Preservative
The best way of preserving a stone is to eliminate the causes of its
deterioration as far as possible. A good preservative should possess
following properties :
(i) It should be economical, non-corrosive and harmless for health.
(ii) It should maintain its effectiveness for long time.
(iii) It should easily penetrate into the surface of stone.
(iv) It should be easy in applying on the surface of stone.
15
Engineering Materials (v) It should not develop objectionable colour and it should not allow
deep penetration of moisture into the stone.
(vi) Preservatives should be hard enough to withstand the effects of
atmospheric agencies.
Following are preservatives which may be used :
• Paint
• Linseed oil
• Coaltar
• Paraffin
• Alum and Soap
• Use of baryta or barium hydroxide
• Pointing and plastering
1.2.9 Dressing of Stones
Stone blocks, obtained from quarry, are in irregular size and shapes and cannot be
used as such in masonry work, without dressing. Dressing of stones is a process,
carried out with the help of hand tools, to give proper shape and surface to the
stone, before its use in masonry or in any other work. The dressing of the stones
is done for the following purposes :
(i) To get the good appearance of stone masonry.
(ii) To suit to the requirements of stone masonry.
(iii) To make transportation of stone easy and economical from the quarry.
(iv) To take the advantage of softness in dressing due to presence of
quarry sap in freshly quarried stones.
The degree of dressing of the stone, depends upon the type of masonry and the
type of stone available. Following are the varieties of finishes that can be
obtained by dressing of stones :
Tooled Finish
In this type of dressing, the surface of the stone is finished by means of a
chisel. This finishing has continuous parallel chisel marks throughout the
width and length of stone blocks. By using different chisels, different
pattern of finished surfaces can be obtained.
Punched Finish
In this type of finishing, the surface of the exposed face of the stone is
prepared by using punches. The full surface consists of uniformly
distributed punch mark on its surface.
Cut Stone Finishing
In this type of dressing, the surface is finished using very sharp chisel in
such a way that chisel marks can hardly be recognized. It is a sort of very
high class of finishing.
Furrowed Finish
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 The surface of the exposed face is finished by making a number of vertical Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
or horizontal grooves about 10mm wide. 2 cm wide margin is also made
around the edges of the exposed face.
Reticulative Finish
In this finishing, 2 cm wide margin chamfered at 45o is marked around the
edges and irregular depressions are developed on the enclosed space of the
exposed face.
Axed Finish
This finish is mostly given to the surfaces of hard stones such as granite.
This finish is given with the help of an axe.
Scabbling Finish
In this type of finish, the projections from the quarried stone blocks are
removed using scabbling hammer. It is also a sort of rough dressing of
stones.
Hammer Dressed Finish
This finish is slightly more finer than quarry and scabbling finishes. The
stones in this dressing are made roughly square or rectangular and 2 cm to
5 cm wide margin is made about the edges of the exposed face.
Vermiculated Finish
This finished surface appears just like worm eaten surface. It is more or less
similar to reticulated finish except that depressions in this surfacing are
more curved and good looking in appearance.
Quarry Faced Finish
Some of the stone blocks, as obtained from the quarry, can be used in
masonry work directly without any dressing at the site of work. The large
projections are knocked off from the stone blocks with the help of quarry
hammer, as soon as the stone is quarried. The faces of such stone blocks are
rough. The surface of such a stone is termed as self-faced, rock faced or
hammer faced or quarry faced.
Rubbed Finish
In this finishing, instead of finishing surface with the help of suitable chisel,
it is finished by rubbing the surface either with the help of hand or with
machine.
Polished Finish
The rubbed surface may be furthur improved in its appearance by polishing.
Polishing may be done using pumice stone, sand and water, or by rubbing
machine.
Chisel-draughted Margin
In this case, a uniform margin about 2 cm wide is draughted around the
stone with the help of chisel. Rest of the face may have any finishing.
SAQ 1
(a) What are the essential qualities of good building stone?
(b) Describe the methods of preservations of building stones. 17
Engineering Materials (c) Differentiate between stratified and unstratified rocks.
(d) Fill in the blanks :
(i) Main ingredient of silicious rocks is ___________
(ii) Clay is the main ingredient of ______________ rocks.
(iii) Geologically marble is called ________________.
(iv) Rocks having Alumina as their main constituent are called
______________.
(v) ______________ rocks are formed by the cooling of magma at
a great depth.
(vi) _______________rocks can be split along definite planes.
(vii) _______________ rocks are formed by gradual deposition.
(viii) _______________ rocks are formed by alteration of original
structure under heat and pressure.
(e) Choose the correct answers from amongst those given below :
(i) Natural bed of stone is always kept:
(a) Parallel to applied load
(b) At 90o to applied load
(c) At 45o to applied load
(d) None of above
(ii) For construction of heavy engineering works like piers, bridges,
dams, docks and harbours the best suited stone is:
(a) Granite
(b) Marble
(c) Slate
(d) Lime stone
(iii) For ornamental carved work the best suited stone is :
(a) Sand Stone
(b) Slate
(c) Lime Stone
(d) Marble
(iv) Stones should be dressed :
(a) Immediately after quarrying
(b) After seasoning
(c) Immediately before use in work
(d) None of these
(v) Hardest rock is
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 (a) Slate Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
(b) Marble
(c) Granite
(d) Sand stone

1.3 BRICKS
Brick is not only one of the oldest but also the most extensively used material of
construction. Popularity of bricks as a material of construction is because of their
local and cheap availability, strength, durability, reliability and insulating
property against heat and sound.
Brick is a regular sized rectangular unit, used for most of the building works.
Bricks are obtained by moulding plastic mass of suitably proportioned earth in
timber or steel moulds. Moulded bricks are first allowed to dry and then burnt in
kilns designed for the purpose. Bricks are always rectangular in shape and of such
proportion that the length is generally twice the width plus the thickness of mortar
joint. Thickness of the brick is less than or at the most equal to the width of the
brick. The size of the brick is such that it can be easily lifted and handled with
one hand. They do not require any lifting appliances. It is used as substitute for
stone, where stone is not available. Comparison of stone with brick as a material
of construction is given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 : Comparison of Stone with Bricks as a Material of Construction
Sl. Stone Brick
No.
1. It is a natural material. It is manufactured from clay.
2. It is heavier. It is lighter.
3. It costs much to dress it to required shape It can easily be moulded to any shape or size.
and size.
4. It is more costly except in hilly areas. Except in hilly areas, it can be locally
manufactured and is cheaper.
5. It is less porous and therefore better suited It is more porous and requires costly water
for construction of water retaining proofing treatment when used for constructing
structures. water retaining structures.
6. Because of more strength, it is better suited Reasonably good for normal loads.
for constructing structures carrying extra
heavy loads or subjected to heavy
pressures, e.g. harbour, dock and forts etc.
7. It is a better conductor of heat. It is a poorer conductor of heat.
8. It withstands attacks of weather better. It is good for normal conditions but needs
protection by way of plastering and pointing.
9. Superior qualities of stones are used for Good quality bricks are sometimes left
constructing monuments and for decoration. unplastered to achieve some Architectural
effect.

1.3.1 Classification and Characteristic of Bricks

I.S.I. Classification of Bricks

19
Engineering Materials The I.S.I. has classified the bricks into HI, HII, FI, FII, I, II, LI and LII
categories, primarily according to the compressive strength. Table 1.2 gives
the I.S.I. classification of bricks.
Table 1.2 : I.S.I. Classification of Bricks
Class of Minimum Minimum Efflorescence Tolerance Shape and other
Bricks Compressive Absorption in Properties
Strength in in Dimension
(kg/cm2) 24 hours (%)
(%) of Dry
Weight
HI 440 5 No ±3 Metallic sound,
smooth,
rectangular.
HII 440 5 No ±8 Slight deformation
in shape permitted.
FI 175 12 Very little ±3 Smooth,
rectangular,
metallic sound
when two bricks
strike.
FII 175 12 Very little ±8 Slight deformation
in shape permitted.
I 70 20 Very little ±3 Smooth,
rectangular,
metallic sound
when two bricks
strike.
II 70 20 Very little ±8 Slight deformation
in shape permitted.
LI 35 25 Very little ±3 Rectangular, sharp
edge, metallic
sound on striking
need not be
present.
LII 35 25 Little ±8 Slight deformation
in shape allowed.

In general, bricks may be classified into following five categories :

(i) First class bricks
(ii) Second class bricks
(iii) Third class bricks
(iv) Over burnt or Jhama bricks
(v) Under burnt or pilla bricks
First Class Bricks
The earth from which bricks have been made should be suitably
proportioned. It should be free from small pebbles, lime lumps, organic,
matter, and sodium salts.
A first class bricks should possess the following properties :
(i) Size of the burnt brick should be exactly 19 × 9 × 9cm.
20
 (ii) It should be well burnt Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
(iii) Its colour should be uniform yellow or red.
(iv) It should not absorb water more than 20% of its own dry weight after
24 hours of immersion.
(v) It should have a firm, compact, and uniform texture.
(vi) Its surface should be regular and sides parallel. Edges should be
sharp and at right angles to each other.
(vii) Its fractured surface should not show fissures and bubbles or lumps of
lime.
(viii) Its crushing strength should not be less than 105 kg/cm2.
(ix) Two first class bricks when struck with each other give a sharp
metallic ringing sound.
(x) It should not show any signs of efflorescence when bricks are dried
after soaking in water.
(xi) The brick should not break when it is dropped on a hard ground from
a height.
(xii) Its surface should be so hard that finger nails should not be able to
make any impression on its surface.
Second Class Bricks
Brick of this category should possess the following properties :
(i) The brick of this class should also be well burnt. They can even
slightly be over burnt.
(ii) Minimum crushing strength should be 70 kg/cm2.
(iii) They should not absorb water more than 22% of its own dry weight
after 24 hours of immersion in cold water.
(iv) Two second class bricks when struck with each other give a metallic
ringing sound.
(v) These bricks should not show appreciable signs of efflorescence
when soaked bricks are dried.
(vi) The shape, size and colour of the brick should be generally regular
and uniform. Slight distortion and surface cracks may however be
allowed.
(vii) Texture of these bricks should be uniform. Presence of small
pebbles may however be allowed. Presence of limestone and kanker
should not be allowed to occur.
Third Class Bricks
A third class brick should possess the following properties :
(i) These bricks are generally under burnt.
(ii) They are soft and light coloured.
(iii) They may suffer from intensive efflorescence.
(iv) They emit a dull sound when struck against each other. 21
Engineering Materials (v) It should not absorb water more than 25% of its own dry weight when
kept immersed in water for 24 hours.
(vi) Texture of above brick is not uniform and it may show lot of pebbles
on freshly fractured surface of the brick.
(vii) Size and shape of these bricks is not regular. But the irregularities
should not be so much that it may become difficult to have the course
of uniform thickness, in masonry work.
Over Burnt or Jhama Bricks
These are over burnt vitrified bricks. They are so distorted that they cannot
be used in construction works. They are used for making aggregate for lime
concrete for foundations and as a road metal in the construction of roads.
Under Burnt or Pilla Bricks
Under burnt bricks are known as pilla bricks. They are just half burnt and
have yellow colour. These bricks do not have any strength. These bricks
may be burnt by using them again in the kilns, or they can be ground to
powder form and used as surkhi.
1.3.2 Uses of Bricks
(i) First class bricks are used for following purposes :
(a) It is used for all sound work of a permanent character.
(b) It is used in the face work of structures not to be plastered but
only pointed.
(c) It is used in flooring and reinforced brick work.
(ii) Second class bricks are used for the following purposes :
(a) It is used in unimportant situations or at places where the
masonry is to be plastered.
(b) Used as brick ballast in R.C.C. work and in Lime concrete.
(iii) Third class bricks are used for the following purposes :
(a) These bricks are not used for important and permanent works.
(b) These bricks are used in temporary constructions not subjected
to heavy loads or heavy rains.
1.3.3 Brick Sizes
According to I.S.I., the size of the brick without the thickness of mortar joint is
19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm. The size with mortar joint becomes 20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm.
Hence, the effective size of brick is taken as 20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm. If thinner
bricks are required, their standard size is 19 cm × 9 cm × 4 cm and effective size
is 20 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm. The minimum compressive strength of the standard
bricks should be 35 kg/cm2.
1.3.4 Brick Earth
Composition

22
 A good brick earth mainly consists of silica (sand) and alumina (clay), Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
mixed in such a proportion that the resulting mass with water is a plastic
mass which could be easily moulded and dried without undergoing
shrinkage, cracking or warping. It should contain a little finely divided lime
which enables silica to melt at furnace heat and bind the particles of brick
together. It should also contain a small quantity of oxide of iron. It acts as a
flux like lime, and more over gives red colour to the bricks on burning.
Functions of Constituent
Silica or Sand
It is present in the earth either in free or combined form. As free sand,
it remains mechanically mixed with clay. In combined form, it exists
in chemical composition with alumina forming silicate of alumina.
The percentage of silica in a good brick earth should lie between 50 to
60%. Presence of silica prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of
raw bricks. Its excess amount destroys the cohesion between particles
and makes the bricks brittle and weak. Hence, durability of the bricks
depends largely on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth.
Alumina (Clay)
Alumina is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick
earth should contain between 20 to 30% of alumina. Alumina
provides plasticity to the earth, so that it can be moulded. If bricks
contain excess amount of alumina, and insufficient sand they shrink,
crack and warp on drying and burning.
Lime
When present in small quantities in finely divided state, it reduces
shrinkage of bricks and acts as a flux causing silica to melt. It results
in binding the particles of brick together resulting in greater strength
of brick. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and lose its shape.
Oxide of Iron
Small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of about 5 to 6 % is
considered desirable in good brick earth. In the presence of silica and
alumina, it helps the fusion of brick particles. Also it influences the
colour of bricks. It produces a tint varying from light yellow to red
depending upon the percentage of iron present in clay. Excess of it
makes the colour dark blue. It should not be present in the form of
iron pyrites.
Magnesia
A small proportion of it decreases the shrinkage and gives yellow tint
to the bricks. But larger amounts of magnesia cause bricks to decay.
Harmful Ingredients of Brick Earth
Some of the ingredients, if present in the brick earth, render the resulting
bricks unsuitable for any safe construction. These ingredients are :

Lime
If present in excess, it melts the brick particles as a result of which the
23
brick loses shape. Lime should also be not present in brick-earth in
Engineering Materials the form of limestone or kankar modules. On the burning of bricks,
these get converted to quicklime which expands on absorption of
moisture and causes the cracking and disintegration of bricks.
Iron Pyrites
Presence of iron pyrites in the brick earth causes crystallization and
disintegration during burning of the bricks. It is a common impurity
found in most of the clays. It causes discolouration of bricks in form
of black slag.
Pebbles of Stone and Grave
Their presence makes it difficult to mix the brick-earth thoroughly as
a result of which the bricks are not homogeneous. It gives weak and
porous bricks. Also such bricks cannot be readily cut or worked.
Alkalies
Their excessive presence in earth renders it unsuitable for bricks.
These act as flux causing the bricks to melt, twist and warp. Presence
of common salt in earth taken from seashores or from near salt
formations has similar effects to those narrated above and also make
the bricks hygroscopic, thereby causing efflorescence.
Presence of Reh or Kallar
These consists of sodium chloride, sodium carbonate and sodium
sulphate. The bricks cannot be properly burnt in the presence of
sodium sulphate. These elements re-crystallize after burning of the
bricks and deposit on the surface of masonry in form of whitish spots.
This causes pealing off the plaster and bricks and ultimately leads to
the failure of the structure. Presence of reh or kallar in the earth can
be detected inspecting freshly dug pits or by noticing the signs of
efflorescence.
Organic Matter
Presence of organic matter and vegetation in the brick earth render the
bricks porous. The porosity in bricks is the result of burning
carbonaceous matter present in the earth. In order to avoid the adverse
effect of the organic matter, the bricks should be well burnt.
1.3.5 Manufacturing of Bricks
The complete process of manufacturing the bricks can be broadly divided into
following heads :
(i) Preparation of brick earth or clay
(ii) Pugging or tempering of the clay
(iii) Moulding of bricks
(iv) Drying of bricks
(v) Burning of bricks
Each of these operations will now be discussed in detail.
Preparation of Brick Earth or Clay
Following are the various operations involved in preparing brick-earth.
24
 Digging Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
The top layer of soil about 20 cm thick which contains lot of
impurities is first of all removed as it is unsuitable for brick making.
After removing the top unsuitable soil, the clay is dug out either with
manual labour or with the help of power excavators. The excavated
lumps of soil are broken. The dug out soil is spread on the levelled
ground. Height of the heap of clay may vary from 60 cm to 120 cm. It
is ensured that the soil is free from gravel, coarse sand, lime and
kanker particles, vegetable matter etc.
Weathering
Excavated soil, after the clods have been broken, is mixed with a little
water and is left in heaps to weather for a period varying from a few
weeks to as long as it can be left. This improves its plasticity and
strength. Water may be sprayed on the heap from time to time to keep
the soil wet and heap turned over.
Blending
After weathering, the earth is chemically analysed and if there is any
deficiency of any ingredient it is spread on the heap of the weathered
earth and mixed with it with the help of phorah. The whole mass is
thoroughly mixed up and reasonable amount of water is added if
needed.
Pugging or Tempering of the Clay
Tempering or pugging the clay means, breaking up of prepared clay,
watering, and kneading till the earth becomes a homogeneous mass. Water
is added to clay in required quantity and the whole mass is kneaded under
the feet of men or cattle. But this method of tempering is outdated and not
used much these days.
Where good bricks are required to be manufactured on a large scale,
tempering of clay is usually done by pugmill.
Moulding of Bricks
It is done to give the required shape to the prepared brick earth. After
tempering of the clay, bricks should be moulded as soon as possible, as
otherwise pugged clay may become stiff and moulding of bricks may
become difficult. The bricks can be moulded by following two methods :
(i) Hand moulding, and
(ii) Machine moulding.
Hand Moulding
Hand moulding of bricks is extensively used in India. This could be
done on ground or on table known, respectively, as ground moulding
and as table moulding.
A team of a moulder and a helper can mould about 1000 bricks in a
day.
Machine Moulding of Bricks
Machine moulding of the bricks may be adopted when very large
number of bricks are required to be manufactured at one place. This 25
Engineering Materials method proves economical only when bricks in huge quantity are to
be moulded.
The machine moulded bricks are hard and strong than table or ground
moulded bricks. They are heavier in weight and have external
surfaces smooth. Machine moulding of the bricks can be done by
following two methods :
• Plastic clay method
• Dry pressed clay method
Drying of Bricks
Wet bricks have to be dried before they are fed for burning in the kilns.
Following are the objects of drying the bricks :
(i) To remove as much of moisture from the bricks as possible, so as to
save time and fuel during the burning.
(ii) To avoid the chances of cracking and distortion of bricks during the
burning.
(iii) To increase the mechanical strength of the bricks without any damage
to the bricks.
Bricks have to staked after two or three days of drying. Although after two
or three days of drying, bricks do not become dry and fit for burning, but
they become sufficiently strong to get stacked. The bricks are stacked in
such a way, that even in staked position free circulation of air maintained
around them. Bricks are stacked in two brick (length wise) wide and 8 to
10 courses high stacks with sufficient space between individual brick. A
specimen stack is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 : Stacking of Bricks

Burning of Bricks
Burning of the bricks imparts strength and hardness to the bricks and makes
them dense and durable. The burning or heating of bricks is continued to
higher temperature of about 1100oC. At about 1100oC, the two main
constituents of brick, silica and alumina, combine with each other and
bricks become dense and strong. At this temperature, fusible glass which is
a flowing matter at high temperature is formed in very small amount which
keeps clay particles binded together. Temperature of the bricks should not
be allowed to exceed 1100oC as otherwise fusible glass will be formed in
large amount. This will cause bricks to flow and make them destorted and
vitrified. Bricks should neither be over burnt nor under burnt, as in both the
cases quality of bricks suffers.

26
 Bricks are burnt either in clamps or in kilns. Clamps are temporary Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
structures and are adopted when bricks are to be burnt on very small scale.
Kilns are permanent structures and they are adopted when manufacture of
bricks is to be carried out on a large scale.
1.3.6 Qualities of Good Bricks
The general qualities that a good brick should possess are given below :
(i) Colour
The colour of good brick should be uniform. It may be deep red, cherry or
copper coloured. Uniformity of colour indicates uniformity of chemical
composition.
(ii) Water Absorption
No brick should absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight when kept
immersed in water for 24 hours.
(iii) Crushing Strength
It should not be less than 105 kg/cm2.
(iv) Shape
Bricks should be uniform in shape with all its edges sharp, straight and at
right angles to each other. All the faces should be true in shape.
(v) Size
Size of the bricks should be standard as prescribed by Indian standards.
(vi) Texture and Compactness
The bricks should have fine, dense, compact and uniform texture. Fractured
surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime, loose grit, fissures and
cavities.
(vii) Soundness
Two bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck against each other.
(viii) Hardness
The bricks should be so hard that finger nail should not be able to make any
impression on its surface when scratched.
(ix) The earth used for moulding the bricks should be free from gravel, pebbles,
kankar, salt petre and other harmful ingredients.
(x) Bricks should be sound proof and also of low thermal conductivity.
(xi) Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of
about 1m.
1.3.7 Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks
Certain tests are necessary to be conducted for judging the quality of a brick lot.
These tests are :
(i) Water absorption test
(ii) Crushing strength test
(iii) Hardness test
(iv) Shape and size test 27
Engineering Materials (v) Soundness test
(vi) Test for presence of soluble salts.
Water Absorption Test
There are two test to determine the water absorption
(i) 24-hour immersion cold water test
(ii) 5-hour boiling water test
24-hour Immersion Cold Water Test
Dry specimen is put in an oven maintained at a temperature of 105 to
115o C, till it attains substantially constant mass. Weight of specimen (W1)
is recorded after cooling it to room temperature. The dry specimen is then
immersed completely in water at a temperature of 27 ± 2o C for 24 hours.
Take the specimen out of water and wipe out all traces of water with damp
cloth. Complete weighing of the specimen, 3 minutes after the specimen has
been removed from water. Let this weight be W2.
Water absorption percent by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water
is given by
W2 − W1
× 100
W1

5-hour Boiling Water Test

The specimen is dried in an oven at 105 to 115o C till it attains constant
mass. Cool the specimen at room temperature and record its weight (W1).
The brick is immersed in boiling water for 5 hours. The water is allowed to
cool at 27 ± 2o C with brick immersed. The brick is taken out and wiped
with damp cloth. Complete the weighing of the specimen in three minutes.
Let it be W3.
Water absorption, percent by mass, is given by
W3 − W1
× 100
W1

Test for Presence of Soluble Salts

Soluble salts, if present in the brick, cause efflorescence. Presence of such
salts can be determined as follows.
Place one end of the bricks in 25 mm depth of water in a dish of minimum
diameter 150 mm and depth 30 mm. The dish is made of glass, porcelain or
of glazed stone work. The experiment is performed in a well ventilated
room between 20 to 30o C till all the water in the dish is either absorbed by
the specimen or is evaporated. After the specimen have dried, add similar
quantity of water to the dish and let it too be absorbed by the specimen for
efflorescence after the second evaporation. Presence of efflorescence shall
be classified as nil, slight, moderate, heavy or serious as defined below :
Nil
When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.
Slight

28
 When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10% of Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
the exposed area of the brick.
Moderate
When the deposit of efflorescence is heavier than slight and does not
cover more than 50 percent of the exposed area of the brick surface.
The deposit should not, however, powder or flake of the surface.
Heavy
When the deposit of efflorescence salts is heavy and covers 50
percent or more of the exposed area of brick surface. The deposit,
however, does not powder or flake of the surface.
Serious
When the deposit of efflorescence salts is heavy and is accompanied
by powdering and/or flaking of the exposed surfaces.
Crushing Strength Test
In this test, well burnt brick’s areas are elected. Grind the two bed faces to
provide smooth, even and parallel faces. Immerse the specimen in water at
room temperature. Fill up flush the frog and all voids with cement mortar
(1 part cement and 1 part clean coarse sand of grade 3 mm and down), store
under damp jute bags for 24 hours and then immerse in clean water for
3 days. Remove and wipe out any traces of moisture.
Place the specimen between two plywood sheets, each 3 mm thick, with flat
faces horizontal and mortar filled face facing upwards. The specimen
sandwiched between the ply sheets are carefully centred between plates of
compression testing machine. Apply axial load at a uniform rate of
140 kg/cm2 per minute till failure. The maximum load at failure divided by
the average area of the bed faces gives the compressive strength.
Hardness Test
Hardness of the bricks can be estimated with the help of the scratch of the
finger nail. If no nail scratch is left on the brick, it is considered to be
having sufficient hardness.
Shape and Size Test
All the faces of the brick should be truly rectangular and size truely
standard as specified by Indian Standards. All the edges should be sharp
and right angled.
Soundness Test
Soundness of the bricks is estimated by striking two bricks against each
other. They should emit ringing sound. Soundness of the brick is also tested
by the fall of the brick. A good sound brick should not break, when made to
fall flat on hard ground, from a height of about 1 m.
SAQ 2
(a) Compare stone work with brick work.
(b) On what considerations the size of the brick is fixed? What relation
should the breadth of a brick bear with length and why?
29
Engineering Materials (c) What are the various operations involved in the manufacture of
bricks?
(d) What is the importance of chemical analysis of the brick earth?
(e) Describe the characteristics and essential features of good quality
bricks.
(f) What is efflorescence in bricks? What are its causes and remedies?

1.4 TILES
Tiles are also a clay product, used mainly for roof covering and pavings. They are
manufactured from superior type of clay. Tiles, being thinner than bricks, should
be carefully handled to avoid any damage to tiles.
1.4.1 Classification of Tiles
Tiles are classified as
(i) common tiles, and
(ii) encaustic tiles.
Common Tiles
These tiles are of different shapes and sizes and are mainly used for
flooring, paving and roofing.
Encaustic Tiles
These tiles are used for decorative purposes in floors, walls, roofs ceilings.
1.4.2 Manufacture of Tiles
The following operations are involved in the manufacture of tiles :
(i) Preparation of clay.
(ii) Moulding of tiles.
(iii) Drying of tiles.
(iv) Burning of tiles.
Preparation of Clay
The clay to be used in the manufacture of tiles is taken and all the pebbles,
grit, and other impurities, picked out from it. The clay is then pulverized in
grinding machine. Water is added to the ground clay, and put in the pugmill
to temper. For manufacturing tiles of superior quality, the ground clay is
30 mixed with plenty of water in a large pucca tank. The mixture is allowed to
 stand quietly, during which coarse heavy particles settle at the bottom of the Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
tank. Fine particles are held in suspension and mixture of fine particles and
water is transferred to another tank. This mixture is allowed to dry in open
during which water is evaporated and fine clay is left at the bottom of the
tank, which is used for the manufacture of the tiles. In order to make tiles
impervious and hard, a finely ground mixture of glass and pottery ware may
be added to the clay.
Moulding of Tiles
Moulding of tiles is done in the similar manner as has been already
explained in the moulding of bricks. Tiles can be moulded by following
three methods :
(i) Moulding by wooden moulds.
(ii) Machine moulding.
(iii) Potter’s wheel moulding.
Moulding by Wooden Moulds
In this method of moulding, wooden moulds are prepared in shape
and size of which tiles are required to be moulded. Mould is placed in
position and pressed clay is pressed in the mould. Care should be
taken to preserve the shape of the tiles during the removal from
mould. This method of moulding tiles is very common. Only plain
tiles are generally moulded by this method. In this method, tiles are
first moulded plain and when they become a bit hard and dry, they
can be given any shape with the help of wooden patterns.
Machine Moulding
In machine moulding of tiles, the clay is forced to come out of
machine, under pressure and tiles are cut in specific size from the clay
spout with the help of wire frame.
Potters Wheel Moulding
In this method, round tiles are first shaped on the potters when, and
after taking out of wheel, when moulded cylinder is quite hard, it is
cut longitudinally to develop two half round tiles. These tiles are not
exactly cylindrical, but have varying diameter as tiles moulded on
potter’s wheel are not of same diameter throughout.
Drying of Tiles
The tiles are stacked as they come out of mould one above the other and
heaps of tiles, about 15 tiles high, are formed. After about 2 days time when
tiles slightly get hard, the irregularities developed due to working are
corrected with the help of flat wooden mallets. The tiles by now become
hand hard and they can be lifted. Each tile is lifted up and its edges and
under surfaces cleared. They are stacked on edge under a shade, to dry for
about two-three days. The tiles are dried under the shade as this will prevent
cracking and warping of tiles, due to rain and direct sun.
Burning of Tiles
The tiles are subjected to burning in kilns after drying. A typical kiln is
capable of burning 30,000 to 40,000 tiles.
31
Engineering Materials The kiln is circular in plan and is protected by a shed. Long narrow flues
are formed at the bottom of the kiln and they are covered by a layer of
bricks. The bricks are arranged in such a way that open spaces are left
between them. Dried tiles are now placed on edge, layer after layer, on the
layer of bricks. After loading the kiln to its full capacity, all the doors in the
kiln are closed by brick work in mud. Top of the kiln is covered with a layer
of old tiles, placed in loose conditions. Heating or burning of the tiles is
affected by firing wood in the flues.
In the beginning, fire in the kiln should be gentle so that moisture is
completely driven out of the tiles. The temperature is then raised to about
800oC. This temperature is known as red hot. The fire is kept slackened for
about 5 hours and then it is raised to about 1300oC. This temperature is
maintained for 3 hours. The process of slackening the fire for 6 hours and
then raising to about 1300oC temperature is also called white heat
temperature. Finally, the temperature of 1300oC is maintained for 3 hours
and firing is stopped. The kiln is now allowed to cool gradually. In order to
achieve gradual cooling of tiles in the kiln, the flues are filled with fire and
their mouths closed with bricks in mud and fire is allowed to burn
gradually. The complete process of burning the tiles may take about 3 days
time.
Now kiln is started unloading. Good well burnt tiles are stacked separately
and dispatched for use. Under burnt tiles are stacked separately, and they
are used on the top of the kiln in next load of burning of tiles.
1.4.3 Properties of Good Tiles
Good tiles should possess the following properties :
(i) It should be of a regular shape and size.
(ii) It should be well burnt.
(iii) It should have a uniform colour.
(iv) It should be free from twists, cracks or flaws.
(v) It should give a clear ringing sound when one tile is struck against
another.
(vi) It should be strong, hard, sound and durable.
(vii) Its fractured surfaces should show the compact and even structure.
(viii) Thickness (minimum) of machine made tiles should be 10 mm and
hand mould tiles between 12 to 15 mm.
1.4.4 Types of Tiles
Tiles are mainly of three types which are described (depicted) in Figure 1.4.

32
 Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products

Figure 1.4: Types of Tiles

SAQ 3
(a) What are the characteristics of good tiles?
(b) Describe the complete process of manufacturing the good tiles.

1.5 SUMMARY
You have seen that in construction engineering, the execution of different types
of works always involves use of some inert materials. These inert materials have
significant impact on strength, rigidity, durability and face appearance. Stones are
extensively used for construction of buildings, lintels, arches, walls, columns,
abutments etc. Stones are placed in such a way that their position offers
maximum strength.
Bricks are now-a-days used popularly for different types of construction. Its use
is increasing day by day due to its local manufacturing and low cost. Bricks can
be prepared in different sizes and shapes. Suitability of bricks is judged by
performing various tests on it. Tiles are mainly used for flooring, paving, roofing
and for decorative purposes in floors, walls, roofs ceilings.

1.6 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

33
 Cement and Lime
UNIT 2 CEMENT AND LIME
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Cements
2.2.1 Manufacturing of Cement
2.2.2 Chemical Composition
2.2.3 Hydration of Cement
2.2.4 Types of Cement
2.2.5 Classification of Cement
2.2.6 Testing of Cement
2.3 Lime
2.3.1 Types of Lime
2.3.2 Classification of Lime
2.3.3 Definition of Terms
2.3.4 Properties of Lime
2.3.5 Uses of Lime
2.3.6 Slaking and Hardening of Lime
2.3.7 Storage of Lime
2.3.8 Field Tests of Lime
2.4 Summary
2.5 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the principal stages of constructional engineering, whether in building
construction, roads, dockyards and airfields, involves binding together of various
units of inert materials like stones, stone aggregates, bricks and brick aggregates,
etc., with some type of cementing material. The chief purpose of this cementing
material is to impart strength, rigidity, solidity, durability and such other
structural requirements as desired in a particular type of construction. Except for
clay which can be used directly, generally the cementing materials are not found
in a ready to use form in nature. You will find that, in almost all cases, these
materials have to be manufactured from raw materials.
The focus of this unit will be on cement and lime and we will be studying their
types, composition, properties, uses, manufacture, hydration tests and fields of
application.
Objectives
This unit will help you to develop clear understanding of cement and lime, its
manufacture, composition, hydration, properties and their uses in different
situations. At the end of the unit, you should be able to :
• describe the different methods of classification of cements,
• distinguish between wet and dry process of manufacture of cements,
• describe the hydration of cement,

35
Engineering Materials • distinguish between different types of cements and their applications,
• appreciate the importance of lime in construction industry,
• explain the process of slaking and hardening of lime,
• distinguish between different types of lime, and
• describe the precautions, which are to be taken for storage of lime.

2.2 CEMENTS
In India, Portland cement was first manufactured in 1904 near Madras by the
South India Industrial Ltd. But this venture was not successful. Indian Cement
Co. by 1914 was able to manufacture about 1000 tonnes of Portland cement. By
1918 three factories were established. During the First Five year plan (1951-56),
cement production in India rose from 2.69 million tonnes to 4.60 million tonnes.
During 1977, there were 56 cement factories in India producing a total of 19
million tonnes of cement. This increased to 20.77 million tonnes in 1981.
However the decade ending 1990 saw a big boost in cement production, with
figures reaching 44.88 million tonnes. This is expected to touch to 80 million
tonnes by 1994-95 and cross 100 million tonnes by the end of the century.
2.2.1 Manufacturing of Cement
The raw materials for manufacturing of Portland cement are :
(i) Calcareous material – limestone or chalk
(ii) Argillaceous material – Shale or clay
The process of manufacture of cement consists of :
(a) Grinding of raw materials
(b) Mixing them intimately in certain proportion, depending on their
purity and composition.
(c) Burning them in a kiln at temperatures of 1330oC to 1500oC, at which
the material sinters and partially fuses to form modular shaped
clinkers.
(d) Cooling of clinker and grinding it to fine powder with addition of 2 to
3% of gypsum.
You may note that there are two processes of manufacturing of cement
(i) Wet process
(ii) Dry process
They are so called depending upon whether mixing and grinding of raw materials
is done in wet or dry conditions. In India, most of the cement factories use the wet
process, though factories employing dry process have also been commissioned.
Let us have a brief insight into these processes :
Wet Process
This process can be understood in a sequential form as below :
(i) Limestone brought from quarry is crushed to smaller fragments.

36
 (ii) Mixed with clay or shale; ground into a fine consistency in ball mill Cement and Lime
and converted into slurry by addition of water.
(iii) The slurry is tested for correct composition and sprayed on to the
upper end of the rotary kiln. The rotary kiln is a thick steel cylinder of
diameter varying from 3 to 8 metres and length varying from
30 metres to 200 metres.
(iv) The temperature in the hottest part of the kiln is about 1500oC
resulting in the slurry getting converted into a fused mass of 3 mm to
20 mm size known as clinker. This clinker is cooled under controlled
conditions.
(v) Finally, this clinker is ground in a ball mill with 2 to 3 percent of
gypsum to produce portland cement.
Dry Process
In this process :
(i) The raw materials are crushed dry and fed into a grinding mill in
correct proportions, where they are reduced to a fine powder.
(ii) This powder is then corrected for its composition and fed into a
granulator. Water, 12 percent by weight of this powder, is added to
convert it into pellets.
(iii) These pellets are then ground to produce cement.
(iv) The dry process is considered to be economical as compared to wet
process because of less consumption of fuel in the kiln.
2.2.2 Chemical Composition
The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist predominantly of
lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide. These oxides interact with each other during
the process of burning in the kiln to form more complex compounds.
Approximate oxide composition of ordinary portland cement are given in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1

Oxide Percent Content

CaO 60-67
SiO2 17-25
Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5-6.0
MgO 0.1-4.0
Alkalies (K2O,Na2O) 0.4-1.3
SO3 1.0-3.0

The complex compounds which are formed were largely identified on the basis of
R.H. Bogue’s work and are called Bogue’s compounds. These are given in
Table 2.2.

37
Engineering Materials Table 2.2
Name of the Formula Abbreviated Typical Compound
Compound Formula Composition
Percent
Tricalcium Silicate 3 CaO SiO2 C3S 54.1
Dicalcium Silicate 2 CaO SiO2 C2S 16.6
Tricalcium Aluminate 3 CaO Al2O3 C3A 10.8
Tetracalcium 4 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 C4AF 9.1
Aluminoferrite

You can appreciate from this table that C3S and C2S are the most important
compounds, which constitute 70 to 80 percent of cement and are responsible for
the strength.
Further the IS code 269-1989 specifies the following chemical requirements.
CaO − 0.7 SO 3
(a) The ratio of
2.8 SiO 2 + 1.2 Al2 O 3 + 0.65 Fe 2 O 3

is not greater than 1.02 and is not less than 0.66.

(b) The ratio of percentage of Alumina/Iron oxide is not less than 0.66.
(c) Insoluble residue percent by mass is not greater than 4 percent.
(d) Weight of magnesia is not greater than 6 percent.
(e) SO3 content is not greater than 2.5 and 3.0 when tricalcium aluminate
percent by mass is 5 or less and greater than 5 respectively.
(f) Total loss on ignition is not greater than 5 percent.
2.2.3 Hydration of Cement
The hydration of cement on mixing with water can be visualized by you in two
ways.
(a) Through Solution mechanism visualizes that cement compounds
dissolve to produce a supersaturated solution from which different
hydrated products get precipitated.
(b) In the second mechanism, the cement compounds in solid state
convert into hydrated products. This hydration starts from the surface
and with time proceeds to the interior.
Heat of Hydration
You should also remember that reaction of cement with water is
exothermic, resulting in liberation of considerable quantity of heat. This
fact is of great importance for you while constructing dams and other mass
concreting work. It has been observed that the difference in temperature
between interior of mass concrete and that at time of placing of concrete
could be as high as 50oC and it persists for a long time.
Hydration Products
You must carefully observe and make a note of following points.
(a) When the reaction of C3S and C2S takes place with water, calcium
silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide are formed. Calcium
38
 hydroxide is not a desirable product in the concrete. It is soluble in Cement and Lime
water and gets leached out making the concrete porous.
(b) C3S readily reacts with water, produces more heat of hydration and is
responsible for early strength of concrete.
(c) C2S hydrates slowly, produces less heat of hydration and is
responsible for the later strength of concrete. The calcium silicate
hydrate formed is dense and in general hydration products of C2S are
considered better than those of C3S.
(d) The reaction of pure C3A with water is very fast and may lead to
flash set. Gypsum is added at the time of grinding to prevent this flash
set. The hydrated aluminates do not contribute any thing to the
strength of paste. On the other hand their presence is harmful to the
durability of cement particularly when concrete is likely to be
attacked by sulphates.
(e) The hydrated product of C4AF does not contribute anything to
strength, though they are more resistant to sulphate attack.
Figure 2.1 shows the development of strength of pure compounds of cement
with time. You can observe that C3S is responsible for early strength of
cement as stated in (b) above.

Figure 2.1 : Development of Strength of Pure Compounds of Cement with Time

2.2.4 Types of Cement

Continuous efforts have been made over the years to produce different types of
cement, suitable for different situations and applications. This has been done by
changing oxides content, composition and fineness of grinding. However, this
was not sufficient to meet all requirements and therefore recourses were taken to
add one or more new additives to the clinker at the time of grinding or by
adopting entirely new raw materials in the manufacture of cement. This has made
it possible to produce cement to meet specific needs of the construction industry.
The prominent types of cements are listed below
(a) Ordinary portland cement
(b) Rapid hardening cement
(c) Extra rapid hardening cement
(d) Sulphate resisting cement
(e) Blast furnace slag cement
(f) Quick setting cement
39
Engineering Materials (g) Super sulphate cement
(h) Low heat cement
(i) Portland pozzolana cement
(j) Air entraining cement
(k) Hydrophobic cement
(l) Masonry cement
(m) Expansive cement
(n) Oil well cement
(o) High strength cement
(p) Rediset cement
(q) High alumina cement (not used now except in refractories)
Ordinary Portland Cement (O.P.C)
This is the most commonly used cement and is popularly known and
referred as O.P.C. The discussion under 2.2.2 pertains to this cement and, as
already stated, primarily consists of C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF. This
cement can be used in all situations except in special cases where special
properties are required. The consumption of this cement is 80 to 90 percent
of the total production of cement. Its seven day strength is 220 kg/cm2.
Rapid Hardening Cement (R.H.C.)
This cement is similar to O.P.C, but it develops strength rapidly. Its strength
at three days is the same as that of O.P.C at seven days. The rapid rate of
development of strength is attributed to the higher fineness of grinding
(specific surface not less that 3,250 sq. cm per gram) and higher C3S and
lower C2S content. These two factors also cause quicker hydration and
hence greater heat of hydration during the initial stages. Therefore, you
should not use this cement in mass concrete construction.
Uses
You could use Rapid hardening cement in the following situations :
• In prefabricated concrete work.
• Where formwork is to be removed early for reuse elsewhere.
• Rigid pavement repair works.
• In cold weather concreting, where the rapid rate of development
of strength reduces the vulnerability of concrete to frost
damage.
Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
You could appreciate from the name that this cement would harden faster
than the rapid hardening cement. This is achieved by inter-grinding calcium
chloride upto 2 percent by weight with rapid hardening cement. This
accelerates the setting and hardening process. A large quantity of heat is
evolved within a short period after placing. It is, therefore, necessary that
concrete made with this cement is transported, placed in position,
compacted and finished within about 20 minutes.
Uses
40
 • The extra rapid hardening cement is considered very suitable for Cement and Lime

cold weather concreting, because of accelerated setting,

hardening and early heat of hydration.
Sulphate Resisting Cement
Your attention is now again drawn to subsection 2.2.3 where under
Hydration Products it was pointed out that during hydration, calcium
hydroxide is formed, together with hydrated aluminates. Now, if this
concrete is in an environment where suphates in solution are present, then
these react with calcium hydroxide to form calcium sulphate and with
hydrate of calcium aluminate to form calcium sulphoaluminate. The
sulphates even attack hydrated silicates. The products formed by these
reactions within the hydrated cement paste, result in expansion and
disruption on concrete. This phenomenon is known as Sulphate Attack.
This attack is greatly accelerated if it is accompanied by alternate wetting
and drying which is quite common in marine structures in the zone of tidal
variations. Since the reactions of sulphates are prominently with hydrates of
calcium aluminate, therefore the sulphate attack is countered by use of
cement with low C3A (less than 5%) and comparatively low C4AF content.
Such a cement is known as Sulphate resisting Cement.
Uses
• It is now mandatory to use Sulphate resisting cement in all
marine structures. It has been used in the slipway in the
shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.
• You could use it in concreting in foundations and basements
where the soil is infested with sulphates.
• In concrete used for casting of pipes which are likely to be
buried in marshy regions or sulphate bearing soils, and
• In concreting work for construction of sewage treatment plants.
Blast Furnace Slag Cement
You are aware of the fact that in blast furnaces, a waste product called blast
furnace slag is produced in large quantities. The manufacture of blast
furnace slag cement has been developed primarily to utilize this blast
furnace slag. Portland blast furnace slag cement is manufactured either by
initially inter-grinding a mixture of Portland cement clinker, granulated
blast furnace slag with an addition of gypsum or calcium sulphate or by an
intimate and uniform blending of Portland cement and finely ground
granulated blast furnace slag. The slag constituent is to be between 25 to
65 percent of the cement. Portland blast furnace slag is similar to O.P.C. in
respect of fineness, setting time, soundness and strength. However, the rate
of hardening is somewhat slower during the first 28 days, compared to
O.P.C, but at 12 months the strength becomes close to or even exceeds that
of O.P.C. The heat of hydration of this cement is lower than that of O.P.C.,
hence its use in cold weather can lead to frost damage.
Uses
• Due to the low heat of hydration, and relatively better resistance
to soils and water containing excessive amounts of sulphates or
alkali metals, alumina and iron, as well as, to acidic waters, you
could use Portland blast furnace slag cement for marine works.
41
Engineering Materials • In mass concrete structures, because of lower heat of hydration
than O.P.C.
Quick Setting Cement
You may recall that we had stated that gypsum is added at the time of
grinding to prevent flash set of cement. In quick setting cement, the early
setting is brought about by reducing this gypsum content. This cement is,
therefore, required to be mixed, placed and compacted quickly.
Uses
• Quick setting cement is used mostly in underwater construction,
where pumping of concrete is involved, resulting in time saving
and economy.
• This cement may also be used to advantage in some typical
grouting operations.
Super Sulphate Cement
We have seen earlier in Portland Blast Furnace slag cement that due to use
of granulated slag it possesses better resistance to sulphate attack. In super
sulphate cement, this property is made use of extensively by grinding
together a mixture of 80-85 percent granulated slag, 10-15 percent hard
burnt gypsum and about 5 percent Portland cement clinker. This is ground
finer than OPC. The specific surface must not be less than 4000 cm2 per
gm. Super sulphate cement has low heat of hydration of about 45-50
calories per gm at 28 days and possesses high sulphate resistance.
An important point to be noted by you is that when we use super sulphate
cement the water/cement ratio should not be less than 0.5 and wet curing
for not less than 3 days after casting is essential as premature drying out
results in an undesirable or powdery surface layer. A mix leaner than 1 : 6
is also not recommended.
Uses
• Super sulphate cement is particularly recommended for use in
foundation where chemically aggressive conditions exist.
• As super sulphate cement has more resistance than Portland
blast furnace cement to attack by sea-water, it is also used in
marine works.
• In fabrication of reinforced concrete pipes to be used in sulphate
bearing soils.
Low Heat Cement
While discussing heat of hydration we had pointed out that the reaction of
cement with water is exothermic, resulting in liberation of considerable
quantity of heat. We also know that it is the reactions with C3S and C3A
which produce most heat. Therefore in low heat cement, the contents of
C3S and C3A are reduced and C2S is increased.
A reduction of temperature so obtained retards the chemical action of
hardening and so further restricts the rate of evolution of heat. Thus, the
evolution of heat extends over a long period. Therefore, low heat cement
has slow rate of gain of strength, but its ultimate strength is same as that of
OPC. The heat of hydration of low heat cement shall be
42
 7 days - not more than 65 calories per gm Cement and Lime

28 days - not more than 75 calories per gm

Uses
• Because of low and slow rate of evolution of heat, low heat
cement is ideally suited for use in mass concrete construction
such as Dams.
Portland Pozzolana Cement
Let us first examine what is a Pozzolana. A Pozzolana is essentially a
siliceous material which, while in itself possessing no cementitious
properties will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react
with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties. The Pozzolanic materials used in the
manufacture of Portland pozzolana cement may include such natural
materials as
(a) Diatomaceous earth,
(b) Opaline Cherts an Shales,
(c) Tuffs, and
(d) Volcanic ashes and pumicites.
In addition, materials processed by calcinations of or fly-ash etc., are also
used. Portland pozzolana cement is produced by grinding together Portland
cement clinker and Pozzolana with addition of gypsum. The pozzolona
content shall not be less that 10 percent and not more than 25 percent by
weight of portland pozzolona cement. The specific surface of pozzolanic
cement shall not be less than 3000 cm2/gm. The compressive strength is
specified to be not less than 220 kg/cm2 at 7 days and not less than
310 kg/cm2 at 28 days. In India, there is apprehension in the minds of the
user to user to use this cement in constructional work. But then this fear is
not justified as it is not inferior to O.P.C in anyway except for rate of
development of strength upto 14 days. It should also be cured under moist
conditions for a sufficient period.
Uses
• Portland pozzolona cement can generally be used where
ordinary Portland cement is usable.
• Since it reduces the leaching of calcium hydroxide, therefore it
is particularly useful in marine and hydraulic structures.
Air Entraining Cement
This cement is made by mixing a small amount, 0.025 to 0.1 percent by
weight of an air entraining agent with ordinary Portland cement clinker at
the time of grinding. Some of these air entraining agents are :
(a) Alkali salts of wood resins.
(b) Synthetic detergents of the alkayl-aryl sulphonate type.
(c) Calcium ligno sulphate derived from the sulphate process in paper
making.
(d) Calcium salts of glues and other proteins obtained in the treatment of
animal hides.
43
Engineering Materials These and other agents produce tough, tiny, discrete, non-coalescing air
bubbles in the body of the concrete which will modify the properties of
plastic concrete with respect to workability, segregation and bleeding. It
will modify the properties of hardened concrete with respect to its
resistance to frost action.
Uses
• Air entrained cement is ideal for use in structures subjected to
freezing and thawing.
• Its use in improving workability of cement needs to be practised
increasingly.
Masonry Cement (IS : 3466-1967)
This cement is made with such combination of materials that, when it is
used for making mortar, it incorporates all good properties of lime mortar
like workability, water retention, extensibility etc. and discard not so ideal
properties of cement mortar like shrinkage etc. Some of the additional
materials are limestone, clay, chalk, talc, water repellant materials and
gypsum.
Uses
• Mostly used for masonry construction in brick or block
masonry.
Expansive Cement
You will notice that concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks
while setting due to loss of free water. Concrete also shrinks continuously
for long time. This is known as drying shrinkage. But then there are
situations where this affects the functional efficiency of a structure. For
example if cement used for grouting anchor bolts in machine foundations or
the cement used in grouting the pre-stress concrete ducts, shrinks, then the
purpose for which it has been used gets defeated. Therefore, a cement
which does not shrink while hardening and thereafter, has been developed
by using an expanding stabilizer very carefully. Generally, about 8 to 20
parts of sulphoaluminate are mixed with 100 parts of Portland cement
clinker and 15 part of stabilizer. Curing must be carefully controlled since
expansion occurs only as long as concrete is moist.
One type of expansive cement is known as shrinkage compensating
cement. This cement when used in concrete, with restrained expansion
induces compressive stress which more or less offset the tensile stress
induced by shrinkage.
Another type is known as self stressing cement. This induces significant
compressive stress after compensating the shrinkage stress, also gives some
sort of prestressing effect in the tensile zone of a flexural member.
A popular non-shrinking grout developed by Associated Cement Co. Ltd is
known as Shrinkkomp.
Uses
• The major use of expansive cement is for grouting machine base
plates, anchor bolts, rock bolting and grouting of prestress
ducts.
44
Oil Well Cement Cement and Lime

As you are aware, oil production has become extremely important for India
to improve its balance of payment position and to cut down on imports. Oil
wells are drilled through stratified sedimentary rocks through great depths.
Oil when struck, could escape together with gas, through the space between
the steel casing and the rock formation. To prevent this, cement slurry is
used. The cement slurry has to be pumped in position at considerable depth
where the prevailing temperature may be 175oC, coupled with pressures
upto 1300 kg/cm2. The slurry should remain sufficiently mobile to be able
to flow under such conditions for several hours and then harden fairly and
rapidly. In addition, it may have to resist corrosive actions because of
sulphur gases or waters containing dissolved salts.
The type of cement suitable for such situations is called oil well cement.
The desired properties are obtained either by adjusting the compound
composition of cement or by adding retarders to the OPC. The most
common agents are starches or cellulose products or acids. These retarding
agents prevent quick setting and impart mobility to slurry to facilitate
penetration of all fissures and cavities.
High Strength Cement
In construction engineering, there are special situations which demand use
of high strength concrete as in precast concrete, prestressed concrete and
air-fields, runways and taxi tracks. For this purpose, cements having much
higher strength than OPC are required and are known as high strength
ordinary Portland cement covered in IS : 8112-1989. The same is now
called 43 grade OPC. Another high strength cement called 53 Grade is
covered under IS : 122 69/1987.
The compressive strength for 43 Grade OPC and 53 Grade OPC are given
in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3
Sl. No. Period 43 Grade OPC not 53 Grade OPC not
less than less than
1 72 ± 1 hour 23 MPa 27 MPa
2 168 ± 2 hours 33 MPa 37 MPa
3 672 ± 4 hours 43 MPa 53 MPa

Rediset Cement
Keeping in view the urgent requirements of pre-cast concrete industry and
in situations like rapid repairs of concrete pavements, slip forming etc. that
is, situations where time and strength relationship is important, a new
cement called REDISET was developed by Associated Cement Company of
India. Earlier, USA had developed a cement which could yield high
strength in a matter of hours, without showing any regression (as happens in
case of High Alumina cement, which is now discarded and therefore not
included in this unit). Its name is RESSET.
The salient properties are :
(i) This cement allows a handling time of just about 8 to 10 minutes,
(ii) The strength achieved with REDISET in 3 to 6 hours can be achieved
with normal cement only after 7 days,
45
Engineering Materials (iii) REDISET releases a lot of heat which is advantageous for winter
concreting but detrimental for mass concrete,
(iv) Rate of shrinkage is fast but total shrinkage is similar to that of
O.P.C., and
(v) Sulphate resistance is poor.
Uses
You could use REDISET advantageously for
• patch repairs and emergency repairs,
• quick release of forms in precast concrete product
manufacturing,
• pelletisation of iron redust,
• slip formed concrete construction, and
• construction of marine structures between tides.
2.2.5 Classification of Cement
Let us see how the Portland cements are classified. The classification of cement
as per BIS is as below :
(i) 33 Grade OPC; IS-269 of 1989
(ii) 43 Grade OPC; IS-8112 of 1989
(iii) 53 Grade OPC; IS-12269 of 1987
The figures 33,43,53 refer to minimum 28 days strength of these cements in MPa.
Let us examine the classification under the ASTM (American Society for Testing
Materials). As per ASTM, cement is designated as Type I to Type V and other
minor types like Type IS and Type IP etc.
Type I
These cements are for use in general construction (Ordinary Portland
Cement) where special properties specified for Type II to Type IV are not
required.
Type II
For use in general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulphate
action, or where moderate heat of hydration is required.
Type III
For use when high early strength is required (Rapid Hardening Cement).
Type IV
For use when low heat of hydration is required (Low Heat Cement).
Type V
For use when high sulphate resistance is required (Sulphate Resisting
Cement).

46
 Cement and Lime
2.2.6 Testing of Cement
The testing of cement can be considered under two categories :
(i) Field Testing, and
(ii) Laboratory Testing.
Field Testing
In case of minor works, it may be sufficient to carry out field tests on
cement. Some of these are listed below :
(i) The colour of the cement should normally be greenish grey which
depend on type of cement, and there should be no visible lumps.
(ii) Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must give you a cool
feeling.
(iii) Take a pinch of cement and feel between the fingers. It should give a
smooth feeling.
(iv) Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water. The
cement particles should float for sometime before they sink.
(v) Take about 100 gms of cement, mix with water and make a stiff paste.
Put a cake with sharp edges out of this paste. Put it on a glass plate
and slowly take it under water in a bucket, without disturbing the
shape of the cake. After 24 hours, the cake should retain its original
shape and should also attain some strength.
Laboratory Testing
For using cement in important and major works it is essential to confirm
that cement satisfies the physical and chemical requirements laid down in
Indian Standard Specifications. This is all the more necessary because
cement may get bad due to transportation, storage and handling prior to use.
The tests which are usually conducted are as follows :
(i) Fineness Test
(ii) Standard Consistency Test
(iii) Setting Time Tests
(iv) Soundness Test
(v) Heat of Hydration Test, and
(vi) Chemical Composition Test
Fineness Test
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of
hydration and hence on the rate of gain of strength and also on the
rate of evolution of heat. Finer cement offers a greater surface area for
hydration and the faster and greater the development of strength. The
disadvantage of fine grinding is that it is susceptible to air set and
early deterioration. Let us now discuss one of the methods of
determining fineness by Blaine Air Permeability Apparatus.
Determination of Fineness by Specific Surface by Blaine Air
Permeability Method
In this method, variable flow type air permeability apparatus (Blaine
Type) and the accessories conforming to IS : 5516-1969 are used.
47
Engineering Materials Firstly, the air permeability apparatus is calibrated by using standard
reference material SRM 1001 which can be obtained from National
Council for Cement and Building Materials, New Delhi.
Next, the bulk volume of compacted bed of powder is determined by
Mercury Displacement method.
Ma − Mb
V =
D
where, V = bulk volume of cement in cm3,
Ma = grams of mercury required to fill cell, no cement being
in cell,
Mb = grams of mercury required to fill the portion of cell not
occupied by the prepared bed of cement in cell, and
D = mass density of mercury at temperature of test in g/cm3.
The mass of the standard sample to be used for calibration test is
M = pV (1 – e)
where, M = sample mass required in g,
P = mass density of test sample (for Portland cement, a
value of 3.15 is used),
V = bulk volume of bed of cement in cm3, which was
determined earlier, and
e = desired porosity of bed of cement (0.500 + 0.005).
Now, the bed of test sample of cement is prepared in a standard
manner by providing filter paper discs, above and below it. The
permeability cell is attached to the manometer tube (U-tube). The air
in one arm of the manometer is slowly evacuated until the liquid
reaches the top mark and the value is closed. The timer is started as
the bottom of the meniscus of the manometer liquid reaches the
second (next to top) mark and is stopped as the bottom of meniscus of
liquid reaches the third (next to bottom) mark. The time interval is
noted in seconds. The temperature of room during the test is also
recorded in oC. For the calibration of the instrument, at least three
determinations of time of flow are made on each of three separately
prepared beds of standard sample.
Test Sample
The mass of test sample is same as that of standard sample used for
calibration. The test bed is prepared similarly as was done for
standard sample. The permeability test is also made in the same way
as for standard sample described earlier, except that only one time of
flow determination need be made on one prepared bed of cement.
The specific surface value is calculated using any one of the formulae
given in IS: 4031 (Part-2)-1988, depending upon various factors like
porosity of test sample, temperature at the time of conducting the tests
on standard sample and test sample, type of cement etc. For more
details, please refer IS : 4031 (Part-2)-1988.
48
Determination of Fineness by Sieving (IS : 4031 (Part 1) – 1988) Cement and Lime

In this test, 100 g of dry cement is sieved through 90 micron IS sieve for
15 minutes. The mass of cement retained on this sieve is weighed and is
expressed as percentage of the original mass.
Determination of Consistency of Standard Cement Paste
In order to determine the initial setting time, final setting time and
soundness of cement, a parameter known as standard consistency is
required. Therefore, let us examine how to determine standard consistency
of a cement paste. As per IS : 4031 (Part-4)-1988, the standard consistency
of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit the Vicat
plunger G as shown in Figure 2.2 to penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm from the
bottom of the Vicat mould when the cement paste is tested in a manner
described below :

Figure 2.2: Vicate Apparatus for Determining the Normal Consistency

and Setting Time for Cement
The following procedure is adopted to find out standard consistency. Take
about 500 gms of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity of
water (say 24 per cent by weight of cement) for the first trial. The paste
must be prepared in a standard manner and filled into the Vicat mould
within 3-5 minutes. After completely filling the mould, shake the mould to
expel air. A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and
brought down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly
released allowing it to sink into the paste by its own weight. Take the
reading by noting the depth of penetration of the plunger. Conduct a 2nd
trial (say with 25 per cent of water) and find out the depth of penetration of
plunger. Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher water/cement
ratios till such time the plunger penetrates for a depth of 33-35 mm from the
top. That particular percentage of water which allows the plunger to
penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top is known as the
percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of standard
consistency. This percentage is usually denoted as ‘P’.
Setting Time Tests
An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of cement as
initial setting time and final setting time. It is difficult to draw a rigid
line between these two arbitrary divisions. For convenience, initial
setting time is regarded as the time elapsed between the moment that
the water is added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts
49
Engineering Materials losing its plasticity. The final setting time is the time elapsed between
the moment the water is added to the cement, and the time when the
paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient
firmness to resist certain definite pressure.
In actual construction dealing with cement paste, mortar or concrete,
certain time is required for mixing, transporting and placing. During
this time cement paste, mortar, or concrete should be in plastic
condition. The time interval for which the cement products remain in
plastic condition is known as the setting time. Normally, a minimum
of 30 minutes is given for mixing and handling operations. The
constituents and fineness of cement is maintained in such a way that
the concrete remains in plastic condition for certain minimum time.
Once the concrete is placed in the final position, compacted and
finished, it should lose its plasticity in the earliest possible time so
that it is least vulnerable to damages from external destructive
agencies. This time should not be more than 10 hours which is often
referred to as final setting time. Table 2.4 shows the setting time for
different cements.
Table 2.4 : Setting Time of Cements
Sl. Particulars Ordinary Rapid Low Heat
No. Portland Hardening Cement
Cement (min) Cement (min) (min)
1. Initial Setting 30 30 60
time not less than
2. Final setting time 600 600 600
not more than

The Vicat apparatus, shown in Figure 2.2, is used for setting time test
also. The following procedure is adopted.
Take 500 gm of cement sample and gauge it with 0.85 times the water
required to produce cement paste of standard consistency (0.85 P).
The paste shall be gauged and filled into the Vicat mould in specified
manner within 3-5 minutes. Start the stop watch the moment water is
added to the cement. The temperature of water and that of the test
room, at the time of gauging, shall be within 27o + 2oC.
Initial Setting Time (IS : 4031 (Part 5)-1988)
Lower the needle (C) gently and bring it in contact with the surface of the
test block and quickly release. Allow it to penetrate into the test block. In
the beginning, the needle will completely pierce through the test block. But
after some time when the paste starts losing its plasticity, the needle may
penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. The period elapsing
between the time when water is added to the cement and the time at which
the needle penetrates the test block to a depth equal to 35-35.5 mm from the
top is taken as initial setting time (result is reported to the nearest five
minutes).
Final Setting Time
Replace the needle (C) of the Vicat apparatus by a circular attachment (F)
shown in Figure 2.2. The cement shall be considered as finally set when,
50
 upon, lowering the attachment gently cover the surface of the test block, the Cement and Lime
centre needle makes an impression, while the circular cutting edge of the
attachment fails to do so. In other words, the paste has attained such
hardness that the centre needle does not pierce through the paste more than
0.5 mm.
Compressive Strength Tests for Masonry Cement and Other Hydraulic
Cements (IS : 4031 (Part VII)-1988)
The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most important of all
the properties. Therefore, it is not surprising that the cement is always
tested for its strength at the laboratory before the cement is used in
important works. Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because
of difficulties of excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking of neat
cement. Strength of cement is indirectly found on cement and mortar in
specific proportions.
Test for Compressive Strength of Masonry Cement
Material and Equipment
The various materials and equipment used in this test are:
(i) Masonry Cement Sample,
(ii) Standard Sand to be used in the preparation of mortar cubes,
conforming to IS: 650-1966,
(iii) Balance,
(iv) Cube moulds of 50 mm size conforming to IS: 10086-1982,
(v) Planetary mixer,
(vi) Flow Table, and
(vii) Tamping Rod.
Preparation of Mortar
420 gms of masonry cement and 1440 gms of standard sand shall be
mixed with water to prepare three specimens for each set. The amount
of water used for gauging is to be such as to produce a flow of
110 + 5 per cent with 25 drops in 15 secs. The flow test is conducted
by making trial mortars using dry material as mentioned above with
different percentages of water until specified flow is obtained.
Moulding of Specimens
Immediately, following completion of flow test, return the mortar
from the flow mould to the mixing bowl. Quickly scrape down into
the batch, the mortar that may have collected on the side of the bowl
and give the entire batch a mixing of 15 secs at 285 + 10 rev/minute.
Now, the moulding of specimens is started within a total elapsed time
of not more than 2 min and 15 secs after completion of the original
mixing of the mortar batch. A 25 mm layer of mortar is placed in all
the cube compartments. The mortar in each cube compartment is
tamped 32 times in about 10 secs in four rounds, each round to be at
right angles to the other and consisting of eight adjoining strokes over
the specimen. The four rounds of tamping (32 strokes) of the mortar
shall be completed in one cube before going to the next. On
completion of tamping of first layer, fill the compartments with
51
Engineering Materials remaining mortar and again tamp. Cut off the mortar to a plane
surface flush with the top of the mould.
Storage and Curing
The test specimens are kept in moulds at a temperature of 27o + 2oC at
relative humidity of 90 per cent or more from 48 to 52 hours such that
the upper surfaces are exposed to moist air. The cubes are then
removed from the moulds and placed in the moist cabinet for five
days. The 7 days compressive strength test cubes can then be removed
for testing and the 28 days compressive strength cubes are immersed
in clean water for another twenty one days.
Testing
The cubes are then tested on their sides without any packing between
the cube and the steel plattens of the electrically operated testing
machine. An initial loading upto one half of the expected maximum
load for specimens having expected maximum loads of more than
13500 N may be applied at any convenient rate. No initial loading is
to be applied to specimens having expected maximum loads of less
than 13500 N. The load is to be applied continuously at a convenient
rate so that the breaking strength of the cube is reached in not less
than 20 sec. and not more than 80 sec.
Results
The compressive strength of the cubes is calculated by dividing the
maximum load applied to the cubes during the test by the
cross-sectional area.
Test for Determination of Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement other
than Masonry Cement
In this test following materials are used :
(a) Cement : 200 g
(b) Standard Sand : 600 g (IS : 650-1966)
(c) Water : [P + 3.0] 4
where P is the percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency.
These materials are mixed on a non-porous plate thoroughly until the mix is
of uniform colour. The time of mixing should not be less than 3 minutes nor
more than 4 minutes. Immediately after mixing, the mortar is filled into a
cube mould of size 70.6 mm. The mortar is laid into the cube in two layers.
When the first layer is placed in the cube, it is prodded with standard
tamping rod 20 times in 8 seconds. This is followed by the second layer,
which is prodded, as was done in first layer and then compacted by
vibration. The period of vibration is two minutes at a speed of 12000400
vibration per minute. The top surface of the cube is finished by trowel. The
compacted cubes are kept in moist room at 27o + 2oC for 24 hours. Then the
cubes are removed from the mould and immersed in clean fresh water until
taken out for testing. In case of ordinary Portland cement, three cubes are
tested for 3 day strength/three cubes for 7 day strength. The period 3 days
52
and 7 days is reckoned from the completion of vibration of the mortar in the Cement and Lime
cube mould.
Soundness Test
Certain cements have been found to undergo large expansion after
setting thus causing disruption of the hardened mass. This affect
durability of the structure. The unsoundness in cement is due to the
presence of excess of lime than that could be combined with acidic
oxide at the kiln. This is also due to inadequate burning or
insufficiency in fineness of grinding or thorough mixing of raw
materials. It is also likely that too high a proportion of magnesium
content or calcium sulphate content may cause unsoundness in
cement. You may recall that magnesia content allowed in cement is
limited to 6 per cent. You are also aware that calcium sulphate is
added to the clinker during grinding to prevent flash set. This quantity
of calcium sulphate or gypsum varies from two to three per cent
according to the content. However, if excess gypsum is added it
remains in cement in free state and causes expansion and consequent
disruption of the set cement paste. The unsoundness in cement does
not come to surface for a considerable period of time. Therefore,
accelerated tests are required to detect it. IS : 4031 (Part 3)- 1988
prescribes two methods, namely Le-Chatelier method and Autoclave
method, which are now discussed.
Le-Chatelier Method
The apparatus consists of a small split cylinder of spring brass or
other suitable metal. It is 30 mm in diameter and 30 mm high. On
either side of the split, two indicator arms 165 mm long with pointed
ends are attached. Cement is gauged with 0.78 times the water
required for standard consistency, in a standard manner and filled into
the lightly oiled mould kept on a lightly oiled glass sheet. The mould
is covered on the top with another glass sheet (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: Apparatus for Le-Chatelier Test

The whole assembly is immersed in water at 27o + 2oC for 24 hours.
Measure the distance separating the indicator points to the nearest
0.5 mm (D1). Submerge the mould again in water. Heat the water to
boiling point within 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for three
hours. Remove the mould from water, allow it to cool and measure
the distance between the indicator points (D2). The difference
between D2 and D1 represents the expansion of cement. This should
53
Engineering Materials not exceed
10 mm for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat Portland cements.
The Le-Chatelier method detects unsoundness due to free lime only.
This method of testing does not indicate the presence and after effect
of excess of magnesia. For a cement having a magnesia content of
more than 3 per cent, soundness may be tested by Autoclave method
which is considered sensitive to both free lime and free magnesia.
Autoclave Method
In this method, the standard batch of cement paste is prepared using
500 g of cement mixed with sufficient water to give a paste of
standard consistency. It is then put in a mould of 25 × 25 size and
282 mm internal length, in a standard manner. The moulds are stored
in a moist room for at least 24 hours. After 24 + ½ h after moulding,
the specimens are removed, measured for length and placed in a
standard autoclave at room temperature. The autoclave should contain
enough water to maintain an atmosphere of saturated steam vapour
during the test. The temperature of the autoclave is raised at such a
rate so as to bring gauge pressure of the steam to 2.1 MPa in 1 to
1.25 h from the time heat is turned on. This pressure is maintained for
3 h. The heat supply is then shut off and the autoclave cooled. The
autoclave is then opened and the specimens immediately placed in
water whose temperature is above 90oC. This water is then cooled at
uniform rate by adding cold water so that the temperature is lowered
to 27o + 2oC in 15 minutes. The specimens are surface dried and their
lengths are measured again.
The difference in two lengths, i.e., before and after autoclaving is the
expansion. The expansion permitted for ordinary, rapid hardening,
low heat cements is not more than 0.5 per cent.
Heat of Hydration Test
You are aware that the cement-water reaction is exothermic. A
considerable quantity of heat is liberated. You can observe this by
gauging cement with water and placing it in a thermos flask. This heat
of hydration assumes great importance in relation to concreting in the
interior of the dams. It is estimated that about 120 calories of heat is
generated during hydration of 1 g of cement. You can then imagine
the total quantum of heat generated in the interior of a dam. A
temperature rise of 50oC has been observed. This high temperature
causes severe expansion of the body of the dam. However, shrinkage
occurs when subsequent cooling takes place. These two effects result
in serious cracking of concrete.
This adverse effect is overcome by using leaner mixes, artificial
cooling of constituent materials of concrete and incorporation of pipe
system in the body of the dam as the concrete work progresses for
circulating cold brine solution through the pipe system to absorb heat.
The test for heat of hydration is essentially required to be carried out
for Low Heat cements only. This test is carried out over a few days by
Vacuum Flask Method or over a longer period in an Adiabatic
Calorimeter. IS : 4031 (Part 9)-1988, Determination of Heat of
54
 Hydration, specifies Calorimeter Method. You may refer to this code Cement and Lime
for more details.
Chemical Composition Test
The tests for determination of chemical composition of cement are
specified in IS : 4032-1988. You may refer to this code for detailed
information. However, these tests are generally carried out at the
factory itself.
SAQ 1
(a) Explain the composition of ordinary Portland cement.
(b) Enumerate the various tests for Portland cement.
(c) Explain in brief the manufacture of Portland cement by dry process.

2.3 LIME
Lime is one of the most important building material used since ancient times.
Lime has been used as a cementing material in many historical constructions in
India. Lime is not only important material for building purposes, it is also used in
so many other manufacturing processes.
2.3.1 Types of Lime
Limes are mainly of three types :
(i) Fat Lime
(ii) Hydraulic Lime
(iii) Poor Lime
Fat Lime
This lime is known as fat lime because it increases to 2 to 2.5 times in
volume after slaking. Fat lime is obtained from the lime stone which
contains about 95% calcium oxide and about 5% other materials in the form
of impurities after burning. When limestone containing mostly calcium
carbonate is burnt in atmosphere, carbon dioxide is driven out leaving only
calcium oxide (CaO) known as quick lime. Fat lime is obtained by slaking
quick lime.
Hydraulic Lime
Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning limestone containing lot of clay and
other substances which develop hydraulicity. Hydraulicity of this lime
depends upon the amount of clay and type of clay present in it. This lime
has the property of setting under water. Depending upon the amount of clay

55
Engineering Materials (silica and alumina) present, hydraulic limes may be further divided into
three categories as shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4
Sl. No. Type of Hydraulic Lime % of Silica and Alumina
1. Feebly hydraulic lime Less than 15% (Usually 5% to
10%)
2. Moderately hydraulic lime 15 to 25%
3. Eminently hydraulic lime 25 to 30%

Poor Lime
The above lime contains more than 30% of clay. It slakes very slowly and
does not dissolve in water. It forms a thin plastic paste with water. This
lime sets and hardens very slowly.
2.3.2 Classification of Lime
As per IS : 1973, building limes are classified as follows :
Class A - Eminently hydraulic lime used for structural purposes
Class B - Semi-hydraulic limes used for structural purposes
Class C - Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, white
washing etc., and with addition of pozzolanic material, for
masonry mortar
Class D - Magnesium lime used for finishing coat in plastering,
white washing etc.
Class E - Kankar lime used for masonry mortars
Some of the other I.S. codes on building limes are listed below for your
reference :
• 1625- 1980 Code of practice for preparation of lime mortar for use in
buildings.
• 2541- 1965 Code of practice for use of lime concrete in buildings.
• You will be able to find a list of other related codes on the last page of
IS-712-1973 for your reference.
2.3.3 Definition of Terms
Quicklime
This type of lime is obtained by the burning or calcinations of a limestone
containing large proportions of calcium carbonate. During burning, which is
done in kilns or clamps, carbon dioxide is driven off, leaving calcium oxide,
which is called Quicklime. Quicklime is generally classified into four types
with respect to the content of calcium oxide and magnesium oxide present
(Table 2.5).
Table 2.5
Type Calcium Oxide Magnesium
Percent Oxide Percent
High Calcium or Fat 90 or more -
56
 Lime Cement and Lime

Calcium 85 to 90 -
Magnesium - 10 to 25
Dolomite - 25 or more

Hydrated Lime
This lime is a dry powder obtained by treating quicklime with sufficient
quantity of water to satisfy its chemical affinity. Pressure hydrated
dolomitic lime possesses high plasticity immediately after mixing with
water. The better warehousing and handling properties of hydrated lime in
comparison with Quicklime have made it more popular. Hydrated lime is
the dominant lime product in all limes, which are used in construction. It is
used both in masonry and as gauged plaster.
Calcinations
It is the process of heating the limestone to redness in the presence of
atmospheric air. During this process carbon dioxide is driven out and
calcium oxide is left as the final product.
Setting of Lime
When lime in paste form is exposed to atmosphere, it gradually hardens.
This phenomenon of hardening of lime in exposed conditions is known as
setting of lime.
Hydraulicity
It is sometimes observed that lime sets in damp places or under water or in
thick masonry walls where there is no free access of air. This property of
lime is known as Hydraulicity. Hydraulicity is due to the crystallizing
power of the aluminate and the silicate present in lime.
2.3.4 Properties of Lime
Lime is considered one of the important building material because of following
properties.
(i) It is easily workable.
(ii) It has good plastic properties.
(iii) It can withstand moisture well.
(iv) It imparts sufficient strength to the masonry when used as mortar.
(v) It stiffens quite easily in short span of time.
(vi) Masonry in lime mortar is more durable because of its comparatively
low shrinkage on drying.
(vii) It has good adhering properties with stone bricks both.
2.3.5 Uses of Lime
The lime can be used extensively for the following purposes :
(i) It can be used as a binding material in mortar.
(ii) It can be used as a binding material in concrete.
(iii) Crushed lime is used in the form of an aggregate.
(iv) It is used for plastering.
57
Engineering Materials (v) It is used for white washing and also as a base coat for distempers.
(vi) It is used for preparing lime-sand bricks.
(vii) It is also used in many manufacturing process as a fluxing material.
(viii) It finds use in masonry work in the form of limestone.
(ix) It is also a component of refractory clay.
(x) It is used for soil stabilization.
(xi) It is used for improving soils for agricultural purposes.
(xii) It is used for water purification and sewage treatment works.
(xiii) Cement and Lime can be used in combination to save a certain
percentage of cement.
(xiv) It sometimes finds use in paints also.
(xv) It is used for the manufacture of glass.
2.3.6 Slaking and Hardening of Lime
When water is added to Quicklime, it forms calcium hydroxide or lime hydrate. A
large amount of heat is generated, and the mixture swells to about three times its
original volume. The hardening of lime paste or mortar is caused by the
absorption of carbon dioxide from the air which, in the presence of excess water,
unites with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate. Quicklime is slaked to
form lime paste or putty, in which condition it is used in the work. It is slaked by
placing water in a mortar box and then adding the lime to the water. The quantity
of water always being sufficient to cover the lime. If steaming occurs water
should be added immediately in sufficient quantity to stop steaming and the
mixture should be thoroughly stirred. The lime slaked in a drum with excess of
water standing above lime, is made to stand for a couple of days. In this process,
the cream of lime, which settles on the top of lime is called lime putty.
Properties
Quicklime putty contributes high plasticity and workability to mortar.
Addition of Portland cement decreases the time of hardening of the mortar
and imparts strength to it.
The high calcium or fat limes are generally more plastic than dolomite
Quicklimes, but both impart high plasticity to mortar. When clay is added to
limestones in proportions varying from 10 to 30 percent, to produce lime,
such limes are called hydraulic limes. Such limes start setting and
hardening on combining with water or under water, hence they are called
hydraulic limes. Depending upon the clay content, hydraulic limes can be
categorized as Feebly hydraulic, Moderately hydraulic or Semi-hydraulic
and eminently hydraulic.
Fields of Application
Lime putty is mixed with sand and cement immediately before use, either
by hand or in a mixer, to produce cement lime mortars. The properties of
cement lime mortar depend upon the type of application, though generally
for masonry mortars it is one part by volume (p. b. v) cement, 2 p. b. v lime
putty and not more than 9 p. b. v of sand. However, you must follow the
specifications given in the contract or in the relevant Indian Standard.
• The major portion of quicklime is used to form masonry mortar.
58
 • It is also mixed with gypsum for use as finishing coat of plaster. Cement and Lime

However, these days hydrated lime, which is more convenient to use, is

more popular.
2.3.7 Storage of Lime
Quicklime obtained from kilns starts deteriorating due to action of the
atmospheric moisture if not slaked. Hence, quicklime is required to be slaked
immediately and slaked lime can be kept stored for 14 days in the form of lime
putty or paste. This putty must be used during this time otherwise lime would lose
all its useful properties. Lime can be stored for longer periods in closed and
properly insulated stores where moisture cannot penetrate.
2.3.8 Field Tests of Lime
Properties of lime changes on exposure to atmosphere and therefore it is desirable
to check its quality at various stages viz, after burning, slaking, during storage
and before actual use. The following field tests are carried out:
(i) Visual examination test
(ii) Chemical analysis
(iii) Ball test
(iv) Soundness test
(v) Workability test
(vi) Hydrochloric acid test
(vii) Test for transverse strength
Visual Examination Test
This test is useful in determining the colour of lime which may be pure
white, white or dirty white. It is also helpful in knowing its state of
aggregation i.e. whether it is soft, hard, powdery or lumpy is noted. Pure
white colour points to the class (lime, Lumpy state indicates quicklime or
unburnt lime stone. Porosity in appearance of lumps indicates quicklime.
Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis is carried out to determine cementation value and also
hydraulic properties of sample of lime. The following equation may be used
for determining cementation value of lime :
2.8 A + 1.1 B + 0.76 C
Cementation value =
D + 1 .4 E

where A = percentage of silica according to weight,

B = percentage weight of alumina oxide,
C = percentage weight of iron oxide,
D = percentage weight of calcium oxide,
E = percentage weight of magnesium oxide.
Ball Test
Balls of egg size are made with stiff lime paste formed by adding enough
water in lime. These balls are left undisturbed for six hours after which
place them in a basin of water. For Class C lime there are sign of slow
59
Engineering Materials expansion and slow disintegration within minutes. However, very little or
no expansion and numerous cracks indicate Class B lime.
Soundness Test
This test is done with the help of Le-chatelier apparatus. It consists of a
brass cylinder mould attached with two long indicators and two glass plates.
The mould is placed on glass plate filled with mixture of 1 cement :
3 hydrated lime : 12 sand mortar. The mortar is prepared by adding water at
the rate of 12% of the weight of the mixture. The mould is covered from the
top by second glass plate and left for one hour. The distance between the
indicator needles is then measured. The mould is now placed in a damp air
cup board for 48 hours and subjected to action of saturated steam for
3 hours without immersing in boiling water. The mould is allowed to cool
and the distance between the ends of the two indicators is measured again.
The increase in the indicator ends should not be more than 10 mm. An
allowance of 1mm is given for expansion of added cement.
Workability Test
This test is carried out for estimating the workability of the mortar. A
handful of mortar is thrown, with the same force as for rough cast work, on
the surface on which it is to be used. The workability can be judged by an
experienced mason by noting the area covered and the quantity of mortar
picked up.
Hydrochloric Acid Test
This test is carried out to classify the lime and also to assess the lime
content. A small amount of powdered lime is taken in a test tube and the
level of lime is noted after adding water to it. The tube is stirred with glass
rod and left to rest for 24 hours.
Excessive effervescence indicates that the lime has high percentage of
calcium carbonate. The residue left at the bottom of the test tube indicates
the proportion of impurities or hydraulic properties of lime.
If thick gel is formed in the test tube which would not flow out even by
turning the test tube up side down, indicates the class of lime to be A. If the
gel formed is not very thick and tends to flow out on tilting the tube, it
indicates the class of lime to be B. If there is no gel formation, then it is
Class C lime.
Test for Transverse Strength
A test specimen of size 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 10 cm is prepared. The specimen
is cured for 28 days at 90% at a temperature of 27 + 3oC. The test
specimens are immersed in water for half an hour and tested in the
apparatus for transverse strength as shown in Figure 2.4.

60
 Cement and Lime

Figure 2.4 : Apparatus for Transverse Strength

The specimen is fixed in the testing machine and load is applied
transversely with the help of a third roller placed at mid length of the
specimen. The load is applied at the rate of 7.5 kg per minute till the
specimen brakes in bending. Span of specimen is kept 8 cm.
The modules of rupture (m) of the test specimen is given by
3WS
m = 2 bd 2

where, m = module of rupture in kg/cm2,

W = breaking load in kg,
S = span in cm = 8 cm,
b = breadth of the specimen = 2.5 cm, and
d = depth of the section = 2.5 cm.
3W × 8
Putting the values, m = = 7.68 W
2 × 2.5 × 2.52

The value of
m > 10.5 kg/cm² for class A lime
m > 7 kg/cm² for class B lime
SAQ 2
(a) Describe briefly the classification and uses of lime.
(b) Describe the various field tests for lime.
(c) Distinguish between fat lime and hydraulic lime.

2.4 SUMMARY
You have seen that in construction engineering the execution of different types of
works always involves use of some cementing material or other. The cementing
materials serve the basic purpose of binding different building material in order to
impart strength, rigidity and durability. However, the cementing materials
invariably are to be manufactured from raw materials by different processes, the
most common among them being the process of burning in a kiln. The prominent
cementing materials are limes and cements. However, the most common and
widely used cementing material in the world is cement. Cement is manufactured
by combining both calcareous and argillaceous materials. The most popular
cement is the Ordinary Portland Cement which is the backbone of the
construction industry. However, over the years it has been modified to meet
specific requirements in construction like rapid hardening cement, sulphate
resisting cement and Portland blast furnace slag cement. These cements find
applications in works depending upon their heat of hydration, setting time, rate of
61
Engineering Materials development of strength and ultimate strength among other factors. Finally, like
any other material, testing of cement is also essential to ensure quality and
accordingly details of different types of tests are elaborated.
The lime, broadly comprising quicklime and hydrated lime, are good cementing
materials for mortars and plasters because of high plasticity and workability. The
lime is also used with cement and sand for bedding mortar and plasters. The
different field tests are carried out in case of limes also to check their suitability
for particular type of work.

2.5 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

62
 Concrete
UNIT 3 CONCRETE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Cement Concrete
3.2.1 Classification of Concrete
3.2.2 Grades of Concrete
3.2.3 Selection of Materials for Concrete
3.2.4 Measurement of Materials for Cement Concrete
3.2.5 Qualities of Good Concrete
3.3 Sand
3.3.1 Qualities of Good Sand
3.3.2 Bulking of Sand
3.3.3 Fineness Modulus of Sand
3.4 Manufacturing Process of Concrete
3.4.1 Batching
3.4.2 Mixing
3.4.3 Transportation
3.4.4 Placement
3.4.5 Consolidation
3.4.6 Curing
3.4.7 Finishing
3.5 Types of Concrete
3.6 Testing of Concrete
3.7 Summary
3.8 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is obtained by mixing together cementing material, coarse aggregate,
fine aggregate and water. The overall properties of concrete depends upon the
qualities of raw materials used, their mixing, placing, compaction etc. Hence to
produce good concrete a thorough quality control, based on sound knowledge of
concrete technology, is essential throughout the manufacturing of concrete.
Sometimes an additional ingredient may be added to conventional concrete which
may improve many of the designed properties of concrete. Curing is the last stage
of the concrete manufacturing process.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• classify concrete,
• describe qualities of good concrete,
• elaborate selection of materials for concrete,
• explain the importance of testing of concrete,
63
Engineering Materials • explain the effects of bulking of sand on concrete, and
• describe the importance of proper mixing, placing, compaction,
transportation and curing of concrete.

3.2 CEMENT CONCRETE

Cement concrete is manufactured by mixing cement, water and aggregates in
desired proportions. The admixtures are also added many times to improve some
properties. The mixture, when put in formwork and allowed to cure by
application of water or by other means, becomes a substance like hardstone. The
hardening is caused by a chemical process known as hydration of cement with
water which continues for infinite time. This hydration process makes the
concrete grow stronger with age.
The strength, durability and other characteristics of concrete depend primarily
upon :
(i) the properties of its ingredients,
(ii) proportion of the mix,
(iii) method of compaction, and
(iv) other controls during placing, compaction and curing.
3.2.1 Classification of Concrete
The main ingredients of concrete are cement, fine aggregate and course
aggregate. Most popularly, concrete is specified by the proportion (either by
volume or by weight) of these ingredients. Such classifications are termed as
prescriptive specifications. When specifications specify the requirements of the
desirable properties of concrete such as strength, workability, durability etc., they
are termed as performance oriented specification. Based on these considerations,
the concrete can be classified into either controlled concrete or ordinary concrete,
depending upon
(i) the method of proportioning concrete mixes, and
(ii) the type of quality control exercised during the manufacturing
process.
When the proportions of the ingredients are determined by designing the concrete
mix with all necessary tests being carried out, it is called controlled concrete; the
concrete mix when not so designed is called ordinary concrete. Present code does
not mention about uncontrolled concrete; it only states varying degree of control.
Besides mix designing with necessary tests, the quality control includes selection
of the appropriate concrete materials by proper testing, proper batching and
proper workmanship in mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and curing in
conjunction with the testing of hardened concrete following acceptance criteria as
laid down in IS : 456-1978.
3.2.2 Grades of Concrete
Grading of concrete is done based on 28 days characteristic compressive strength,
while characteristic strength is defined as the strength of material below which
not more than 5 percent of the test result are expected to fall. The various grades
of concrete as stipulated in IS : 456-1978 are given in Table 3.1.
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In the designation of a concrete mix, letter M refers to the mix and the number to Concrete
the specified characteristic compressive strength of 15 cm3 at 28 days expressed
in N/mm2. M5 and M7.5 grades of concrete may be used for lean concrete bases
and simple foundations for masonry wall construction. These mixes need not be
designed. Grades lower than M15 shall not be used in reinforced concrete, and
grades lower than M25 are generally not used for pre-stressed concrete.
Table 3.1 : Grades of Concrete
Grade Designation Specified Characteristic Compressive
Strength at 28 days (N/mm2)
M 10 10
M 15 15
M 20 20
M 25 25
M 30 30
M 35 35
M 40 40

3.2.3 Selection of Materials for Concrete

The materials used for concrete making should be carefully selected so as to get
quality concrete :
Cement
Normally ordinary Portland cement satisfying the requirements of Bureau
of Indian Standard is used. However, for special conditions the type of
cement suiting the requirements is used.
Fine Aggregate
Sand and crushed stones are commonly used as fine aggregate in cement
concrete. The fine aggregate used in concrete making shall be hard, durable,
clean, free from adherent coatings, organic matter and harmful impurities.
Coarse Aggregate
Stone ballast, gravel, shingle and brick ballast are normally used as coarse
aggregate in making cement concrete. Strength of concrete depends to a
great extent on the voids in coarse aggregate. It is recommended to use well
graded aggregates which gives solid and dense concrete which is stronger,
more durable and water tight.
Water
The water used should be free from silt, salts or any organic matter. Only
good clean water which is fit for drinking purposes should be used.
3.2.4 Measurement of Materials for Cement Concrete
The measurement of materials used for making cement concrete is done as
follows :
Cement
Cement is always measured by weight. It is mostly used in terms of number
of bags. One bag of cement weighs 50 kg and has a volume of 35 litres.
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Engineering Materials Fine Aggregate
It is usually measured by weight for high class works and by volume for
ordinary works. Whenever it is measured by volume, allowance must be
made for its bulking.
Coarse Aggregate
The coarse aggregate can be measured either by weight or by volume as it
does not suffer any bulking due to moisture. The weight of a given volume
of aggregate is affected by grading of the concrete.
Water
It is always measured by volume. It is necessary to give due consideration
to the amount of moisture already present in fine and coarse aggregate.
3.2.5 Qualities of Good Concrete
Good concrete should be strong, durable, dense, water tight, workable and be able
to resist wear and tear.
Strength
Concrete should be strong enough to withstand the stresses that it is
subjected to in due coarse of time. It is quite strong in compression but
weak in tension. It is reinforced with steel bars whenever it is subjected to
tensile stresses.
Durability
The concrete should be able to withstand the weathering action of wind,
rain, frost and variations of temperature etc. It should be able to withstand
the action of chemical salts when used in the construction of drains and
sewers or structures in touch with sea water.
Density
The concrete should be well compacted so that there should not be any
voids or hollows left.
Water Tightness
The above property of concrete is very important when it is used for the
construction of water retaining structures such as dams, elevated tanks and
water reservoirs.
Workability
The concrete should be easily workable.
Resistance to Wear and Tear
The concrete should be able to withstand abrasive forces when it is used in
floors and in the construction of roads.

3.3 SAND
It is a form of silica (SiO2) which may be siliceous or argillaceous according to
composition. It consists of small grains of silica and is formed by the
decomposition of sand stone due to various weathering effects.
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 Concrete
3.3.1 Qualities of Good Sand
A good sand should possess the following qualities :
(i) It should have coarse and angular grains of pure silica.
(ii) The grains of sand should be hard, strong and durable.
(iii) The sand should not contain any organic matter.
(iv) The sand should be well graded so that minimum voids are left in it.
(v) The sand should be free from silt, clay or any other undesirable salt
which may hamper setting of cement or attack the reinforcement.
(vi) It should not contain any hygroscopic matter.
(vii) The sand should be inert completely.
3.3.2 Bulking of Sand
Bulking of sand means increase in its volume. Fine aggregates increases in
volume when they possess some moisture. Fine sand bulk more than coarse sand.
The percent increase in dry volume of sand corresponding to moisture content is
shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 : Bulking of Sand

The extent of bulking can also be determined by a simple field test. In this, a
sample of moist fine aggregate is filled in a measuring cylinder and its level is
noted say h1. Now pour water and completely submerge the sand and shake. Note
down the new level as h2.
h1 − h2
The percentage of bulking = × 100 .
h2

3.3.3 Fineness Modulus of Sand

Fineness Modulus is obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of aggregates
retained on each of the standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and
dividing this sum by an arbitrary number 100. Table 3.2 demonstrates how it is
worked out, based on the sieve analysis conducted on a sample of coarse and fine
aggregate.

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Engineering Materials Table 3.2
Coarse Aggregate
IS Sieve Size Weight Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Retained Weight Percentage Percentage
(kg) Retained (kg) Retained Passing
80 mm 0 0 0 100
40 mm 0 0 0 100
20 mm 6 6 40 60
10 mm 5 11 73.3 26.7
4.75 mm 4 15 100 00
2.36 mm - - 100 00
1.18 mm - - 100 00
600 micron - - 100 00
300 micron - - 100 00
150 micron - - 100 00
Lower than 150 - - - 00
micron
Total 15 kg 713.3

F.M. = 713.3 / 100 = 7.133

3.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CONCRETE

The production of quality concrete requires proper care at every stage of
manufacture. It does not rest solely on proper proportioning, though the same is
essential for strength and durability. You must have observed that the ingredients
of a good and bad concrete are same, but it is the skill, care and observance of
good rules behind it which makes the difference. A similarity can be drawn
between concrete making at site and cooking in the kitchen. Just as in the kitchen
with the same recipes, the same dishes cooked by two different housewives taste
different, so is the case at site with concrete. The reason is that it is the skill of
different housewives in the kitchen and different concrete at site, which matters.
Another common point is that while excess water in cooking can spoil the dish,
the same is the case with concrete where excess water affects strength and
durability. Therefore, it is very necessary for us to know what are the good rules
which should be complied with to produce concrete of good quality. We will
study these as we go through various steps of manufacture of concrete which are
given in sub-sections that follows :
(i) Batching
(ii) Mixing
(iii) Transportation
(iv) Placement
(v) Consolidation
(vi) Curing
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 (vii) Finishing Concrete

3.4.1 Batching
The measurement of constituent materials for making the concrete is known as
batching. There are two methods of batching :
(i) Volume Batching
(ii) Weigh Batching
Volume Batching
At the outset, we may mention that volume batching is not a good method
for proportioning the materials because of the difficulties encountered in
measuring granular materials volumetrically. In case of moist sand due to
bulking, a given volume of it weighs much less in moist condition than in
dry condition. The amount of solid granular material in a cubic metre is an
indefinite quantity. Therefore except for unimportant or minor jobs, the
materials must be weigh batched.
Weigh Batching
Batching of aggregates and cement should always be by weight. Only water
and liquid admixtures can be measured accurately by volume. Weigh
batching also allows rapid and convenient adjustment of batch weights of
aggregate and water when changes in aggregate moisture contents occur.
Use of weigh batching system facilitates accuracy, flexibility and
simplicity.
3.4.2 Mixing
Once all the constituents of concrete have been batched correctly, it is essential
that they are mixed thoroughly to achieve complete blending in order to produce
homogeneous and uniform concrete. Otherwise, inadequate mixing would result
in the decreasing strengths and large variations from batch to batch and within
batch also. The two most common methods of mixing are :
(i) Hand Mixing
(ii) Machine Mixing
Hand Mixing
At the very outset, we may mention that hand mixing should be an
exception and may be resorted to only for small scale, unimportant and non-
structural elements. Ten percent more cement is added to cater for the fact
that hand mixing cannot be thorough and efficient.
The operation is carried out as follows :
(i) Spread out the measured quantities of coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate in alternate layers over an impervious platform.
(ii) Now spread cement over it and mix all the constituents in dry state by
a shovel, till a uniform colour is achieved.
(iii) Spread this dry mix in a 20 cm thick layer and sprinkle water over it.
During the process, keep mixing and turning over the layer till a
uniform, homogeneous concrete is obtained. As the mixing is about to
be over, add water in small quantity to obtain the just required
consistency.
Machine Mixing
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Engineering Materials Machine mixing is a must for all reinforced concrete work and for medium
and large scale mass concrete work. It is both efficient and economical. But
to achieve this we must have a good mixing machine or concrete mixer.
In the market, a great variety of mixers are now available. They can be
broadly classified as :
(i) Batch Mixers, and (ii) Continuous Mixers.
3.4.3 Transportation
Once the concrete has been batched and mixed the next obvious step is to
transport it to the site of work, ensuring that the homogeneity obtained at the time
of mixing is maintained at the final place of deposition. The choice of selection
of a particular mode of transportation will depend upon the amount of concrete
involved, the size and type of construction, the topography of job site, the
location of the central plant and relative costs.
The different methods of transportation of concrete are :
(i) Mortar pan
(ii) Wheel barrow (hand cart)
(iii) Bucket and rope way
(iv) Truck mixers and dumpers
(v) Belt conveyors
(vi) Chute
(vii) Skip and hoist
(viii) Concrete pumps
Let us study these in more detail.
Mortar Pan
For short distances, this is one of the most common method used in India.
Small quantities of concrete are carried more number of times. Mortar pan
method of conveyance of concrete is usually adopted for concreting at
ground level, below or above ground level without much difficulty.
Wheel Barrow
Wheel barrows are employed for transporting concrete for comparatively
longer distance on level ground as in the case of concrete road construction.
Bucket and Ropeway
Buckets or skips are a versatile means of moving concrete about the job site
by the use of ropeway. This method is adopted in case of concreting work
in a valley or construction of a pier in the river for a bridge or for dam
construction. The mixing of concrete is done on the bank or abutment at a
convenient place. The bucket is brought by the ropeway, filled and then
taken back to the desired point. The horizontal and vertical movement of
the bucket is controlled by a set of pulleys. For discharging the concrete, the
bucket may be tilted or sometimes the concrete is discharged by providing a
hinged bottom in the bucket. The discharge of concrete can also be
achieved by a gate system operated by compressed air. However, you must
ensure that concrete is not made to fall freely from great height. An
advantage is that large quantity of concrete can be transported with no
exposure to sun and wind and without much change in workability.
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Truck Mixers and Dumpers Concrete

Trucks and dumpers are used for transporting concrete in large concrete
works. They have a distinct advantage over wagons which need rail tracks.
Dumpers are generally of 2 to 3 cubic metre capacity whereas the capacity
of truck mixers may be 4 cubic metre or more. The inside of the body of the
truck mixer should be wetted before loading it with concrete. Insulated
sheets, tarpaulins or other covers may be provided to render protection
against evaporation of moisture from concrete during transit. When
concrete is to be hauled over long distance, it will be prudent to use trucks
with agitators which prevent segregation and stiffening. The agitators
carryout the mixing process continuously at slow speed.
Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors can also be used to transport concrete both horizontally and
vertically. However, special care is required to be taken with this mode of
transportation. The principal drawback is the tendency of the concrete to
segregate on steep inclines, at transfer points, at changes of direction, at
places where the belt passes over the rollers and at discharge point. Since
the concrete is spread out rather thinly, it is susceptible to loss of moisture
or increase of temperature during hot weather, which will increase slump
loss. Care is also required to be taken to prevent mortar from adhering to
the belt. The use of belt conveyors is therefore not recommended in very
hot conditions.
Chute
Chutes are generally used for transporting concrete from ground to a lower
level. The chute should be lined with metal and shall have slope not flatter
than 1 vertical to 2.5 horizontal. The layout of chute should be such that
concrete slides evenly in a compact mass without any separation or
segregation. Chute is not considered a good method of transporting
concrete. However, it is adopted when movement of labour is not possible
due to lack of space or fear of disturbance to reinforcement and other
accessories.
Skip and Hoist
It is one of the most widely used method for transporting concrete upwards
for multistoreyed building construction, specially more than 4 storeys.
In this arrangement, the concrete mixer directly feeds the skip at ground
level. The skip travels upon the rails up to the required storey where the
concrete is discharged automatically or by manual operation. The quality of
concrete, i.e. freedom from segregation depends upon the height travelled
and the rolling over the rails. For greater heights, the concrete must be
turned over before being placed in position.
Concrete Pumps
Pumping of concrete through rigid or flexible pipeline, directly into the
desired location is one of the most satisfactory method of transportation.
This is a very versatile method and is specially useful where working space
is limited like in tunnels. Depending on the power of engines, the effective
pumping range varies from 90 to 300 metres horizontally and 30 to
90 metres vertically. The pumping rate could vary from 8 to 75 cubic
metres per hour.
Three types of pumping equipment, generally used, are :
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Engineering Materials (i) Piston Pump
(ii) Pneumatic Pump
(iii) Squeeze Pump
A trial mix is required to be made in the laboratory to find out the exact
requirements of pumping concrete. Admixtures may be used to facilitate
pumping of concrete.
3.4.4 Placement
When a concrete mix has been properly designed, batched, mixed and
transported, it is relevant that this concrete is also placed in the member in a
correct manner. Different situations require different care and therefore suitable
method of placing concrete is adopted.
3.4.5 Consolidation
After placement, the concrete needs to be worked to eliminate voids and
entrapped air and to consolidate the concrete into the corners of the formwork and
around the reinforcing steel.
Consolidation or Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the
entrapped air from concrete. If this entrapped air is not removed fully, the
concrete loses strength considerably. It is seen that 5 percent voids reduce the
strength of concrete by about 30 percent and 10 percent voids reduce the strength
of concrete by about 50 percent. The compaction of concrete is one of the major
activities in the manufacturing of quality concrete.
The methods adopted for compacting the concrete are :
(i) Hand Compaction
(ii) Compaction by Vibration
(iii) Compaction by Pressure and Jolting
(iv) Compaction by Spinning
Hand Compaction
Hand compaction consists of rodding, ramming or tamping. It is adopted
only in case of unimportant concrete work of very small magnitude. When
hand compaction is adopted, the consistency of concrete is maintained at a
higher level. The thickness of the layer of concrete is limited to 15 to 20
cm. In rodding, the concrete is poked by a rod to pack the concrete between
the reinforcement and sharp corners and edges. It is done continuously over
the complete area so as to expel the entrapped air.
Ramming should not be permitted in case of reinforced concrete or upper
floors as it can disturb the reinforcement or formwork. Light ramming can
be permitted only in unreinforced foundation concrete or in ground floor
construction.
Tamping is one of the usual methods for compacting the roof or floor slab
or road pavements where the thickness of concrete is relatively less and the
surface is to be finished smooth and level.
Compaction by Vibration
Most of the concrete now placed in building construction is compacted by
vibration. Compaction of concrete by vibration has completely
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 revolutionalised the concrete technology. It is now possible to use low Concrete
slump stiff mixes for production of high quality concrete with desired
strength and impermeability. A concrete with about 4 cm slump can be
placed and compacted fully in a heavily reinforced concrete work which is
not at all possible with hand compaction where a slump of about 12 cm may
be required. Actually, the action of vibration is to set the particles of fresh
concrete in motion, reducing the friction between them and effecting a
temporary liquifaction of concrete which enables easy settlement. The
concrete flows or liquifies under the shear forces accompanying the
vibration and the concrete is compacted away from the vibrator. Vibration
by itself does not affect the strength of concrete which is controlled by
water/cement ratio. But by permitting use of less water, i.e. stiff mix,
concrete of higher strength and better quality can be made for a given
cement factor. All the potential advantages of vibration can be fully
harnessed if proper control is exercised in the design and manufacture of
concrete and the type of vibrator required and its correct use is made. The
different kinds of vibrator available and which are in use are as follows :
(i) Internal Vibrator
(ii) External Vibrator
(iii) Screed Board Vibrator
(iv) Table and Platform Vibrator
Compaction By Pressure and Jolting
This method is considered very effective for very dry concrete as is used in
casting of hollow blocks, cavity blocks and solid concrete blocks. The stiff
concrete is vibrated, pressed and jolted. This compacts the concrete into
dense form which possesses good strength and volume stability. By
employing great pressure, a concrete of very low water cement ratio can be
compacted to yield very high strength. This method is mostly employed in
the laboratory.
Compaction by Spinning
Spinning is one of the recent methods of concrete compaction. The plastic
concrete when spun at very high speed gets compacted by centrifugal force.
It is used for compaction & fabrication of concrete spun pipes.
3.4.6 Curing
We have seen in Unit 2, on cement and lime, that concrete derives its strength by
the hydration of cement particles. This hydration is fast to start with but
continuous for a long time at a decreasing rate. Cement requires a water/cement
ratio of 0.23 for hydration and 0.15 for filling the voids in gel pores. Therefore,
theoretically a water/cement ratio of 0.38 would satisfy the requirement of water
for hydration with no capillaries. Practically a water/cement ratio of 0.5 will be
required for complete hydration in a sealed container. However, in practice, water
is lost from the paste by evaporation or by absorption of water by aggregates,
formwork, or subgrade. If this moisture loss brings the internal relative humidity
below about 80%, hydration will stop and strength development drops. Therefore,
to ensure continued hydration the loss of moisture would require replenishment or
by some means to prevent the loss itself. The desirable conditions are a suitable
temperature and ample moisture. Curing is the process by which a favourable
environment is created to ensure uninterrupted hydration. It has been recognized
73
Engineering Materials that the quality of concrete shows all round improvement with efficient
uninterrupted curing. There are several methods by which concrete can be cured.
Curing methods are generally categorized as below :
(i) Water Curing
(ii) Membrane Curing
(iii) Curing at Elevated Temperatures
(iv) Miscellaneous Methods of Curing
3.4.7 Finishing
Finishing is the last operation in manufacture of concrete. It is very important in
case of concrete road pavement, airfield pavement and flooring. Surface finishes
may be grouped in following categories :
(i) Formwork Finishes
(ii) Surface Treatment
(iii) Applied Finishes
Formwork Finishes
Concrete takes the shape of the formwork in which it is put and also
faithfully reproduces the surface against which it is cast. This can be used to
advantage by using imaginatively the wooden and steel formwork. Wood
grain effects can be obtained by casting directly against wood or textures
imprinted in rubber or plastic form liners can also be obtained if they are
provided on the inside of the formwork. The use of small battens and
shuttering type plywood can help obtaining self finishing of concrete
surface.
Surface Treatment
Surface treatment is a widely used method of surface finishing. Skid
resistance surface is required in case of road and airfield pavements. This
can be done by raking lightly or brooming or scratching to make the surface
rough.
Floor slabs require to be smooth, wear resistant and free of cracks. This can
be done by use of well proportioned mix, correct water/cement ratio and
proper spreading and levelling. Surface must be finished in the same rate as
the placing of concrete. The extent and time of traveling is important the
wooden float can be used initially but final finishing should be done with
steel trowel. There should be no laitance or excess mortar at the surface.
Extra mortar should not be used for finishing.
Exposed Aggregate Finish
In this method the matrix is removed by washing the surface with
water after one or two days of casting or by use of slight brushing.
Sometimes washing is done by liquid containing one part of
hydrochloric acid and six parts of water. This exposes the aggregate
which looks quite good.
Bush and Hammering
This is done when concrete is about three weeks old. Rapid blows to
the concrete surface are given by a bush hammer thus removing outer
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 cement film and a bit of exposed aggregate also thus imparting bright Concrete
colourful, and attractive surface.
Applied Finishes
In this process, the concrete surface is cleaned and roughened and kept wet
for a sufficiently long time. Now a cement mortar 1 : 3 layer is applied on
it. This mortar rendering can now be given finishes like combed finish,
keying or sponge finish by pressing a sponge against it which removes
cement and water and exposes sand particles.
A rough cast finish can be obtained by splashing a wet plastic mix of three
parts of cement, one part lime, six parts sand and 4 parts of 5 mm size
peagravel aggregate.
A Pebble Dash finish can be obtained by use of a 10 mm thick cement coat
of one part cement, one part lime & five parts sand. When it is still plastic
6mm size selected well washed pebbles are pressed into it.
Fair Crete finish can be obtained by use of highly air-entrained mortar
mixed with chopped jute fibre. The mortar is spread and pressed by moulds
having different designs.
There are other finishes like Non-slip finish, coloured finish and wear
resistant floor finish.
Another important points to take care of during finishing is Craziness, i.e.
development of fine shallow hair cracks on concrete surface. This could
occur due to shrinkage of the surface skin of the concrete. Following
precaution should prove useful.
(i) Trowel the surface as little as possible, minimize use of steel trowel.
(ii) Avoid use of rich facing mixes.
(iii) Use low water/cement ratio consistent with adequate compaction.
(iv) Avoid applying neat cement paste in the surfaces or grouting with it.

3.5 TYPES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is of following types :

You may go through any book on building material listed in the section “Further
Readings” for details of these types of concrete.

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Engineering Materials
3.6 TESTING OF CONCRETE
Testing of concrete is very essential to ensure that the desired properties of the
concrete is achieved after the concrete hardened. If we would not control at early
stage, i.e. at the time of fresh concrete, it will not be possible to achieve the same.
Testing of fresh concrete as well as hardened concrete is carried out to ensure
proper quality control.
Testing of Fresh Concrete
The concrete in fresh state is tested for workability.
Workability
Unfortunately, no test can measure directly workability. However,
workability itself could not be precisely defined as has been
mentioned in earlier sections. Numerous attempts have so far been
made to quantify this very important and vital property of fresh
concrete. But none of these methods are satisfactory for precisely
measuring this property although some of them may provide useful
information within a range of variation in workability.
Following three methods incorporated in IS 1199 – 1959 are found to
be useful to measure workability of concrete at frequent intervals
during progress of work in the field.
(i) Slump core test.
(ii) Compacting factor test.
(iii) Vee-Bee consistometer test.
While slump cone test is responsive to medium range of workability,
compacting factor test is more accurate and can be performed for a
wide range of workability, i.e. for concrete mixes of high to very low
workabilities. The Vee-Bee test is better suited for low and very low
workabilities. However, slump cone test being simple and easy to
perform is most widely used.
It is needless to say that workability being single most important
property of fresh concrete, it is to be measured at regular interval
when concreting is in progress at site and if any deviation found in
workability immediately corrective measure is to be taken in mix
proportion, aggregate grading, water cement ratio, quantity of
admixtures added in each batch and any other parameter which affects
workability.
Testing of Hardened Concrete
Testing of hardened concrete forms the last stage of quality control. One of
the purpose of the testing hardened concrete is to conform that the concrete
made at site has acquired the desired strength. Two types of testing is done
on hardened concrete :
(i) Destructive testing of hardened concrete, and
(ii) Non-destructive testing of hardened concrete.
Destructive Testing of Hardened Concrete

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 For destructive testing, a specimen is separately made of concrete which is Concrete
being used in actual structure and cured for specified period. The specimen
is then tested for destruction thus giving intrinsic strength of concrete at the
time of testing which has also been used in actual structure.
Destructive testing may lead to determination of following strengths of
concrete.
(i) Compressive strength
(ii) Direct tensile strength
(iii) Tensile strength in flexure.
However, the most common of all these tests on hardened concrete is the
compressive strength test. This is because, firstly, compressive strength test
is easiest to perform, secondly, though not all but almost all desirable
characteristics of concrete, if not quantitatively, but at least qualitatively
can be related to the compressive strength due to the intrinsic importance of
compressive strength of concrete in construction. It should be remembered
that no tests are end to themselves. In fact they themselves seldom leads to
a complete conclusion, hence to have these results of any practical value,
they should be interpreted with background of right experience.
Non-Destructive Testing of Hardened Concrete
If the specimen tested is not taken to destruction, the testing method
adopted is called non-destructive testing method. As the specimen is not
taken to destruction, this method can be adopted on actual structure and
hence no specimen like cubes, cylinders, beams etc. are to be cast
separately. This method of testing allows repeated testing of the same
specimen and thus make possible a study of the variation in proportion with
time which is essential requirement of quality control.
Non-destructive testing method adopted not only for quality control and
ensuring compliance with specification but also can be made for specific
purposes like determination of strength of concrete at transfer of pre-stress
or at the time of striking formwork.
Many attempts have been made to evolve and devise non-destructive testing
methods but only few of them proved to be successful and adopted in
practice.
The following tests are carried out for non-destructive testing of concrete.
(i) Rebound Hammer test
(ii) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity method
(iii) Resonant Frequency method
SAQ 1
(a) Explain in brief the selection of materials for cement concrete.
(b) How various materials used in the preparation of cement concrete are
measured?
(c) Describe the qualities of good concrete.
(d) What do you mean by fineness modulus of sand? Explain its
importance.
(e) Explain the necessity of carrying out various tests on concrete.
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Engineering Materials (f) Describe the significance of consolidation of concrete.

3.7 SUMMARY
Concrete is considered to be the most widely used structural material. Quality of
concrete, however, depends not only on the quality of the ingredients from which
it is made but also on many more parameters, like batching, mixing,
transportation, placement, consolidation, curing, finishing and water cement ratio.
By addition of one more ingredient to conventional concrete, certain special
properties can be developed in the resulting concrete which has got special
applications. The importance of carrying out various types of tests on concrete is
also discussed at the end.

3.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

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 Timber
UNIT 4 TIMBER
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definition of Timber
4.3 Uses of Timber
4.4 Classification of Trees
4.4.1 Endogenous Trees
4.4.2 Exogenous Trees
4.5 Growth of a Tree
4.6 Structure of a Tree
4.6.1 Macrostructure
4.6.2 Microstructure
4.7 Characteristics of Good Timber
4.8 Defects in Timber
4.9 Decay of Timber
4.10 Felling of Trees
4.11 Seasoning of Timber
4.11.1 Objects of Seasoning
4.11.2 Methods of Seasoning
4.12 Stacking of Timber
4.12.1 Methods of Stacking
4.12.2 Precautions to be taken in Stacking Timber
4.13 Preservation of Timber
4.14 Measurements of Timber
4.15 Tests of Timber
4.15.1 Moisture Content Test
4.15.2 Specific Gravity Test
4.16 Summary
4.17 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Timber is one of the important construction materials. Wood is used as structural
elements in buildings, widely for doors, windows and partitions and find large use
through secondary wood products like plywood, particle boards and laminated
boards, etc. Both hard as well as soft woods are in use. Wood also forms an
integral part of any interior of building and with the development in wood
technology effective utilization of timber is essential.
Therefore, in this unit we shall concentrate on Timber.

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Engineering Materials Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain definition, properties and drawbacks of timber,
• elaborate classification and uses of timber,
• know the characteristics of good timber,
• know the defects in timber alongwith extensive details concerning the
causes for the defects,
• explain the objectives and methods of seasoning, and
• understand the methods of stacking and preservation of timber.

4.2 DEFINITION OF TIMBER

Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes is called timber. When
wood forms part of a living tree it is called standing timber whereas it is called
rough timber when the tree has been felled. The wood is called converted timber
when it has been sawn to various market forms such as beams, battens and planks
etc.
Properties
Timber or wood, as building material, possesses a number of valuable
properties such as :
(i) Low heat conductivity,
(ii) Amenability to mechanical working,
(iii) Small bulk density, and
(iv) Relatively high strength, etc.
Drawbacks
Timber has its own drawbacks such as :
(i) Susceptibility to decay and inflammability,
(ii) Fluctuations in properties due to changes in moisture content,
(iii) Variations in strength in length and across fibres, etc.
These shortcomings require careful consideration while making use of it.

4.3 USES OF TIMBER

Timber is mainly used for following categories of works :
(i) It is used for construction purposes including building construction,
houseposts, beams, rafters, bridges, piles, poles and railway sleepers
etc.
(ii) It is used for furniture and cabinet making.
(iii) It is used for light packing cases.
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 (iv) It is also used for heavy packing cases such as machinery and similar Timber
stores.
(v) It is used for manufacturing agricultural implements and tool handles.
(vi) It is used for making turnery articles and toys etc.
(vii) It is used for manufacturing veneers and plywoods.

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TREES

Trees are classified according to their mode of growth as shown below.

4.4.1 Endogenous Trees

These trees are the ones that grow inwards in a longitudinal fibrous mass.
Examples of such trees are banana, bamboo, palm, cane etc.
Even though the “stem” of trees of this class is light and tough yet it is too
flexible and slender to furnish material suitable for engineering works, with the
exception of bamboo.
4.4.2 Exogenous Trees
These trees are those that grow outwards by the addition of one concentric ring
every year. These rings are known as annual rings. Since one ring is added to the
tree every year so the number of annual rings in the stem of a tree indicates its
age in years. The timber obtained from this class of trees is extensively used in
engineering works.
Conifers
These are also known as ever-green trees and leaves of these trees do not
fall till new ones are grown. As these trees bear cone-shaped fruits, they are
given the name conifers. These trees yield soft woods.
Deciduous
The trees are also known as broad leaf trees and leaves of these trees fall in
autumn and new ones appear in spring season. Timber for Engineering
purposes is mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield hard
wood.
Hard Wood
A hard wood possesses the following characteristics :
(a) The wood is comparatively heavier and is darker in colour.
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Engineering Materials (b) The annual rings are not distinct.
(c) It contains a large percentage of acid.
(d) It is hard and difficult to work upon.
(e) It resists shearing stresses.
(f) It is close-grained and strong.
(g) It is non resinous.
Shisham, Sal, Teak, Oak, Mahagony and Babul are examples of hard wood.
Soft Wood
A soft wood possesses the following characteristics.
(i) It is light in weight and colour.
(ii) Annual rings are very distinct.
(iii) It is comparatively weaker and splits easily.
(iv) It has straight fibres.
(v) It is resinous, i.e. contains resins and turpentine. It has a peculiar
fragrance.
(vi) It is strong for resisting tensile forces.
(vii) It is weak in directions across the grains.
(viii) Its texture is soft and regular.
Spruce, Deodar, Chir, Kail and Walnut etc., are examples of soft wood.

4.5 GROWTH OF A TREE

The roots of the tree suck a solution of salts from the soil in spring season. These
salts are food for the tree and roots transmit the same through the trunk of tree to
its branches and leaves. This solution of salts looses some of the moisture because
of evaporation and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. This action in the
presence of sun makes the solution a bit viscous. This transformed viscous
solution is known as sap.
This viscous sap descends below the bark and leaves a thick layer in autumn.
Layer of sap left below the bark gets transformed to wood and is known as
cambium layer. A fresh layer is thus added on the outside of the tree every year
forming a new annual ring. The new ring represents a year’s growth of tree.
Medullary rays carry the sap from below the bark to the interior thereby
nourishing the tree.

4.6 STRUCTURE OF A TREE

Now, after the classifications, we should know the structure of a tree, how it is
formed and the terms in its formation.
A tree basically consists of three parts, viz, trunk, crown and roots.
From the visibility aspects, the structure of a tree can be divided into two
categories :
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 (i) Macrostructure Timber

(ii) Microstructure
4.6.1 Macrostructure
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is
called macrostructure. Figure 4.1 shows the macrostructure of exogenous tree.

Figure 4.1 Cross-section of an Exogenous Tree

These parts of the cross-section are described below :
Pith or Medulla
It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree and it consists entirely of
cellular tissues. The pith contains a large amount of fluid and nourishes the
plant when the plant is young. It dies up and decays when the plant
becomes old and sap is then transmitted by the woody fibres deposited
round the pith.
Annual Rings
The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith are
known as annual rings because one such ring is added every year.
Heart Wood
Inner most rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. This wood
is darker in colour, stronger, more compact and durable.
Sap Wood
The outer annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer of the tree
constitute the sap wood which transmits the sap from roots to branches.
Compared with heart wood, sap wood is lighter in colour, weaker and more
liable to decay. Sap wood is also known as alburnum.
Cambium Layer
Outermost ring between the bark and sap wood which is not yet converted
into wood is known as the cambium layer.
Inner Bark
The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark.
It gives protection to cambium layer from any injury.
Outer Bark

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Engineering Materials The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark. It is the
outermost protective layer and it sometimes contains cracks and fissures. It
consists of cells of woody fibre and is also known as cortex.
Medullary Rays
These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark.
They carry sap from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They
keep the annual rings tightly gripped together.
4.6.2 Microstructure
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called
microstructure. When studied under a microscope, it becomes evident that wood
consists of living and dead cells of various sizes and shapes.

4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TIMBER

Following are the characteristics or qualities of a good timber :
(i) It should be free from sap and be from heart of a sound tree.
(ii) It should have straight and close fibres.
(iii) It should give a clear ringing sound when struck. Dull heavy sound is
a sign of internal decay.
(iv) It should be of uniform dark colour. Light colour usually indicates
timber with low strength.
(v) It should have regular annual rings.
(vi) Timbers with narrow annual rings are generally the strongest.
(vii) Freshly cut surface should give sweet smell.
(viii) It should have bright and smooth surface when planed. Dull
appearance is a sign of defective timber.
(ix) Teeth of saw should not get clogged while sawing.
(x) Out of same variety of timber, darker and heavier pieces are stronger.
(xi) It should be free from dead knots, from too many knots, shakes or
other defects.
(xii) It should have firm adhesion of fibers and compact medullary rays.
(xiii) A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the
actions of fungi, insects, chemicals etc.
(xiv) A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during
conversion or seasoning. It should not bow or warp or split.
(xv) A good timber should be capable of offering resistance to shocks due
to vibrations.

4.8 DEFECTS IN TIMBER

You have understood the tree, its classification and structure. Now, let us study
the defects in timber.

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As human body has many defects, timber also have defects. These are grouped Timber
into the following five categories :
(i) Defects due to conversion
(ii) Defects due to fungi
(iii) Defects due to insects
(iv) Defects due to natural forces
(v) Defects due to seasoning
Now, let us know various types of defects under each category :
Defects Due to Conversion
During the process of converting timber to commercial form, the following
defects may occur :
(i) Chip mark
(ii) Diagonal grain
(iii) Torn grain
(iv) Wane
Chip Mark
This defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the
finished surface of timber. They may also be formed by the parts of a
planing machine.
Diagonal Grain
This defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber. It is indicated by
diagonal mark on straight grained surface of timber.
Torn Grain
This defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the finished
surface of timber by falling of a tool or so.
Wane
This defect is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on the
manufactured piece of timber.
Defects Due to Fungi
Fungi are minute microscopic plant organisms. They attack timber only
when the following two conditions are satisfied simultaneously.
(i) The moisture content of timber is above 12-15%.
(ii) There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.
If any of the above condition is absent, decay of wood due to fungi would
not occur. Hence, dry wood having moisture content less than 12-14 % will
remain sound for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water will not be
attacked by fungi because of absence of air. Following defects are caused in
timber by fungi.
(i) Blue stain
(ii) Brown rot
(iii) Dry rot
(iv) Heart rot
(v) Sap stain 85
Engineering Materials (vi) Wet rot
(vii) White rot
Blue Stain
Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain type of
fungi.
Brown Rot
The term rot is used to indicate decay or disease of timber. Certain types of
fungi remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence, wood assumes
the brown colour. This is known as brown rot.
Dry Rot
Certain types of fungi feed on wood and during feeding, they attack on
wood and convert it into dry powder form. This is known as dry rot.
Following are to be noted :
(i) Dry rot occurs at places where there is no free circulation of air such
as improperly ventilated basements, rooms, etc.
(ii) Unseasoned soft woods and sap wood are easily attacked by dry rot.
(iii) If timber is not properly stored after being felled down, it is liable for
the attack of dry rot.
(iv) It is not necessary to have damp conditions for the development of
dry rot.
(v) Dry rot is also caused by charring, painting and tarring the
unseasoned timber.
Heart Rot
This is formed when a branch has come out of a tree. In such a case, heart
wood is exposed to the attack of atmospheric agents. Ultimately, the tree
becomes weak and it gives out hollow sound when struck with a hammer.
Sap Stain
Certain types of fungi do not bring about the complete decay of timber. But
they feed on cell contents of sap wood. In doing so, sap wood loses its
colour. This is known as sap stain and it generally occurs where moisture
content goes beyond 20% or so.
Wet Rot
Some varieties of fungi cause chemical decomposition of wood of the
timber and in doing so they convert timber into a greyish brown powder.
This is known as wet rot. The important facts to be remembered are :
(i) Alternate dry and wet conditions favour the development of wet rot.
(ii) If unseasoned or improperly seasoned timbers are exposed to rain and
wind, they become easily liable for the attack of wet rot.
(iii) To prevent wet rot, well-seasoned timber should be used for exterior
work or for underground work and it should be covered by tar or paint
for protection against moisture.
White Rot
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 This defect is just opposite of brown rot. In this case, certain types of fungi Timber
attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the appearance of a white mass
consisting of cellulose compounds.
Defects Due to Insects
Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the decay of
timber :
(i) Beetles
(ii) Marine borers
(iii) Termites
Beetles
These are small insects and they cause rapid decay of timber. They form
pin-holes of size about 2 mm diameter in wood. They attack the sap wood
of all species of hard wood. Tunnels are formed in all directions in sap
wood by the larvae of these beetles. The timber is converted into fine
flour-like powder. They usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover.
Hence, timber piece attacked by beetles may look sound till it completely
fails.
Marine Borers
These are generally found in salty water. Most of the varieties of marine
borers do not feed on wood. But they make holes or bore tunnels in wood
for taking shelter. The diameter and length of these holes may go as high as
25 mm and 60 mm respectively. The wood attacked by marine borers loses
colour and strength. It may be noted that no timber is completely immune
from the attack of marine borers.
Termites
These are popularly known as ‘white ants’ and they are found in abundance
in tropical and sub-tropical countries. These insects live in a colony and
they are very fast in eating away the wood from core of the cross section.
They make tunnels inside the timber in different directions and usually do
not disturb the outer shell or cover. Hence, timber piece attacked by
termites may look sound till it completely fails. Very few good timbers such
as teak, sal, etc., can resist the attack of white ants. Such timbers have
certain chemicals in their composition and the smell of these chemicals is
not favourable for termites.
Defects Due to Natural Force
The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two,
namely
(i) Abnormal growth, and
(ii) Rupture of tissues.
Following defects are caused by these forces :
(i) Burls
(ii) Chemical stain
(iii) Coarse grain
(iv) Dead wood
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Engineering Materials (v) Knots
(vi) Shakes
(vii) Twisted fibres
(viii) Upsets
(ix) Water stain
(x) Wind cracks
Burls
These are also known as ‘excrescences’ and they are particularly formed
when a tree has received shock or injury in its young age. Due to such
injury, the growth of tree is completely upset and irregular projections
appear on the body of the timber.
Chemical Stain
Wood is sometimes discoloured by the chemical action caused to it by some
external agency. This is known as chemical stain.
Coarse Grain
If a tree grows rapidly, annual rings are widened. It is known as coarse
grained timber and such timber possesses less strength.
Dead Wood
Timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains dead wood. It
is indicated by light weight and reddish colour.
Knots
These are bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off from the
tree. The portion from which the branch is removed receives nourishment
from the stem for a pretty long time and it ultimately results in the
formation of dark, hard rings which are known as knots. As continuity of
wood fibres is broken by knots, they form a source of weakness. Figure 4.2
shows a typical knot.

Figure 4.2 : Typical Knot

Knots are classified on the basis of their size and form. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show
the classification of knots on the basis of their size and form and quality.
Table 4.1 : Classification of Knots on the Basis of their Size
Sl. No. Type of Knot Size
1 Pin knot Diameter upto 6.5 mm
2 Small knot Diameter between 6.5 mm and 20 mm

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 Timber
3 Medium knot Diameter between 20 mm and 40 mm
4 Large knot Diameter greater than 40 mm

Table 4.2 : Classification of Knots on the Basis of Form and Quality

Sl. No. Type of Knot Remarks
1 Dead knot The fibres of knot are not properly interconnected with
those of surrounding wood. Hence, it can be easily
separated out from the body of wood. It is not safe to use
wood with such a knot for engineering purposes.
2 Decayed knot It is also known as an unsound knot and it is formed by
the action of fungi on wood.
3 Live knot It is also known as a sound knot. It is free from decay
and cracks. It is thoroughly fixed in wood and hence, it
cannot be separated out from the body of wood.
Presence of such knots makes wood difficult to plane.
However, wood containing such knots can be used for
engineering purposes.
4 Loose knot It indicates preliminary stage of dead knot. The fibres of
this knot are not firmly held in the surrounding wood.
5 Round knot Cross-section of this type of knot is either round or oval.
It is obtained by cutting the knot at right angles to its
long axis.
6 Tight knot It indicates preliminary stage of live knot. The fibres of
knots are firmly held in the surrounding wood.

Rind Galls
Rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. Hence, peculiar
curved swellings found on the body of a tree are known as Rind Galls as
shown in Figure 4.3. They develop at points from where branches are
improperly cut off or removed.

Figure 4.3 : Rind Galls

Shakes
These are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood.
Following are the different varieties of shakes :
Cup Shakes
These are caused by the rupture of tissue in a circular direction as
shown in Figure 4.4. It is a curved crack and it separates partly one
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Engineering Materials annual ring from the other. It develops due to non-uniform growth. It
may not prove to be harmful, if it covers only a portion of ring.

Figure 4.4 : Cup Shakes

Heart Shakes
These cracks occur in the centre of cross-section of tree and they
extend from pith to sap wood in the direction of medullary rays as
shown in Figure 4.5. These cracks occur due to shrinkage of interior
part of tree which is approaching maturity. Heart shakes divide the
tree cross-section into two to four parts.

Figure 4.5 : Heart Shakes

Ring Shakes
When cup shakes cover the entire ring, they are known as ring
shakes as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 : Ring Shakes

Star Shakes
These are cracks which extend from bark towards the sap wood. They
are usually confined upto the plane of sapwood. They are wider on the

90
 outside ends and narrower on the inside ends as shown in Figure 4.7. Timber
They are usually formed due to extreme heat or frost.

Figure 4.7 : Star Shakes

Radial Shakes
These are similar to star shakes. But they are fine, irregular and
numerous. They usually occur when the tree is exposed to sun for
seasoning after being felled down. They run for a short distance from
bark towards the centre, then follow direction of annual ring and
ultimately run towards pith. Figure 4.8 shows radial shakes.

Figure 4.8 : Radial Shakes

Twisted Fibres
These are also known as wandering hearts and they are caused by twisting
of young trees by fast blowing wind. The fibres of wood are twisted in one
direction as shown in Figure 4.9.
Timber with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing. It can, however, be
used for posts and poles in an unsawn condition.

Figure 4.9 : Twisted Fibres

Upsets

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Engineering Materials These are also known as ruptures and they indicate wood fibres which are
injured by crushing or compression. Figure 4.10 shows a timber piece with
this defect.
Upsets are mainly due to improper felling of tree and exposure of tree in its
young age to fast blowing wind.

Figure 4.10 : Upsets

Water Stain
Wood is sometimes discoloured when it comes into contact with water. This
is known as water stain and this defect is usually found in converted timber.
Wind Cracks
If wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks.
Such a shrinkage results in cracks as shown in Figure 4.11. These are
known as wind cracks.

Figure 4.11 : Wind Cracks

Defects Due to Seasoning

Following defects occur in seasoning process of wood.
(i) Bow
(ii) Case-hardening
(iii) Check
(iv) Collapse
(v) Cup
(vi) Honey-combing
(vii) Radial shakes
(viii) Split
(ix) Twist
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 (x) Warp Timber

Bow
The defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length of
timber as shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12 : Bow

Case-hardening
The exposed surface of timber dries very rapidly. It, therefore, shrinks and
is under compression. The interior surface which has not completely dried
is under tension. This defect is known as case-hardening and it usually
occurs in timbers which are placed at the bottom during seasoning.
Check
A check is a crack which separates fibres of wood. It does not extend from
one end to the other.
Collapse
Due to uneven shrinkage, wood sometimes flattens during drying. This is
known as collapse.
Cup
This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction
of timber as shown in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 : Cup

Honey-combing
Due to stress developed during drying, various radial and circular cracks
develop in the interior portion of timber. Timber thus assumes honey-comb
texture and the defect so developed is known as honey-combing.
Radial Shakes
Radial shakes are explained earlier.
Split
When a crack extends from one end to the other, it is known as a split.
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Engineering Materials Twist
When a piece of timber has spirally distorted along its length, it is known as
twist. It is shown in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 : Twist

Warp
When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to have warped.

4.9 DECAY OF TIMBER

Timber is said to be decayed when it is so deteriorated that it loses its value as an
engineering material. Various defects in timber have been mentioned earlier.
When these defects are in excess, timber decays and such timber is not used for
engineering purpose. Following are the various causes or situations which favour
the early decay of timber :
(i) Alternate dry and wet conditions.
(ii) Bad storage or stacking of timber.
(iii) Fungi which are responsible for developing diseases in timber such as
blue stain, brown rot, dry rot, heart rot, sap stain, wet and white rot.
(iv) Improper seasoning.
(v) Insects such as beetles, marine borers, termites, etc.
(vi) Keeping timber in contact with damp wall, damp earth, etc.
(vii) Shocks or impacts received during young age from natural forces
such as fast blowing wind, etc.
(viii) Use of timber without taking out sap wood from its structure.
(ix) Using seasoned timber without applying suitably preservative on its
surface.
(x) Using unseasoned wood with the application of protective coat of
paint or tar.

4.10 FELLING OF TREES

A tree should always be felled only after it has fully matured but before the heart
wood starts deteriorating.
If felling is delayed then decay would set in the heart wood which is the best and
the most important part of a tree. Early felling would give lesser quantity of
timber which has not yet developed full strength.

94
The lower we go the more is the timber that the trunk of tree yields as such it Timber
would be wise to cut the tree from a place a little below the ground level but
higher up than the roots.
4.10.1 Process of Felling
(i) In the process of felling we make a deep cut with axe at the lowest
possible point of the trunk.
(ii) The trunk may be then sawn to a point beyond the centre of gravity of
the trunk.
(iii) This cut should be made on the side opposite to that on which it is
intended to be felled.
(iv) A cut is then made on a side opposite to the one on which first cut
was made.
(v) Top of tree is then tied with ropes on all the four diametrically
opposite sides. The rope on the side, the tree is to be felled is pulled
and the one on the opposite side is loosened slowly.
(vi) The tree would break at the level of cuts and it should be allowed to
fall gently otherwise it is likely to get damaged.
(vii) After felling, its branches are chopped off and the log is cut to the
needed sizes. It should be protected against rapid drying particularly
at the ends. Its bark should be removed and the log sawn at the
earliest.

4.11 SEASONING OF TIMBER

The art of seasoning is to extract the moisture under controlled conditions as
nearly as possible at a uniform rate from all parts of timber and to leave the
remaining moisture that cannot be extracted, uniformly distributed throughout the
mass.
Irregular drying will cause irregular shrinkage resulting in the setting up of
internal stresses between the fibres. When these stresses become strong enough to
overcome the cohesion of the fibres then the timber warps and shakes are formed.
4.11.1 Objects of Seasoning
(i) Seasoning makes timber resistant to decay.
(ii) Seasoning makes timber lighter.
(iii) It becomes easier to paint and polish seasoned timber.
(iv) It is easier to treat seasoned timber with preservatives.
(v) Seasoned timber becomes stronger and more stable.
(vi) Seasoning stops shrinkage of timber on drying.
(vii) Seasoned timber has better electrical resistance.
4.11.2 Methods of Seasoning
As per the recommendations of IS : 1141-1973, the seasoning methods should be
classified as :
(i) Natural seasoning or Air Seasoning
(ii) Artificial seasoning or Kiln Seasoning
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Engineering Materials Natural Seasoning or Air Seasoning
The log is converted by sawing it into battens and planks etc. as soon as
possible after felling of tree. These are then stacked on a well drained place
in the shade. Care should be taken to ensure free circulation of fresh air all
around each piece while stacking. The stacking should be done on masonry
or concrete supports a few centimeters above the ground. The pattern of
stacking is as shown in Figure 4.15.
Care should be taken not to expose the freshly converted timber stacked for
seasoning to severe winds or to sun.
This process of seasoning timber is the best as it gives very strong and
durable timber, but it is extremely slow. It takes more than six months for
timber to season in moderate climates.

Figure 4.15 : Stacks for Natural Seasoning

Kiln Seasoning or Artificial Seasoning
This method of seasoning speeds up the seasoning process. This method of
seasoning is a must for large scale production of seasoned timber.
Kiln seasoning is done in a chamber equipped with arrangements for
heating and humidifying the air to required conditions of relative humidity
and temperature and for its circulation across the timber stacked in the
chamber for seasoning. Usually, it is steam that is used for heating and
humidifying the air in the kiln. The seasoning of the timber is started at a
comparatively lower temperature and high humidity. As the timber dries,
these conditions are gradually altered until at the end of the seasoning. The
temperature of the air inside the chamber is fairly high and the humidity is
low. The kiln charge is allowed to cool inside the kiln to within 15 to 20o C
of the outside temperature before removal. Seasoning of timber by this
method takes about four to five days under normal conditions.
Relative merits and demerits of the two methods of seasoning are given in
Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 : Comparison of Air Seasoning and Kiln Seasoning
Air Seasoning Kiln Seasoning
It is a slow process It is a quick process
It is a simple and economical It is quite technical and expensive
It is difficult to reduce moisture content Moisture content can be reduced to
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 below 15 to 18%. any desired level. Timber

Air seasoned timber is more amenable to Kiln seasoned timber is less

attacks of insects and fungi. amenable to attacks of insects and
fungi.
It requires more stacking space It requires less stacking space
It gives stronger timber A little weaker timber is obtained

4.12 STACKING OF TIMBER

Timber, before seasoning, should be stacked in yards free from weeds and debris.
The yard should have big shady trees to protect the timber from direct sun.
Ends of logs should be protected against splitting by applying anti-splitting
compositions and stacked on foundations in closed stacks in one or more layers.
Stacks should be protected against direct sun by providing a covering if needed.
4.12.1 Methods of Stacking
(i) One and Nine method
(ii) Close crib method
(iii) Open crib method
One and Nine Method
This method of stacking timbers is best suited for moderately heavy
coniferous timbers in hot climate and for heavy timbers in moist climates.
Stacking pattern by this method is shown in Figure 4.16.

Figure 4.16 : One and Nine Method

Close Crib Method

In this method, reduced air circulation slows down the pace of seasoning.
This method is recommended for staking heavy structured timbers like sal
in hot and dry localities. The stacking pattern is shown in Figure 4.17.

Figure 4.17 : Close Crib Method

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Engineering Materials Open Crib Method
This method is a modification of the close crib method and because of more
air circulation taking place it is more akin to the one and nine method in its
effects. The stacking pattern is shown is Figure 4.18.

Figure 4.18 : Open Crib Method

4.12.2 Precautions to be Taken in Stacking Timber

• Stacks of not more than 100 sleepers are recommended to be made
• Poles are stacked either in closed heaps or with crossers. If stacked in
closed heaps, then there should be alternate layers of butt ends and of
top ends so that the two ends of the stack are level. Poles themselves
could be used as crossers, which should not be spaced more than three
metres.
• Fence posts should be stacked in open crib fashion in which
successive layers of posts are at right angles to each other and there is
a gap of about 8 cm between adjacent posts in the same layer. Centre
to centre distance between crossers should not exceed 1.5 m and the
height of stack should not exceed 3 metres.
• Horizontal stacking of sawn timber is done on vertical pillars of
treated timber, brick masonry or of cement concrete 30 cm square in
section and 30 to 45 cm high. The pillars are spaced 1.2 m centre to
centre along the length and the breadth of the stack. The length of
material to be stacked decides the length of stacking unit. Long beams
of cross-section 10cm × 10cm and above are placed on the foundation
pillars to form a framework for stacking timber.
• Scantlings and squares should be stacked with crossers 5 cm × 4 cm
in section and spaced 2.5 m to 3 m apart. The ends should be
protected with moisture proof coatings.
• Planks should be stacked on level platform with crossers of uniform
thickness and section, which should be in vertical alignment in a
stack. Longer planks should form the bottom of the stack and the
shorter one’s the top. Heavy wooden beams should be placed on the
top to prevent top layers from warping. A gap of about 2.5 cm should
be left between adjoining planks for free circulation of air in the
centre of stack. The stack should be protected against rain and sun by
providing a shed over it.

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 Timber
4.13 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
Timber has to be protected from the attack of insects, e.g. white ants etc., and
from internal decay due to dry and wet rots.
Perfect seasoning is the most effective means of preservation. Timber should be
so used that either it is wholly dry and well ventilated or is wholly under water. It
will not decay when kept under water but it will become soft and weak.
Proper damp proofing of the building and providing free circulation of air around
the built in portions of timber are essential for the preservation of the timber used.
However, when these conditions cannot be obtained then preservatives have to be
applied for preservation.
Timber should be well seasoned before the application of preservatives as
otherwise the preservatives would block the pores of timber thereby causing its
decay due to the entrapped moisture.
Direct contact with lime mortar should be avoided while using preservative with
masonry.
4.13.1 Methods of Preservation of Timber
Following are some of the common methods of preservation adopted
(i) Charring
(ii) Tarring
(iii) Painting
(iv) Creosoting
(v) Wolman salt
(vi) Ascu treatment
(vii) Fire proofing of timber
Charring
Lower ends of the posts that are to be embedded in ground are generally
charred with a view to prevent dry rot and attack of worms. It is done by
quenching the ends of posts in water after they are charred on wood fire to a
depth of 1.5 cm.
Tarring
It consists in coating with tar or tar mixed with pitch. Embedded portions of
timber fence posts, ends of door and window frames, battens and beams
built in wall are usually tarred. Tarring is not done in case of those portions
of structural members that are open to view, because of unsightly black
colour.
Painting
A paint when applied to timber acts not only as a good preservative but also
it enhances the appearance of the surface so treated. Only well seasoned
timber should be painted as otherwise the moisture entrapped in the timber,
because of the closing of timber bores by paint, would cause decay. Paints
however, protect seasoned timber against moisture thereby prolonging its

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Engineering Materials life, e.g. soligum paints have excellent preservative properties and protect
timber against the attack of white ants.
Creosoting
Creosote oil is a dark brown thick oily liquid. Thoroughly seasoned timber
dried for 24 hrs before its treatment is placed in an airtight chamber. After
the air has been exhausted from this chamber, the creosote oil is then
pumped in at a pressure of 9 kg/ cm2 at a temperature of 50o C so long as the
timber is not fully saturated with oil. The oil preserves the timber from rot
and from the attacks of white ant.
Uses
• It is used in case of railway sleepers, piles and transmission
poles.
Limitations
• Undesirable colour and smell, inability to take paint well and
the tendency to stain plaster limit its use.
Wolman Salt
This salt consists of creosote and sodium fluoride and is soluble in water.
It is odourless and leaves no stain on wood. After treatment, timber could
be painted or varnished. These salts destroy many kinds of fungi that cause
timber to rot. This renders the timber extremely fire resistant too.
Treatment of timber with zinc chloride, sodium fluoride, magnesium, silico
fluoride or copper sulphate renders the timber immune from the attacks of
fungi. The timber so treated is capable of being painted on drying.
Ascu Treatment
Ascu is available in the form of powder and is made up of three chemicals
mixed in the ratios given below :
(i) 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentaoxide (As2 O5.2H2 O)
(ii) 3 parts by weight of blue vitriol (CuSO4 . 5H2 O)
(iii) 4 parts by weight of potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 . 2H2O)
Six parts of this powder are mixed with 100 parts by weight of water. Ascu
solution can be applied or sprayed in two coats.
To achieve better results, timber may be soaked in the solution and
impregnated with it under pressure. The timber should be allowed to dry for
three to six weeks. This treatment renders timber immune to the attacks of
white ant.
Ascu treated timber may be painted, varnished, polished or waxed. The
solution is odourless.
Fire Proofing of Timber
Timber cannot be made completely fireproof, however, by treating as below
it can be made fire resistant to a sufficient extent.
Soaking timber in ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, ammonia
100 phosphate, sodium arsenate, zinc chloride etc. or spraying on timber, a
 solution of sodium silicate, potassium silicate or ammonia phosphate etc. Timber
imparts fire resisting properties.
Abel’s methods of fire proofing timber is painting the surface first with a
dilute solution of sodium silicate (Na2 SiO3) then with a cream like paste of
slaked fat time and in the end with a concentrated solution of silicate of
soda.

4.14 MEASUREMENTS OF TIMBER

Sawn timber shall be measured as follows :
Length
Rounded or damaged end portions of the sawn timber shall be excluded
from the length which shall be measured in metres. Fractions of a meter
shall be rounded of to the nearest lower 0.01m.
Width and Thickness
It shall be nearest at the narrowest section in centimetres and shall be
rounded off to the nearest centimetres.
Volume
It shall be measured in cubic metres correct to three places of decimal based
on accepted sizes. The volume of a log of wood is calculated by the quarter
girth formula as given below :
4
⎛G⎞
V =⎜ ⎟ ×L
⎝4⎠
where V = volume in m3,
G = girth in m, and
L = length in m.
Dimensions
Sawn timber is generally available in the following lengths and
cross-sections :
Length 2 m; 2.5 m; 3 m and 3.5 m
Cross- section 20 × 10 cm; 25 × 12.5 cm
20 × 12.5 cm; 25 × 15 cm
and 20 × 15 cm; 30 × 15 cm

4.15 TESTS OF TIMBER

The following tests are carried out to check up the physical properties of a test
piece of timber.
4.15.1 Moisture Content Test
To determine the moisture contents of a specimen, a test piece 5 cm × 5 cm
× 2.5 cm is taken and weighed fresh. It is then dried in an oven at a temperature of
103 + 2o C. The weight of the specimen in the oven is regularly observed till the
variation in the last two observations does not exceed 0.002 gm. The specimen is
then considered to have dried.
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Engineering Materials Let W1 be the weight of fresh sample and W0 the weight of the oven dry specimen.
Moisture content is then calculated as below :
W1 − W0
Percentage of moisture content = × 100 .
W0

4.15.2 Specific Gravity Test

The specimens for the test shall be 5 × 5 × 15 cm pieces and free from usual
defects.
The specimens shall be weighed (W1) usually green, correct to 0.001 gm and
volume measured (V1) by immersion method correct to 0.01 cm3. The specimens
are then end coated with paraffin wax by immersion and left to air season at room
temperatures till moisture content of about 12% are reached. The weight (Wr) and
volume (Vr) of the specimen are then noted by the immersion method when the
moisture content is r percent.
The specimens are then kept in an oven at a temperature of 103 + 2o C till the
weight becomes constant. Weight (W0) and volume (V0) are noted then :
W1
Specific gravity at test =
V1

W0
Standard specific gravity =
V1

W0
Over dry specific gravity =
V0

Wr − W0
Moisture content r percent = × 100 %
V0

W1 − W0
or = × 100 %
V0

SAQ 1
(a) Differentiate between hard wood and soft wood. Could a soft wood be
stronger than hard wood?
(b) Describe the characteristics of a good timber.
(c) Explain the precautions required to be taken for prevention of wet rot
and dry rot.
(d) Explain as to why timber used for structural purposes should be
properly seasoned?
(e) Enumerate various defects in timber.

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 Timber
4.16 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have gained adequate knowledge of Timber as one of the
important construction materials. Wood is used as structural elements in buildings
for various purposes. The timber used for engineering purposes should be free
from defects as far as possible. Defects free timber is possible only when tree has
been felled at proper time and with adequate precautions. It is also necessary that
timber should be properly seasoned and necessary preservatives are used before it
is used for engineering purposes.
Thus, you can see that like any other construction materials, timbers are also very
important construction materials which play an important role in construction
industry.

4.17 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

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Engineering Materials

104
 Paints and Varnishes
UNIT 5 PAINTS AND VARNISHES
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Paints
5.2.1 Functions of Paint
5.2.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint
5.2.3 Constituents of an Oil Paint or Oil Borne Paint
5.2.4 Types of Paints
5.2.5 Painting Processes
5.2.6 Painting on Plastered Surface
5.2.7 Painting on Concrete Surface
5.2.8 Defects in Painting
5.2.9 Failure of Paints
5.3 Distempering
5.3.1 Composition of Distempers
5.3.2 Process of Distempering
5.3.3 Properties of Distempers
5.4 Varnishes
5.4.1 Functions of Varnish
5.4.2 Properties of Good Varnish
5.4.3 Constituents of Varnish
5.4.4 Types of Varnish
5.4.5 Process of Varnishing
5.5 Summary
5.6 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The paints, distempers and varnishes are provided as a part of the final treatment
to all the surfaces of walls, ceilings, floors, wood work etc., both internally and
externally. Some more forms of finishes/treatments are also used depending upon
requirement. These building treatments perform two major functions:
(i) They provide a protective coating to the surfaces. This helps in
preserving and protecting the materials used in the building
construction from environmental effects like heat, frost and rain
water.
(ii) They provide decorative finish or treatment which adds to the
aesthetic appearance of the surfaces and the building.
In this unit, our emphasis will be on paints, distempers and varnishes and we will
be studying their functions, characteristics, types, constituents and process of
application.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the functions of paints, varnishes and distempering,
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Engineering Materials • describe the properties of good paints, varnishes and distempering,
• know the constituents of paints, varnishes and distempering,
• describe the process of painting, varnishing and distempering, and
• explain the importance of their use.

5.2 PAINTS
Paints are used to protect metals, timber or plastered surfaces from the corrosive
effects of weather, heat, moisture or gases etc. and also to improve their
appearance.
5.2.1 Functions of Paint
Paint performs following functions :
(i) It protects wood from decaying.
(ii) It prevents corrosion of metals.
(iii) It renders surface hygienically safe and clean.
(iv) It gives decorative and attractive appearance to the surface.
(v) It also protects the surface from harmful effects of atmospheric
agencies.
5.2.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint
An ideal paint should have the following characteristics :
(i) The paint should be cheap.
(ii) It should be easy and harmless to the user.
(iii) It should retain its original colour for a long time.
(iv) It should be able to cover maximum area of the surface with minimum
quantities.
(v) The painted surface should dry neither too slowly nor too rapidly.
(vi) When applied, the paint should form a thin uniform film on painted
surface.
(vii) The paint should form a hard and durable coat on the painted surface.
(viii) The paint should not peel off from painted surface.
(ix) It should be good fire and moisture resistant.
(x) The painted surface should not show any cracks.
(xi) The painted surface should possess attractive and decorative pleasing
appearance.
(xii) Atmospheric agencies should not be able to affect the painted surface.
5.2.3 Constituents of an Oil Paint or Oil Borne Paints
An oil paint essentially consists of the following ingredients :
(i) A base
(ii) An inert extender or filter
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 (iii) A vehicle or carrier Paints and Varnishes

(iv) A drier
(v) A solvent or thinner
(vi) A colouring pigment
Base
It provides body to the paint and on it depends upon the nature of paints to a
great extent. A base in general should possess the following properties :
(i) It is the solid matter forming the main body of the paint.
(ii) It makes the paint film harder and more resistant to abrasion.
(iii) It reduces shrinkage cracks formed on drying.
(iv) It forms an opaque layer to obscure the surface of material to be
painted.
White lead, Red lead, Zinc oxide, Iron oxide, and metallic powders such as
Aluminium, Copper and Bronze etc. are the commonly used bases.
An Inert Extender or Filter
They are added in the paint to reduce the cost and also to modify some of
the properties of the paints. They reduce weight of the paint and render
paint more durable. They should not be used in excess amount as otherwise
paint may loose its original character and may become weak.
Barium sulphate silica, lithophone, whiting, charcoal, gypsum silicate of
magnesia or alumina etc. are the usual inert extenders.
Vehicles or Carriers
They are liquid substances which hold solid ingredients of the paint. In
general vehicles or carriers possess the following properties :
(i) It is an oily liquid in which the base and pigment are soluble.
(ii) It facilitates the paint to be conveniently spread evenly over the
surface by means of a brush.
(iii) It acts as a binder for the base and causes it to stick to the surface.
(iv) On drying, it forms a tough and an elastic film. Oils most commonly
used as vehicles are linseed oil, poppy oil, nut oil and tung oil.
Driers
These are metallic compounds which when added to the paint in small
quantities accelerate the process of drying of the paint. Driers have a
tendency to affect the colour of the paint and also to destroy the elasticity of
the paint. Hence, they should not be used in excess amount. They are not
used at all in final finishing coat of the paint. Driers should not be used in a
paint that dries well.
Litharge, manganese dioxide, lead acetate and cobalt are the usual driers,
out of which litharge is most commonly used.
Solvents or Thinners
A liquid thinner is added to the prepared paints to increase their fluidity to
the desired consistency so as to make them work more smoothly and also to
help penetration of porous surfaces. It evaporates after the paint has been

107
Engineering Materials applied to the surface. It also helps the paint in its penetration into the
surface to be painted.
Turpentine oil, petroleum spirits and naphtha are mostly used as solvents or
thinners.
Colouring Pigments
These are colouring agents which are used to develop desired shade of the
paint. For white, black and other very dark shades, the base of the paint is
chosen in such a way that, it will develop the colour of the paint through
base itself. In case of other shades, colouring pigments of desired shade are
mixed with the paint. Colouring pigments may be divided into five
divisions.
(i) Precipitates
(ii) Natural earth
(iii) Calcined colours
(iv) Lake colours
(v) Metallic powders
Various colouring pigments to develop a particular colour are as follows :
(i) Blue
(ii) Brown
(iii) Black
(iv) Green
(v) Yellow
(vi) Red
5.2.4 Types of Paints
The paints are of following types :
(i) Aluminium Paint
(ii) Anti-Corrosive paints
(iii) Asbestos paints
(iv) Bituminous paint
(v) Bronze paints
(vi) Cellulose paint
(vii) Casein paint
(viii) Cement paint
(ix) Enamel paint
(x) Emulsion paint
(xi) Graphite paint
(xii) Plastic paints
(xiii) Silicate paint
108 (xiv) Luminous paint
 (xv) Inodorous paint Paints and Varnishes

(xvi) Rubber paint

Details of each of these paints are described below :
Aluminium Paint
The paint is prepared by holding very finely ground aluminium in
suspension either in quick drying spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as
per the requirements of the surface to be painted. The suspension liquid is
spirit or oil, evaporates and a thin metallic film of aluminium is left on the
surface. This paint is used for painting wood work and metal surfaces. It is
widely used for painting hot water pipes, gas tanks, marine piers, oil storage
tanks, radiators, etc.
Anti-corrosive Paint
These paints are used mainly to protect the surface of metallic structural
steel work, against the negative effects of acids, corrosive chemicals fumes
etc. There are several paints which exhibit these properties. These paints
essentially consist of the linseed oil, as vehicle and red lead, zinc oxide,
iron oxide, zinc dust, zinc chromate etc. as their base. These paints are
cheap, durable and are usually black in colour.
Asbestos Paint
This paint is used for stopping leakage of metal roofs and painting gutters,
spouts, flashings etc. to prevent their rusting. The paint is also used as damp
proof coat to cover the outer face of the basement walls. This paint can
withstand the effects of acidic gases and steam.
Bituminous Paint
This paint consists of asphalt, bitumen or pitches, dissolves in any type of
oil or petroleum. The paint is always black in colour but its colour can be
modified by mixing certain pigment like red oxide etc. in it. The paint is
used mostly for painting iron-works under water. These paints deteriorate
when exposed to direct sun. It is also used for water proofing.
Bronze Paint
These paints are prepared by disbursing aluminium bronze or copper bronze
in nitro-cellulose lacquer as vehicle. They produce a very reflective type of
surface and hence very useful for being applied on radiators. These paints
are equally effective for painting interior or exterior metallic surfaces.
Cellulose Paint
This type of paint is prepared from cellulose sheets, nitro-cotton and
photographic films. This paint dries very quickly and provides a flexible,
hard and smooth surface. The paint does not harden by oxidation but by
evaporation of thinning agent. The surface of the paint can be easily washed
and cleaned. It remains unaffected by hot water, smoky or acidic
atmosphere. This paint is used for painting cars, aeroplanes etc.
Casein Paint
Casein is a product extracted from milk curd. Casein paint when mixed with
base like whiting, titanium, lithophone, etc. forms the paint which is usually
available in powder or paste form. This paint has high capacity and can be
applied on new plaster work. It is usually used on walls, ceilings wall
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Engineering Materials boards, cements block construction etc. to increase the appearance of the
surface.
Cement Paint
This paint is available in powder form. It consists of white or coloured
cement as its base and water acts as a vehicle. No oil or varnish is added to
it. This paint is available in variety of shades. It is durable and water-proof.
This paint proves to be useful for surfaces which are damp at the time of
painting and are also likely to remain damp after painting.
Enamel Paint
This paint is prepared by adding base like white lead or zinc white to a
vehicle which is a varnish. To obtain the desired colour, colouring pigments
may also be added. This paint dries slowly and forms a hard, durable,
smooth, glossy, solid thin film. Enamel paints can be used both for interior
as well as exterior painting.
Emulsion Paint
This paint consists of synthetic resin like polyvinyl acetate. It can be
applied easily. It retains its colour for a very long time. The surface of the
paint is tough and can be cleaned by washing with water. This paint has
excellent resistance against action of alkali. It dries very quickly in about
one to two hours.
Graphite Paint
It is black in colour. It is used over the surface which come in contact with
ammonia, chlorine, sulphur gases, etc. It is very much used in under ground
railways.
Plastic Paint
This paint contains a variety of plastics in suspension and is available in the
market under different trade name. It is mostly used in show rooms, display
rooms, and auditorium etc. It can be applied by spray or by brush.
Silicate Paint
It is prepared by mixing calcium and finely ground silica with resinous
materials. It forms a very hard and durable film on painted surface. It can be
directly applied on brick, concrete or plastered surface, but only after
wetting them.
Luminous Paint
This paint is prepared by mixing calcium sulphide with varnish. This paint
shines in darkness like radium dials of watches. This paint should be
applied on surface which have been rendered free from corrosion or lead
paints in particular.
Inodorous Paint
This paint consists of white lead or zinc white mixed with methylated spirit.
No turpentine is used in this paint. White lead or zinc white is ground in oil.
Shellac with same quantity of linseed oil and castor oil is dissolved in
methylated spirit and this mixture is mixed with lead or zinc white paste
prepared in linseed oil. This paint dries quickly, but is not durable.
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Rubber Paint Paints and Varnishes

This paint is prepared by treating rubber with chlorine gas (chlorinated

rubber) and then dissolving it in suitable solvent. This paint can be used on
new concrete and lime plastered surfaces. This paint dries quickly. It is little
affected by weather and sunlight. It is resistant against chemical actions,
water, etc.
5.2.5 Painting Processes
Application of paint to a surface either with a brush or by spraying is known as
painting. The surface to be painted should be perfectly smooth, clean and dry.
Presence of moisture between the paint and surface to be painted or between
successive coats of paints causes blisters. Painting should as far as possible be
carried out in dry weather.
Brush of only good quality, the hair of which do not come off while painting,
should be used.
The paint is applied on the surface in two, three or four coats. The first coat is
known as priming coat and last one as finishing coat. All the intervening coats
are known as under coats.
Prime coat forms a thin film which helps in adhesion of the paint with the surface.
It also protects the surface from weathering action. Materials for priming coat
should be selected keeping in view the nature of the surface to be painted.
Under coats serve as foundation on to the finishing coat. These coats fill all the
irregularities of the surface.
Finishing coat is lastly applied as per the requirements.
5.2.6 Painting on Plastered Surface
A plastered surface should be painted only after it has thoroughly dried, otherwise
the paint would get sploit. The following factors should be kept in mind while
painting a plastered surface :
(i) As far as possible fresh plastered surfaces should not be painted. At
least 6 months to 12 months time should be given to the plastered
surface to dry completely.
(ii) Fresh plaster is alkaline in nature, because lime is liberated during the
hydration of cement. Oil based paints and distempers are prone to
alkali attack in the presence of moisture. Hence, if freshly plastered
surface is to be painted, an alkali resistant primer paint should be
applied or alternatively paints not containing any oil should be used.
Spots of plastered surface showing efflorescence should be brushed off. If spots
appear again, they should again be brushed off and painting should be postponed
till such spots ceases to appear.
In case of new plastered surfaces, a solution of one kilogram of zinc sulphate in
two kilograms of water should be applied to the surface. When it has dried then a
coat of pure raw linseed oil is applied. It is followed by two coats of paint thinned
with turpentine and a little varnish. Third coat consisting of white lead, linseed
oil, desired pigment and a little oil of turpentine is then applied. Finishing coat
may be the same as third coat but with a little more of turpentine oil.
However, these days paints are available in market that can be applied directly on
newly plastered surfaces. These are known as cement paints.
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Engineering Materials 5.2.7 Painting on Concrete Surfaces
For painting concrete surfaces, cement paints are used. They are available in
powder form. They are used by mixing with water. Prepared paint should be
consumed within 2 hrs or its preparation. Two coats should be applied at an
interval of 24 hrs. The painted surface should be cured by sprinkling water at
intervals.
5.2.8 Defects in Painting
The following defects may occur in painted surface :
Fading
The paint may lose some of its colour due to effects of sunrays on colouring
pigments.
Flaking
Due to poor adhesion, paint may peel off from the surface.
Grinning
If the opacity of the final coat is insufficient, the back ground of the painted
surface is clearly visible. This defect is known as grinning.
Bloom
Due to bad ventilation or defective paint, dull patches are developed on the
painted surface.
Flashing
This is opposite of bloom. In this defect, glossy patches are developed on
the painted surface. The reason of this defect may be cheap paint, weather
reaction or poor workmanship.
Blistering
This defect occurs due to trapped moisture behind the painted surface.
Running
This defect occurs when the surface to be painted is very smooth. In this
defect, small areas of the surface are left uncovered with paint.
Sagging
Thickness of painting should not be excessive. If too much thick coat of
paint is applied, the defect is known as sagging.
Wrinkling
This defect occurs in thickly painted surfaces.
Saponification
Defect of formation of soap patches on the painted surface is known as
saponification. This defect occurs due to chemical action of the alkalies.
5.2.9 Failure of Paint
When paint applied on the surface does not perform its purposes, it is called
failure of the paint. Painting is an easy job but also has its own peculiarities. The
following are the main causes of failure of paint.
Bad Workmanship

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 Painters are generally in habit of thinning the paint too much so that he may Paints and Varnishes
save paint and labour both. This leads to bad workmanship and it is possible
that paint may be absent for portions of surface.
Wrong Choice of Paint
Choice of paint is done based upon climatic conditions, nature of surface to
be painted and so many other factors affecting the performance of the paint.
Low quality paints are cheap but their durability is very poor.
Surface Penetration
If the surface to be painted has not been prepared well to receive the paint,
it may lead to failure of the paint.
Moisture
Leakage of moisture on any painted surface accelerates the process of
separating the paint layer from the surface.
Salts and Alkalies
The movement of moisture can also transport salts from either internal
volume of masonry or new deposits. Such salts and alkalies saponify the oil
paints.
Conditions for Painting
The painting should be done when atmospheric conditions are favourable.
Dirt, dust and moisture must not get entrapped during the process of
painting.
SAQ 1
(a) Briefly describe the characteristics of an ideal paint.
(b) Explain the various defects which may develop in painting.
(c) Explain the method of painting on concrete surfaces.
(d) Describe the functions of each ingredient of an oil paint.
(e) Explain in brief the painting process.
(f) Describe the reasons of failure of paints.

5.3 DISTEMPERING
It is also a process of applying wash or coating like white washing or colour
washing on the surface. Finished surfaces obtained by distempering are far
superior than those obtaind by white washing or colour washing. Distempers are
available in ready made form in the market under different trade names.

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Engineering Materials 5.3.1 Composition of Distempers
Any distemper consists of a base, a carrier, colouring agent, and size. Whiting
(powdered chalk) is used as base and water as the carrier. Colouring agents or
pigments are added only, if specific shade is to be obtained. Glue is mostly used
as size.
Distempers may also be termed as a water paint, having whiting as base and water
as the carrier. Distempers are available in powder form or paste form. They are to
be mixed with hot water before use. There is a variety of oil bound distempers
also, in which the drying oil is so treated that it mixes with water readily.
Distempers are applied on the surface with the help of distemper brushes which
are about 10 cm wide.
5.3.2 Process of Distempering
Distempering a surface involves following operations :
(i) Preparation of the surface
(ii) Applying prime coat
(iii) Distempering
Preparation of the Surface
Surface to be distempered should be absolutely dry. Dampness in the
surface spoils the distemper coat. Holes, patches, cracks, efflorescence
spots etc. should be thoroughly cleaned and filled with gypsum or lime
putty. If the surface is to be redistempered the old coating should be washed
with water and allowed to dry completely. The surface in the last should be
thoroughly rubbed with sand paper and cleaned.
Applying Prime Coat
After preparation of the surface, it should be primed by applying a coat of
whiting in water or only of milk. Priming coat helps in developing a good
bond of distemper with the surface. The priming coat should be allowed to
dry completely, before distemper coat is applied over it.
Distempering
After having applied the priming coat, first coat of distemper is applied on
the surface. The first coat should be of a light tint and applied with great
care. Second coat is applied after the first coat has dried and become hard.
Distempering coats are applied with the help of broad stiff distemper
brushes. Now-a-days, distempers can be applied with the help of spray
pistols also.
5.3.3 Properties of Distempers
(i) Distempers generally shrink on drying. Hence, if the surface receiving
distemper is weak, it may lead to cracking and flaking of the
distempers.
(ii) Distempers are available in powder form and also in paste form.
Powdered distempers are known as dry distempers, whereas paste
form distempers are known as oil bound distempers. Oil bound
distempers are superior than dry distempers.

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 (iii) Coatings of distempers are comparatively thick and are more brittle Paints and Varnishes
than other water paints.
(iv) Distemper film is generally porous in nature and it allows water
vapour to pass through it. Hence it allows new walls to dry out
without damaging the distemper film.
(v) They are less durable than oil paints.
(vi) Distempers are generally light in colour and provide a good reflective
coating.
(vii) They can be applied on cement plastered surface, lime plastered
surface, brick work, insulating boards, etc.
SAQ 2
(a) Write down the properties of a good distemper.
(b) Explain the procedure of application of distemper on a surface.

5.4 VARNISHES
Varnish is a solution of some resinous substance in alcohol, oil or turpentine. The
process of covering the surface with varnish is known as varnishing. Varnishing
is done only on wooden surface.
5.4.1 Functions of Varnish
Varnish performs the following functions :
(i) It brings about brilliance to the painted surface.
(ii) It protects the surface against adverse effects of the atmosphere.
(iii) It increases the durability of the paint film.
(iv) It beautifies the surface without hiding the beautiful grains of the
wood.
Varnish plays an important part in finishing wooden surfaces of doors, windows,
floors, furniture, etc.
5.4.2 Properties of Good Varnish
A good varnish should possess the following properties :
(i) It should not hide the natural grains of the surface.
(ii) It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.
(iii) It should make the surface glossy.
(iv) It should dry rapidly.
(v) It should impart the finished surface uniform colour and pleasing
appearance. 115
Engineering Materials (vi) The thin film of varnish developed after drying on the surface should
be tough, hard and durable.
(vii) The natural colour of the varnish should not fade away when
varnished surface is exposed to atmospheric action.
5.4.3 Constituents of the Varnish
A varnish has usually three elements :
(i) Resins or resinous material
(ii) Driers
(iii) Solvents
Resins or Resinous Material
Quality of varnish depends much upon the quality of resin used. Copal, lac,
amber and rosin are the commonly used resins for varnishes. Copal is
considered to be best.
Driers
Driers are used to accelerate the process of drying of the varnish. Litharge,
lead, acetate, and white copper are the various types of driers, out of which
litharge is mostly used.
Solvents
Selection of solvent is made depending upon the type of resin.
Table 5.1
Sl. No. Name of Resin Solvent Used
1 Amber and copal Linseed oil
2 Lac Methylated spirit

5.4.4 Types of Varnish

The varnishes can be classified into following categories depending upon the
solvent used :
(i) Oil Varnish
(ii) Spirit Varnish
(iii) Turpentine Varnish
(iv) Water Varnish
(v) Asphalt Varnish
(vi) Spar Varnish
(vii) Flat Varnish
Oil Varnish
This type of varnish is manufactured by dissolving hard resins such as
amber and copal in linseed oil. Turpentine may be used in small quantity to
thin the varnish, and also to render it workable. Oil varnishes form a hard
and durable film, but they dry slowly.
Spirit Varnish

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 This type of varnish is prepared by dissolving resins such as lac or shellac Paints and Varnishes
in methylated spirit. This varnish dries very quickly and gets easily affected
by weather action. This varnish is mostly used for wood furniture.
Turpentine Varnish
In this type of varnish, gum, dammar, mastic, and rosin like resins are
dissolved in turpentine. These varnishes are light in colour and dry quickly.
Water Varnish
This varnish is prepared by dissolving shellac in hot water. Shellac does not
dissolve readily in water and as such to accelerate the process of dissolving
shellac in water either ammonia or potash, or soda or borax is added. This
varnish is used for painting pictures, posters and maps.
Asphalt Varnish
This varnish is obtained by dissolving melted asphalt in linseed oil. The
varnish may be thinned by adding suitable amount of either turpentine or
petroleum spirit. This varnish is used for varnishing fabricated iron and
steel product.
Spar Varnish
This varnish derives its name from its use. It is mostly used on spars and
other exposed parts of the ships. It is very good weather resistant. It should
not be used indoor.
Flat Varnish
This is an ordinary varnish to which material such as wax, finely divided
silica and metallic soaps are added, to reduce the gloss of the varnished
surface. This varnish presents a dull appearance.
5.4.5 Process of Varnishing
Following operations are required to be carried out while varnishing a wooden
surface :
Preparation of Surface
The surface to be varnished should be thoroughly rubbed smooth by means
of sand paper and thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt.
Knotting
It is the process by which knots on the surface of wood work are killed by
applying certain substance over the knots. All the knots should be covered
with a hot preparation of red lead or glue size.
Stopping
After knotting, the surface of wood work is stopped by means of hot weak
glue size. This coat fills all the pores of the surface. After stopping when
surface becomes dry, it is rubbed again with sand paper.
Applying Varnish Coats
After stopping process, varnish is applied on the surface in very thin coats.
Next coat is applied only when previously applied coat has dried. For
varnishing, fine brittle varnishing brush should be used.
SAQ 3
(a) Briefly describe the functions of varnish. 117
Engineering Materials (b) Explain the importance of varnishing a wood surface.
(c) Describe the process of varnishing in brief.

5.5 SUMMARY
The paints, distempers and varnishes not only adds to the aesthetic appearance,
but also provides protective coating to the surface. In paints, enamel paint and
plastic emulsion paint are the most favoured paints, while cement paints like
snowcem remain popular as ever. Distempers are available in ready-made form in
the market and are far superior than white washing or colour washing. Varnishes
are used to bring about brilliance to the painted surface. Varnish plays very
important role in finishing wooden surfaces of doors, windows, floors, furniture,
etc.

5.6 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

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 Modern Materials and
UNIT 6 MODERN MATERIALS AND Decorative Treatments

DECORATIVE TREATMENTS
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Polymers
6.3 Polymer Concrete Composites
6.3.1 Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
6.3.2 Polymer Concrete (PC)
6.3.3 Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)
6.3.4 Sandwich Material
6.4 Glass
6.5 Decorative Plastering
6.6 Exterior Finishing Materials
6.6.1 Stone Facing
6.6.2 Granite
6.6.3 Limestone
6.6.4 Marble
6.6.5 Brick Veneer
6.6.6 Terracotta Facing (Ceramic Veneer)
6.6.7 Texture Finishes
6.7 Interior Finishing Materials
6.7.1 Wood Finishes
6.7.2 Gypsum Finishes
6.7.3 Clay Finishes
6.7.4 Stone Finishes
6.7.5 Concrete Finishes
6.7.6 Hardboard Finishing Panels
6.7.7 Fibre Board Panels
6.7.8 Wall Paper
6.7.9 Steel, Non-ferrous Metal and Plastics
6.7.10 Cork Tiles
6.8 Miscellaneous Decorative Finishes
6.9 Summary
6.10 Answers to SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is ever increasing in its technological advancement.
Hence, it is necessary to get acquainted with the modern construction materials
and prevailing trends in decorative treatments.
The main consideration for this development is the change in the outlook of the
designer as well as of the user. Nowadays, building has become more
aesthetically pleasing and structurally sound.
119
Engineering Materials In this unit, our particular emphasis will be on modern construction materials and
decorative treatment & finishes on different surfaces in a building.
Objectives
This unit will help you to develop clear understanding of the modern construction
materials such as polymer products, polymer composite concrete, glass and
various finishes. After studying this unit, you should be able to
• describe different uses of polymer in construction,
• describe various types of polymer composite concrete and its
properties,
• identify different varieties of glass, and
• describe decorative finishes for different surfaces in a building.

6.2 POLYMERS
The polymers find a lot of usage in construction and building industry. Some of
these will be discussed in this section.
6.2.1 Sealants
Sealants are elastomeric materials used for the sealing of joints against wind and
water in the construction industry. The largest variety of sealants fall into the
classification of solvent release and are composed of three component parts; these
are :
The Basic Non-volatile vehicle
It is the main compound, adhesive in nature, which seals the gap.
The Pigment Component
It introduces colour to the material and also assist rheology and flow
control.
A Solvent or Thinner
It is used to reduce the viscosity, so that the sealant can be applied easily.
After application, solvents evaporate leaving the sealant in place. The butyl
rubber solution and the acrylic copolymer fall into this category. Another
category of sealant is those which are chemically cured. Examples of such
sealants are polysulphide and silicon base compound.
The desired properties of sealants are :
(i) Good adhesion with the joint,
(ii) Permanent elasticity,
(iii) Low rate of hardening, and
(iv) Low rate of shrinkage etc.
6.2.2 Adhesives
Adhesives are used extensively for bonding building materials. Some of the
resilient adhesives are of the following types :
(i) Rubber based mastic with water vehicle.
120
 (ii) Rubber based mastic with alcohol solvent. Modern Materials and
Decorative Treatments
(iii) Linoleum paste.
(iv) Epoxy resin mastic.
(v) Polymer adhesives, particularly resin bonded system are used
extensively in the manufacture of plywood and particle boards.
6.2.3 Moisture Barriers
Plastic films serve as permanent moisture barriers, preventing the deleterious
ingress of water through various building and construction elements.

6.3 POLYMER CONCRETE COMPOSITES

It is well known that ordinary concrete is a composite material consisting of
relatively inert (naturally cured) aggregate, bounded with hydrated cement. The
strength is imparted by the bond between aggregate and the cement paste. The
nature of hydration and grading requirement of aggregate etc. limits the strength
of ordinary concrete. Therefore, one way to enhance the binder’s (cement paste)
capacity so as to obtain concrete of higher strength is to supplement or replace the
cement binder with a more efficient binder like polymers. These composite using
polymers as a sole binder material or as a supplement to cement are known as
polymer concrete composites.
There are three types of concrete composites which utilize polymer for their
production.
(i) Polymer Impregnated Concrete
(ii) Polymer Concrete
(iii) Polymer Cement Concrete
6.3.1 Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
Polymer Impregnated concrete is the hydrated Portland cement concrete, which
has been impregnated with a monomer to fill up the voids present, totally or
partially, and subsequently polymerized there itself.
The hardened concrete after curing contains considerable amount of free water in
the voids ranging from 5% in dense concrete to 15% in gap graded concretes.
This water has to be removed before filling up the pores with monomer. This is
achieved by heating the concrete so as to drive the water out by evaporation.
About 6 to 8 hours of heating is sufficient to remove the larger part of free water.
The concrete is then cooled to avoid the risk of flammability. The evacuated
concrete is then soaked at atmospheric pressure to attain partial saturation.
Improvement in saturation may be obtained by application of pressure. The
polymerization is then done either by chemical, radiation or catalytic action.
Properties of Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
(i) The modulus of elasticity increases by 1.5 to 2 times than that of
actual concrete.
(ii) The creep of the PIC is 25% lower at the same stress.
(iii) Durability of the PIC is superior than ordinary concrete because of
low porosity.
(iv) It is more resistant to sulphate attack.
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Engineering Materials 6.3.2 Polymer Concrete (PC)
Polymer concrete is a composite material, where cement is completely replaced
by polymer and is formed by polymerizing the monomer and aggregate mixture.
The polymerized monomer acts as a sole binder for the aggregate system.
Properties of Polymer Concrete
(i) Compressive and tensile strength of polymer concrete is higher than
those of ordinary concrete.
(ii) The creep is comparable with ordinary concrete at lower temperature
but is much higher at higher temperature and humidity.
(iii) The strength decreases by 30-40% at higher temperature (about
88°C).
(iv) Chemical resistance of polymer concrete is far superior than ordinary
concrete.
6.3.3 Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)
It is a composite made by adding a polymer or a monomer to a fresh concrete
during the mixing stage itself and subsequently allowed to cure or polymerize if
required. The binder of the PCC should not interface with the hydration process
and must be able to form an emulsion or dispersion or a solution in water.
Properties of Polymer Cement Concrete
(i) The strength is 50 to 100% more than that of ordinary concrete.
(ii) The tensile strength is twice that of ordinary concrete.
(iii) Durability is better.
(iv) The creep is lower than ordinary concrete.
(v) Dry shrinkage is of same order of plain concrete.
6.3.4 Sandwich Material
Sandwich material consisting of polymer composite skins with a low density core
are widely used for light weight panels, where main loads are usually flexural.
Typical examples of such material used in construction industry are Glass Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (GRP).
Use of sandwich materials in box beam or in hollow column is possible but their
common use in construction industry is in the form of panels. Structural units
used in building may be divided in two categories.
Primary units, which are load bearing and failure of such units, may cause
damage to building.
Secondary units, which when fail, will cause only local damage.
Wall panels are basically secondary units. The sandwich construction
incorporating fibre reinforced polymer skins and synthetic foam can be used in
such wall panels. Structurally such panels shall be able to withstand the wind
pressure, self weight and handling loads. Aesthetically, these need to be pleasant
with low maintenance cost. They must exhibit good environmental behaviour and
to have low thermal conductivity, and also must be the fire resistant.

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 Modern Materials and
SAQ 1 Decorative Treatments
(a) Enumerate in short various types of polymer product used in
construction.
(b) Differentiate between Ordinary Cement Concrete and Polymer
Cement Concrete.
(c) Distinguish between PIC and PC.
(d) Explain Sandwich construction.

6.4 GLASS
Glass is produced from three major ingredients – sand (silica), soda (sodium
oxide), and lime (calcium oxide). About 50 other compounds are also used in
varying proportion to affect colour, viscosity or durability or to impart some
desired physical property. An average batch contains about 70% silica, 13% lime
and 12% soda and small amounts of other material.
6.4.1 Float Glass
It is manufactured by pouring the molten glass over the liquid (molten) tin. It is
allowed to spread to form a wide, flat ribbon of glass that remains untouched until
it hardens. The speed with which it flows over the molten tin determines the
thickness. Generally, slower the speed, thicker the resultant glass product.
Float glass manufacturing accounts for over 90% of the flat glass produced today.
The product are clear glass, heat absorbing glass, and tinted glass.
Clear Glass
Clear glass is colourless. It is available in the thicknesses from construction
purposes ranging from 3/32 inch to 1¼ inch and from 48 × 84 inches to
120 × 204 inches in size.
Heat-absorbing Glass
Heat-absorbing glass is intended for glazing where reduction of solar
radiation is required and is available in bronze, grey and blue-green colour.
Heat absorbing glass is produced by adding selected metallic oxides in
small amounts to the basic glass mixture. Those oxides reduce light
transmission, control solar transmission and glare, and absorb solar heat.
6.4.2 Rolled Glass
Rolled glasses are made by pouring molten glass from a furnace and then passing
it between the rollers to obtain the required thickness. It is then annealed in a
layer and cut to required sizes. The types of glass produced under this category of
rolled glass are: figured or patterned glass; wire glass; and stained glass.
Figured or Patterned Glass
Figured or patterned glass is produced by the use of rollers that have a
pattern etched on either one or both sides which imparts the pattern to one
123
Engineering Materials or both surfaces of the glass as it passes through the rollers. A variety of
patterns is available with differing degree of obscuration. Figured glass can
be coloured, but only a limited number of colours is available. Thicknesses
are usually of the order of 1/8 to 7/32 inch.
Wire Glass
Wire glass is produced in a manner similar to that used for figured glass,
with the addition of welded wire nettings or parallel wires placed in the
molten glass prior to rolling. Wire glass can be obtained with a pattern or
with polished faces (polished wire glass). Wire glass, usually 6 mm thick, is
used in doors and windows where security is also the concern.
6.4.3 Heat Treated Glass
It is made by reheating and rapid air cooling of the annealed glass. As a result of
heat treating, the outer surface of the glass is put in compression and the central
portion or core is in the compensating tension.
Heat treatment of glass results in increased tensile or bending strength which
enables to withstand greater uniform loading pressures, and solar-induced thermal
stresses. As a result, for high-rise structures with varying wind-induced pressure
zones, the use of the same thickness heat treated glass in vision areas allows
uniformity of light transmission, colour density, and glazing detail.
6.4.4 Insulating Glass
Insulating glass units are factory fabric modules consisting of two panes of glass
separated by a metal spacer around the perimeter, with an entrapped, sealed and
desiccated air space in between. It is used where the inside is to be protected from
harsh outside climatic conditions. Sometimes, triple glazed unit utilizing a third
pane and second metal spacer is used in extreme conditions like northern climates
where winter temperature is unusually very low.
6.4.5 Laminated Glass
Laminated glass consists of a combination of two or more panes of glass with a
layer of transparent plastic sandwiched between the panes under heat and
pressure to form a single laminated unit. The introduction of plastic interlayer
produces a unit that will prevent sharp fragments from shattering when it is
subjected to sharp impact and breaks since the glass adheres to the vinyl
interlayer.
It is used as safety glass as it minimizes the risks of injury from breakage or
accidental impacts. It is useful for entrance doors, sliding doors, shower
enclosures, sky lights and sloped glazing.
The laminated glass unit utilizing the pigmented interlayer of polyvinyl butyral
can reduce solar energy transmission, control glare and brightness and provides
aesthetical qualities too.
The use of plastic in laminated glass unit provides a damping characteristic which
enhances the acoustic performance as compared to insulating glass.
6.4.6 Reflective Glass
Reflective glasses have a transparent, thin metal or metal oxide coating deposited
on one surface. These glasses are very popular due to its aesthetical appeal and
solar control capabilities resulting in energy saving and occupants’ comfort.
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The metallic film provided acts as a one way mirror, a person to exterior of the Modern Materials and
Decorative Treatments
building has difficulty in looking in during the day. However, at night with
interior lights on, an occupant cannot see out but anyone on the exterior may see
in. The metallic film reflects sunlight and reduces heat gain remarkably.
SAQ 2
(a) Describe the manufacturing of rolled glass and its uses.
(b) Distinguish between heat treated glass and insulated glass

6.5 DECORATIVE PLASTERING

Plastering is the process of covering uneven surfaces in structures with a plastic
material known as plaster. It is also referred to as “rendering” when describing
the plastering applied to the external surfaces of walls to improve their
appearance and to protect them from environmental agencies like sun and rain. It
also provides the satisfactory base for decorating the surface by applying colour
wash, distemper or paint on it.
While there are several types of plasters, the most common are cement mortar,
lime mortar and cement lime mortar plaster. However, in this unit, we shall study
the special material used in decorative finishes in plaster.
6.5.1 Special Materials Used in Plastering
Decorative appearance or finish is obtained in plastering by use of special
materials in the finishing coat. Let us study some of these now.
Plaster of Paris
When finely ground gypsum rock is heated to a temperature between 100
and 140oC, three-fourths of the combined water passes off as steam. The
residue is known as Plaster of Paris which hardens in 3 to 4 minutes on
addition of water and hence retarders like glue, sodium citrate etc. are
added in small amounts. Plaster of Paris is used for cast ornamental plaster
work in interiors.
Keene’s Cement
This is obtained by calcining Plaster of Paris with alum. It is the hardest
form of gypsum plaster and sets within a few days. It is white in colour and
can take high glass like polish. It is used for internal plastering and in
situations like skirtings. It is also used for ornamental work and highly
decorative plaster finishes because of its good polishing characteristics.
Parian Cement
This is obtained by calcining Plaster of Paris with borax. It is cheaper than
Keene’s cement and is suitable for large areas which are intended to be
painted at the earliest.
Martin’s Cement 125
Engineering Materials In this case, Plaster of Paris is calcined with pearl ash. It is quick setting,
and gives white hard surface on drying. It is considered suitable for internal
work.
Sira Pite
This material is produced by slaking Plaster of Paris in petroleum. This is
also quick setting and gives white hard surface. It has high fire resistance
qualities and is, therefore, used in internal fire-resistance plastering work.
Scagliola
This material is obtained by dissolving Keene’s cement and suitable
colouring pigments in glue. It has the appearance of imitation marble, and is
used for columns, panels, etc.
Marezzo
This is also an imitation marble, which is set upon a smooth surface, and is
formed by mixing Keene’s cement and colours.
Barium Plaster
This plaster material is made from barium sulphate and is used in the final
coat of plaster to the walls of X-ray rooms in hospitals. It acts as a
protection to the personnel and technicians working in these rooms, as it
absorbs X-rays.
Acoustic Plaster
This is a proprietary material which consists of gypsum mixtures combined
with water and used as final coat in plastering. This plaster undergoes a
chemical reaction releasing gas bubbles and hence forming tiny openings in
plaster coat. Thus, a honey-combed surface is obtained which absorbs the
sound. This acoustic plaster is applied in two coats of 6 mm thickness each
and finished with a wooden float.
Asbestos Marble Plaster
This consists of a mixture of finely crushed marble, asbestos and cement. It
is quite expensive and is used in decorative finishes. It imparts a pleasing
marble like finish.
Granite Silicon Plaster
This type of plaster is quick setting and elastic and therefore does not crack.
It is used for finishing coat in the superior type of constructions.
Marble Finish Plaster
It is decorative, smooth and even surface finished and is applied to interior
and external dado work to obtain a marble like appearance. The base
surface is kept rough. It is thoroughly cleaned with water and a thin coat of
white cement slurry is applied. Now the marble finish plaster is applied.
The mix for this plaster is one part white cement and two parts coarse
calcite powder. Calcite powder imparts brightness to the plaster. This
mortar/plaster is applied with a steel float on the rough surface on which
white cement slurry has been applied. Now a coat of white cement and lime
is given to get a smooth finish.
To obtain black streaks, white cement is mixed with black oxide colour and
is applied randomly on the surface to get the desired design and levelled
126
 smoothly by a steel float. The final surface is cured for two days. This Modern Materials and
Decorative Treatments
plaster surface is easily washable, requires no painting, is weather resistant
and requires little maintenance.
Stonecrete Plaster
This is a plain white cement plaster having Ashlar stone finish. It is used for
external surfaces. This plaster is carried out over a base coat of grey cement
plaster. A dry mix is prepared with one part white cement and one part
coarse dolomite powder. Different shades are obtained by adding suitable
pigments while dry mixing. The mortar is prepared and applied on the walls
with a steel float. The surface is levelled with gentle pressure. It is then
cured with water for 48 hours. Finally, chiselling is done to obtain Ashlar
stone finish.
Grit Wash
This is permanent decorative finish used on external walls. Here also, the
base surface should be rough and even. Firstly, panels are prepared of the
desired design on the surface with batten strips. Now mortar consisting of
white cement, dolomite powder and aggregate chips or grit in the ratio of
1:1:2.5 is applied. The surface is levelled with a float applying gentle
pressure.
After initial setting, say after about 1 to 2 hours, the surface is scrubbed
gently with a nylon brush and water. Now the cement on the surface of
chips is washed away thus exposing the aggregates. It is also called exposed
aggregate plaster.
Tyrolean Plaster
This finish is used in interiors and exteriors to obtain a long lasting and
maintenance-free plaster. It is a sand face spray plaster coating, which is
easy to apply. The mix consists of 3 parts white cement, 1 part marble
powder and 1 part coarse white sand or fine grains of marble chips by
volume. Colour pigments are added to achieve desired shades. This
plastering is applied in two to three coats. After proper curing, the finished
surface is left to dry. In order to avoid accumulation of dust, a coat of
silicon should be applied on perfectly dry surface.
SAQ 3
Collect the cost of the special materials used in decorative plastering and
perform ‘Rate Analysis’ for the plastering as an item.

6.6 EXTERIOR FINISHING MATERIALS

Exterior finishing materials are used in exterior walls of the buildings. Commonly
used exterior wall facings and materials are discussed in the following
sub-sections.

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Engineering Materials 6.6.1 Stone Facing
The term ‘stone’ usually designates blocks or pieces of the basic rock material. It
is one of the oldest building materials known to mankind. Because of its unique
characteristics, stone has been regarded as the preferred material in the
construction of permanent buildings.
Stone used for building purposes can be classified according to the form in which
it is available commercially, such as :
(i) Rubble (field stone),
(ii) Cut stone,
(iii) Flag stone (flat slabs),
(iv) Crushed rock.
Stones which are commonly used in buildings include granite, limestone,
travertine, marble, serpentine, sandstone and slate.
Stone work may be divided into three general categories e.g., rubble work, ashlar,
and trim.
Rubble work involves using stones which have not been cut but which may have
had one face – the face that is to be exposed – split or chipped. Two types of
rubble work used are random and coursed. In random rubble work, no attempt is
made to produce either horizontal or vertical course lines. In coursed nibble work,
horizontal course lines are maintained with no vertical course lines incorporated
(Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1 : Random and Coursed Rubble

The term ashlar means only that the stone face showing on the finished surface
has its beds and joints sawed or dressed. Ashlar stone work can have a rough,
smooth or polished finish, depending on the treatment of the face. Coursed ashlar
has continuous vertical and horizontal joints and random ashlar has neither
continuous horizontal nor continuous vertical joints as shown in Figure 6.2.

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Figure 6.2 : Different Types of Ashlar
Ashlar work requires the use of cut stone and includes broken ashlar, irregular
coursed ashlar and regular coursed ashlar (Figure 6.2). Field stone always has a
rough, irregular appearance as the natural surface or broken surface of the stone is
exposed.
Stone trimming involves the use of stones cut for a specific purpose and includes
quoins, jambs, sills, belts, copings, cornices, lintels, steps and arch stones. Quoins
are stones laid at the intersection of two walls. They can be emphasised by letting
them project beyond the vertical plane of the wall or by using a contrasting colour
or type. Usually, they are laid so that they appear alternately as long and short
stones on each side of the corner as shown in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Stone Quoins

6.6.2 Granite
Granite comes in combinations of coloured crystals which give an overall
appearance of a white, grey, pink, red, brown, green, blue or black stone. Granite
building stones are divided into two general types which are cut stone and ashlar
type stone.
Cut stone, which consists of large thin slabs of sawed or polished granite
7/8′′ thick at the minimum and going upto 2 1/2′′ (63 mm) at the most, is applied
to exterior surfaces of buildings. Molded sills, copings, lintels, window and door
trims, columns and stair treads are built with cut stone, or ashlar type stone work
shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4 : Cut and Ashlar Type Granite Stone

6.6.3 Limestone
Limestone is sedimentary rock made up chiefly of calcareous shells of organisms
that live in oceans and lakes.
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Engineering Materials Building limestone is available in grey and buff colours and in combinations of
these two colours. Building limestone is described under two general categories
such as cut stone and ashlar.
(a) Cut stone includes veneer and stock shapes such as molded sills,
copings, lintels, window and door trims and columns which are used
with cut stone veneer or ashlar type stone work. Veneer consists of
large, thin slabs of limestone applied as exterior or interior surface
finish to a building. Veneer slabs are also formed into panels for
curtain-wall construction.
(b) Ashlar stone consists of smaller, thicker pieces of limestone which
are laid in various ashlar patterns and used as veneer on the exterior
or interior of buildings.

Figure 6.5 : Toilet Room Partition Joints

6.6.4 Marble
The word marble is derived from the Latin root marker, meaning a shining stone.
Marble varies in its colour from white to black and is found in innumerable
variations of veining and colour combinations.
Marble for use in the exterior and interior of buildings comes in various sizes and
thicknesses, and requires various kinds of setting beds and types of joints.
Marble finds great use as a material for all types of sculpture and monuments. Cut
stone usually consists of large, thick slab of stone with its face smooth, textured,
slightly textured or polished.
6.6.5 Brick Veneer
Brick is one of the oldest building materials known to mankind and the
manufacture of this clay product still follows the same basic procedures
developed in the past.
Common bricks are normally made with smooth surfaces, but bricks to be used
for facing are very often given some type of surface treatment – a texture applied
at the columns of clay leave the die in the stiff-mud process, a glaze or a colour
variation produced by flashing.
Bricks are used in the building walls in the following ways :
(i) To form a solid brick wall,
(ii) To build a cavity wall,
(iii) To build a partition wall, and

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 (iv) To face walls built of some other material with a veneer of brick, Modern Materials and
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usually 4" thick (Figures 6.6 and 6.7).
Brick veneering over a light wood frame is done in two ways. One is to use
regular brick, laid up to produce a 4" thickness of veneer. The other method is to
use thin slabs of brick manufactured for the purpose. There are two methods of
these constructions: one is to lay up the brick over the sheathing, using metal ties
railed to the sheathing to hold the brick in place; and the other is to cover the
studs with paper backed wire mesh, apply a 1" thick layer of mortar and set the
bricks with their backs in the mortar. Any type of face brick can be used. When
the veneer slabs are used, they are set in a mortar base which is applied over a
stucco wire backing.

Figure 6.6: Exposed Steel Frame

Figure 6.7: Brick Keyed to Spandrel Beam

Brick curtain walls may be formed in several different ways in conjunction with
steel or reinforced concrete frame buildings. The wall can be covered with face
brick (over a back up wall of common brick), clay tile or concrete block.
6.6.6 Terracotta Facing (Ceramic Veneer)
In Italian language, ‘Terracotta’ literally means cooked or baked earth. It was first
used extensively as a construction material by Egyptians, Greeks and Etruscans.
The Romans also used terracotta as a substitute for stone in construction work,
and developed its ornamental use in buildings. Today, terracotta is known as a
ceramic veneer. The colour range of this natural, unglazed ceramic veneer is
usually dull ochre to red. It can vary according to the composition of the clay and
the temperature of firing.
Finishes
The surface features of ceramic-veneer finishes vary over a large range
which includes the following types :
(a) Smooth finish
(b) Scored finish
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Engineering Materials (c) Combed finish
(d) Roughened finish
(e) Ceramic glaze
(f) Non-lustrous glaze
(g) Ceramic colour glaze
(h) Polychrome finish
Texture refers to surface qualities other than colour and includes the surface
finishes just listed and any elaboration thereof. Extruded ceramic veneer is
available in smooth, bevelled, fluted and scored surface texture. In
handmade types, varieties of textures are possible.
Extruded Ceramic Veneer
This includes :
(i) Adhesion type of ceramic veneer (not more than 1" thick), and
(ii) Anchor type (not less than 1" thick).
Handmade Ceramic Veneer
This may be of three types :
(i) Closed back
(ii) Open back
(iii) Solid slab (anchor type)
The shells and webs of handmade ceramic veneer must be properly
proportioned and able to resist expansion and contraction stresses when
they are burned.
Prefabricated Ceramic Veneer Panel
A prefabricated ceramic veneer panel consisting of a ceramic veneer facing
with a light weight concrete backing and reinforcing is available for curtain
wall construction (Figure 6.8).
Ornamental Uses
Sculptural reproduction can be obtained in ceramic veneer, either plain or in
polychrome colours. Decorative, perforated ceramic veneer units are now
available for use as screens, grills and facades for architectural work.

Figure 6.8 : Brick Veneer Set in Mortar Backing

6.6.7 Texture Finishes
Stucco
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 Stucco is a type of plaster made with Portland cement which is applied to Modern Materials and
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exterior surfaces as a finish coating. It can be applied directly to masonry
walls, but over the wood sheathing some type of wire must be used to tie
the sheathing and stucco together. Either a woven wire mesh or expanded
metal lath can be used. In either case, the openings should be large enough
to permit the first coat to be forced through the openings to embed the wire
completely. Wire should not be less than 1/4" away from the sheathing and
should be railed every 8" to 9" (Figure 6.9).

Figure 6.9 : Expanded Metal Lath

Stucco is applied in three coats, a base or scratch coat, a second or brown
coat and a final finish coat. All three coats are composed of 1 volume of
Portland cement to 3-5 volumes of clean sharp sand.
The scratch and brown coats should be applied about 3/8" thick with
sufficient time between applications to allow for proper curing. Each coat
should be kept moist for at least 48 hours. The final coat should not be less
than 1/8" thick and should be applied not sooner than seven days after
application of the brown coat. Mineral colour may be added to the finish
coat, or already prepared and coloured dry stucco is available for finish
coats. A variety of treatments can be given to the finish coat to produce
certain textures. Among the treatments, commonly used, are French trowel,
spatter dash, Italian finish and travertine coarse; and coloured pebbles may
be sprayed against the newly applied finish coat to produce a pebble dash
finish.
Granule-Texture Finishes
These finishes are made up of granules of various materials like mosaic,
glass, sand, plastic, other synthetic materials etc. These are mixed with
colouring pigments to get the required shades and appropriate resin is used
as binding material to help fixing on the wall.
Flaked-Textures
These are same as above except for the fact that granules will be replaced
by flake of the same basic material.
SAQ 4
(a) Explain the various ways in which stone is used as a facing material.
(b) What is meant by brick veneering?

6.7 INTERIOR FINISHING MATERIALS

The materials which are used to finish the interior walls and ceilings of buildings
include wood, gypsum, clay products, stone, concrete, fibre boards, paper, glass,
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Engineering Materials steel, nonferrous metals, plastics and paints. A variety of products have been
developed from each basic material so that a wide choice of finishes is available
in respect of any material.
6.7.1 Wood Finishes
Interior finishing materials of wood can be divided into two basic groups :
(i) those used to cover walls and ceilings, and
(ii) those used as trim materials around door and window openings, as
base board and as various decorative mouldings.
Wall and ceiling coverings can also be divided into two groups :
(i) those made of solid wood, and
(ii) those made of ply wood.
6.7.2 Gypsum Finishes
One of the best known types of interior finishes is produced by the plastering
material in which gypsum is one of the basic ingredients. Plaster surfaces can be
troweled smooth, stippled or sand finished. Gypsum Board is also used as an
interior finishing material.
6.7.3 Clay Finishes
Clay products of all kinds can be used for interior finishing. They include
common brick, face brick, glazed brick, structural tile, glazed tile, ceramic
veneer, ceramic wall tile and ceramic mosaic.
6.7.4 Stone Finishes
Stone interior finishes can be produced by using solid stone on exposed interior
as well as exterior surface of a wall. Any type of building stone may be used for
this purpose. The other method is to cover the interior surface with thin stone
slabs, from 1" - 2" thick. The stone is applied over a back up wall of concrete,
concrete block, brick or tile and is held in place with some type of stone anchor.
A number of imitation stone products made from terracotta are also used for this
purpose.
6.7.5 Concrete Finishes
Concrete is used in various ways for interior work. Plain concrete walls are often
given special treatment to make them as smooth as possible. Textured and
patterned surfaces are produced by special treatment of the form face.
Pre-cast concrete panels often have one face finished for interior exposure. The
face may be textured, patterned or coloured, or it may consist of exposed
aggregate.
Concrete blocks with a glazed face are also produced for interior use.
6.7.6 Hardboard Finishing Panels
Tempered hardboard is treated in many ways to produce interior facing panels.
6.7.7 Fibre Board Panels
These panels may be used as interior finish material on ceilings or on walls,
particularly above dado level.
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For ceilings, the board may be in the form of tiles, strips and panels. Panels may Modern Materials and
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be plain faced or marked off by V grooves in file pattern.
6.7.8 Wall Paper
Paper has been used as an interior decorative material for a long time and still
finds wide acceptance in many situations. In addition to the conventional designs,
wall paper is produced in a wide range of wood grain, fabric, stone, brick and
mural patterns. Wall papers are produced in single and double rolls 20- 36" wide
containing 36 sq ft per single roll.
6.7.9 Steel, Non-ferrous Metal, Plastics
All of these materials are used to produce a number of products adopted to
interior finishing.
6.7.10 Cork Tiles
Cork, an excellent acoustic material, is available in the form of tiles. It can be
used for almost any interior application in floors, walls, panels, partitions and
ceilings. They are resistant to fire, chemicals and are quite durable.
SAQ 5
(a) Enumerate some interior finishing materials.
(b) What are the different materials used to clad the internal walls of any
building?

6.8 MISCELLANEOUS DECORATIVE FINISHES

6.8.1 Decorative Ceiling Tiles
There are several types of decorative ceiling tiles available. One type is made
from special quality three layered particle board. It is flat pressed and boarded
with BWP-grade Phenol Formaldehyde Synthetic Resin. This material is ideal for
making rigid and strong decorative ceiling tiles. They are available in embossed
designs also.
These tiles are available both half and full perforated in size of 60 × 60 cm and
12 mm thick. They are fire resistant, termite, weather and fungus proof,
dimensionally stable and warp free, and provide excellent insulation against heat
and sound. Topline Ceiling Tiles is one such type. Another type is Anchor
Ceiling Tile. Similarly, there are other brands, which come in different
architectural patterns, and are considered ideal for homes, offices, showroom,
restaurants, auditoriums, airports and factories. They come in designs like
diamond, chequered, Paragon, Serrated and Gothic. They combine beauty and
safety.
6.8.2 Decorative Ceilings
False ceilings are used in buildings for architectural applications. These ceilings
come in different materials, and they offer solutions for commercial design
problems. Recently, colour coated steel sets of false ceiling panel have entered
the market. They come in different colours, finishes and patterns.
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Engineering Materials Some such ceilings are called “Trac” and “Supersil”. Another decorative ceiling
consists of aluminium sheets slates/louvers. This ceiling system is suitable mainly
for centrally air-conditioned building.
6.8.3 Decorative Films for Glass Surfaces
Another decorative finish which is becoming popular is the decorative adhesive
coated film on glass in windows, doors and on mirrors, shower partitions, acrylic
ceiling, panels and showcases. It renders glass shatter-resistant and diffuses
sunlight so as to lend soft glow and prevent discolouration of interiors. It is ultra
violet rays resistant. It reduces heavy air-conditioning bills and lends
sophistication and style to the interiors. These films come in range of finishes and
patterns, stained glass or embossed. One such material is known as “Glass
Décor”.
6.8.4 Decorative Damp Proofer
Now damp proofers are available which protect as well as decorate. They protect
surfaces from dampness, leakage, seepage, fungus growth, sunlight, week acids,
etc. and also decorate like a paint. They are inherently coloured in as many as 30
shades or more and can be applied directly over the plaster providing a smooth
satin finish. One such damp proofer is known as “Chemistik Pro Décor”.
6.8.5 Decorative Laminates
Another material which is becoming very popular in imparting decorative finish
in interiors is decorative laminate. These laminates are available in several types
of finishes like plain shade, geometrical, textile marble and granite, metallic etc.
They generally come in sizes of 8′ × 4′ with general size thickness of 1.0
and 1.55 mm.

6.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have seen how the polymers enhance the quality of normal
concrete. This new type of the material is used increasingly nowadays. The use of
glass too has become an important aspect in the construction industry. Various
finishing materials play an important role in the decoration and aesthetics of
buildings.
The decorative finishes encompass all surfaces in a building like wall, floor and
ceiling etc. The decorative finish not only adds to aesthetic appearance, but also
provides protective coating to the surface. The decorative finishes in plaster are
diverse in nature with rough finishes like pebble dash and rough cast, at one end,
and textured or ornamental finish, at the other end.
Thus, overall, it is observed that there is an explosion of information about new
decorative finishes, and almost in every quarter, a new decorative finish is
entering in the building industry.

6.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

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FURTHER READINGS Decorative Treatments

Gurcharan Singh, Building Materials, Standard Publishers Distributors.

Naville, A. M., Properties of Concrete, The English Language Book Society and
Pitman Publishing, London.
Shetty, M. S., Concrete Technology, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi.
IS : 456-1978.
Surendra Singh, Engineering Materials, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

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