Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Summary
1. Earth-based observations
x Discuss Galileo’s use of the telescope to identify features of the Moon
Galilei Galileo did not invent the telescope, but he improved its design. He built refracting
(lens) telescopes, which formed upright images and also covered the edges of his telescope to
reduce spherical aberration and form clearer images.
x Discuss why some wavebands can be more easily detected from space
Almost all information from space comes in the form of EMR. The EMR spectrum is divided
into ‘wavebands’. Each particular waveband covers a specific range of wavelengths in the
EM spectrum. The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs, diffracts and scatters some wavebands more
than others.
The high energy gamma and x-rays ionise molecules and are therefore strongly absorbed by
the upper atmosphere. Most UV radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer while some
penetrates to the ground. Water vapour and gases in the atmosphere reflect most of the
infrared radiation. Visible light and most radio waves are able to fully penetrate to the ground
This limits ground-based astronomy to the visible and radio wavebands. In order to study the
other EMR effectively, one must go above the atmosphere. Infrared radiation can be studied
by placing infrared telescopes on mountaintops above the densest regions of the atmosphere.
Visible
Infrared
100
Ionosphere
90
80
70
60
50
40
Ozone layer
30
20
10
Wavelength
Resolution
Resolution aka ‘resolving power’ is a measure of a telescope’s ability to clearly distinguish
between two very close objects in space. When this occurs, the objects are said to be
resolved.
Resolution is quantitatively defined by the angle of separation between two light wavefronts
e.g. a binary star. It is measured in radians or arcs seconds. The resolving power of a
wavelength (m)
telescope is given by θ (arc seconds) = 2.5 × 105 × aperture diamter (m). The smaller the
angle of resolution, the greater the resolving power. Hence, a smaller wavelength and larger
diameter size improve resolution.
Two light sources that have been resolved Two light sources with overlapping
have separate diffraction fringes diffraction fringes cannot be resolved
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is a measure of the ‘light gathering’ power of a telescope i.e. its ability to clearly
detect photons from sources in space- the more light that can be detected, the fainter the
object that can be seen. The sensitivity of a telescope is the minimum intensity of light that
needs to be detected to form a suitable image. Quantitatively, sensitivity is proportional to the
surface area of the aperture. Telescopes with large apertures are nicknamed “light buckets”
Atmospheric Distortion
Ground-based telescopes view space from beneath the dynamic mixture of gases, dust and
water vapour of the atmosphere. Variations in temperature and pressure with altitude cause
corresponding changes in the refractive index, causing stars to ‘twinkle’. Or more correctly,
the object shimmers in and out of focus, lowering the resolution of the telescope. The true
colour of images is altered due to variations in absorption with wavelength. Objects lower in
the sky are even more susceptible because the light has to travel through more atmosphere to
reach the ground. The atmosphere also scatters unwanted light from nearby cities and
vehicles into the telescope.
Absorption of radiation
Gamma rays, x-rays, UV, some infrared and the longer wavelength radio waves are absorbed
and scattered by the atmosphere. This means the intensity of these EMR reaching the ground
The easiest approach to reduce atmospheric distortion is to place the telescope as high in the
atmosphere as possible. This means placing telescopes on very high mountaintops, above the
densest regions of the atmosphere. Another advantage is the remoteness means there are no
unwanted light sources from human activity.
Active Optics
Active optics aims to increase sensitivity by compensating for imperfections in the telescope
mirror. Sensitivity is proportional to the surface area of the mirror; however, larger mirrors
are more susceptible to distortion and the thicker it needs to be. Active optics uses many
small composite mirrors, each controlled by its own actuator which pushes or pulls on the
back of the mirror to ‘actively’ adjusting its shape accordingly. The mirrors are adjusted
about once a minute.
One of the best examples is the Keck observatory, at the top of an extinct Hawaiian Volcano,
‘Mauna Kea’. It comprises of 36 hexagonal mirrors to give the same sensitivity as a 10m
diameter mirror.
The Keck
Observatory
telescope mirror
Adaptive Optics
Adaptive optics aims to increase resolution by measuring and compensating for atmospheric
distortion. Similar to active optics, adaptive optics uses actuator-controlled composite mirrors
but has much faster response speed. It involves sampling part of the incident light using a
wavefront sensor to measure the amount of atmospheric distortion. The system relies on a
bright reference star or artificial laser pulse to detect this distortion. The mirrors are adjusted
using actuators, up to 1000 times per second, effectively ‘neutralising’ atmospheric changes.
Interferometry
Resolution depends on the diameter of the aperture. Interferometry uses the principle of
several small telescopes linked in an array to give a higher resolution. The device used is
called an interferometer and is most commonly used in radio telescopes because they can be
linked over great distances.
Diameter ‘x’
Radio interferometry works by combining the same radio sources (which are slightly ‘out of
phase’ due to time differences) electronically, so that they interfere by superposition.
Radio telescopes in different continents (and even satellites) can be linked to from a very
long baseline (up to 3 times the Earths diameter). This technique is called very large baseline
interferometry (VLBI) and it used to produce extremely high resolutions.
x Gather, process and present information on the next generation optical telescopes
The next generation telescopes are designed to have lighter, larger mirrors than before. This
allows astronomers to view fainter objects with higher resolution and ensures stability in the
mirrors.
A new generation of parabolic mirrors uses rotating liquid mercury and gallium alloys. The
layer is only 2mm thick and they are low cost compared to conventional mirrors. They are
restricted to facing only directly upwards and objects cannot be tracked.
Extremely large telescopes: The ‘Giant Magellan telescope’ (GMT), Thirty Meter
Telescope (TMT) and European-Extremely large telescope (E-ELT)
The largest, the E-ELT has a diameter of 42 metres and is predicted to be 15 times more
sensitive than the current largest 10 metre Keck telescopes. The TMT has a 30 metre
diameter and the GMT has a 24.5 metre mirror. They are expected to be completed by 2020.
All rely on adaptive optics to make their resolution as powerful as any space based
observatories.
x Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform an
investigation to demonstrate why it is desirable for telescopes to have a larger
diameter objective lens or mirror in terms of both sensitivity and resolution
Aim: To demonstrate why it is desirable for telescopes to have large diameter aperture in
terms of sensitivity and resolution
Resolution
The following table summarises data on a range of telescopes
Telescope Primary SA primary Theoretical Theoretical
mirror mirror (m2) resolution gain in
diameter (m) (arcseconds) magnitudes
Human eye 0.007 0.001 17 0
6 inch refractor 0.15 0.02 0.8 7
Faulkes 2. 0 3 0.06 12
Telescope
Anglo- 3. 9 12 0.03 14
Australian
telescope
Keck telescope 10 79 0.01 16
Note: The gain in magnitudes is related to the sensitivity. A more sensitive telescope can
detect objects many magnitudes fainter than the human eye.
Plot the theoretical gain in magnitude against SA primary mirror and describe the
relationship
As the SA increases, the gain in magnitude (i.e. the sensitivity) increases.
Plot the theoretical resolution vs. Aperture diameter and describe the relationship
It is observed that as the mirror diameter increases, the angle of theoretical resolution
decreases i.e. as diameter increases, resolution increases.
2. Parallax
Parallax is the change in apparent position of a nearby object viewed along two different lines
of sight. Quantitatively, it is measured as the angle between the two lines. Trigonometric
parallax is half the annual parallax.
Viewpoint A
Viewpoint B
Viewpoint A Viewpoint B
A parsec is an astronomical unit of distance. It is defined as the distance away a star would
need to be in order for its annual parallax to be 1 degree. In terms of annual parallax, a parsec
is the distance at which the radius of Earth’s orbit subtends and angle of 1 degree. 1 parsec =
3.1 × 1016 m = 3.26 light years
Definition of a parsec:
1 arc second
1 AU
1 parsec
A light year is an astronomical unit of distance. It is defined as the straight line distance light
travels in a vacuum in 1 year. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m.
Converting AU to parsecs
1 AU
From the definition of a parsec : tan(1 arcsecond)
1 parsec
1 arc sec ond 60 2 degrees
?1 AU tan(60 -2 ) u 1 parsec
S
In radian measure :1 AU tan(60 -2 ) u 1 parsec u
180
tan(60 -2 )S
i.e. 1 AU pc
180
x Explain how trigonometric parallax can be used to determine the distance to stars
Trigonometric parallax is half the angular shift of a star (in arc seconds) as observed from
Earth over a period of 6 months i.e. half the annual parallax. Because even our closest stars
are so distant, a considerable change in the observer’s position is required to notice any
change in the star’s relative position. By observing parallax in 6 month intervals (from
opposite points of the Earth), the change in the observer’s position becomes twice Earth-to-
Sun distance or 2 Astronomical Units (AU). Observing 6 months apart maximises the
parallax angle by maximising the baseline and neutralises the slight eccentricity of Earth’s
orbit
p
2 AU
= Sun
= Earth
d = nearby star
= distant star
1AU
Using trigonometry, tan 𝑝 = , d is the unknown distance from the Sun to the Star and p is
𝑑
1 AU
the trigonometric parallax angle. Therefore d can be calculated by 𝑑 = tan 𝑝.
x Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the distance to a star given its
𝟏
trigonometric parallax using: 𝒅 =
𝒑
Using the above example, when the parallax of the star (p) is 1 arc second, then the distance d
1
in parsecs is given by = . Remember:
𝑝
1
1 arc second = degree (")
3600
1 parsec = 3.26 LY = 3.09 × 1013 km
Examples:
1) The star 40-Eridini is 5 pc away. Calculate its parallax in:
a) Arc seconds.
d 5 pc
1
d
p
1
?5
p
1
p 0.2 arc sec onds
5
b) Degrees
1
1 arc second "
3600
1 1
? 0.2 arc seconds 0.2 u "
3600 1800 0
c) A star has a parallax of 0.3 arc seconds. Calculate its distance from the Earth
in:
a) parsecs
b) light years
1 parsec 3.26 LY
10
?d u 3.26 10.86666... # 10.9 LY (3 s.f.)
3
The ‘seeing’ or ‘shimmering’ effect of Earth’s atmosphere limits the precision of parallax
measurements. The smallest parallax that can be observed from Earth is ≈0.01 arc seconds.
This means only about 700 of the closest stars (within 100 pc) can be measured by Earth-
based telescopes. The limitations can be lessened by using space-based telescopes above the
atmosphere or by using a larger baseline for the annual parallax e.g. placing a satellite in orbit
around the sun at a distance from Earth’s orbit.
Resolution of ground-based telescopes is currently limited to 0.01 arcseconds (100 pcs), due
to atmospheric distortion. Only about 1000 stars within 20 parsecs can be accurately
measured.
Space based telescopes do not suffer atmospheric distortion, so parallax measurements are
determined by the quality and size of the aperture. In 1989, the European Space Agency
(ESA) launched the Hipparcos satellite, which has catalogued accurate parallax
measurements down to 1 milli-arcsecond (mas) for distance measurements of ≈120 000 stars
out to about 1000 pcs.
Future space telescopes include Gaia and the Space Interferometry Mission (SIM). GAIA has
an accuracy of 10 micro arcseconds (10-5 arcsec) and will catalogue over 1 billion stars
within distances of 100 000 pcs while SIM will use optical interferometry to give parallax of
4 micro arcseconds within 10% accuracy of distances up to 25 000 pcs. The data collected
will allow for a dynamic 3D map of the Milky Way.
3. Spectroscopy
x Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these
with a continuous blackbody spectrum
Emission Spectra
Emission spectra of a chemical element/compound consist only of radiation of a discrete
number of wavelengths. It appears as bright lines against a dark background. This radiation
is produced by hot diffuse gases, such as in a gas discharge tube.
Electrical/heat energy supplied to the atoms/molecules raises the energy level of the
electrons. As the electrons fall back down to their ground state, they emit a quantum of
energy which corresponds to one of the observed wavelengths. The bright lines of emission
spectra correspond to all of the possible energy transitions. The relative intensity of each line
depends on the composition of the gas.
Hot gas
Spectrograph
Wavelength (nm)
Absorption Spectra
Absorption Spectra consist of a continuous range of wavelengths, with discrete gaps at
particular wavelengths. It appears as dark lines on a continuous background of colours. It is
produced when a continuous spectrum of light passes through cool gas e.g. in the Sun, the
dark lines result from specific wavelengths being absorbed by cooler gases in the outer
layers.
Wavelength (nm)
The higher the temperature, the shorter wavelength of peak intensity emission i.e. the
maximum intensity is inversely proportional to the temperature of the hot surface. This is
2.9 u 10 6
shown by: O where, λ is the wavelength (nm) and T is the temperature (K). This
T
is also why hotter stars appear blue and cooler stars red.
Wavelength (nm)
4000 K
Intensity of
radiation
emitted
3000 K
The collimator uses a narrow slit and mirrors or lenses to form a parallel beam of light from a
light source.
The second part disperses the light into its component wavelengths to produce the spectra. It
consists of wither a triangular prism or a diffraction grating which can be further subdivided
into transmission or reflection gratings. Diffraction gratings consist of thousands of parallel
slits per cm which cause the light to spread out into a spectrum. Most modern spectroscopes
use diffraction gratings because they scatter less light and give better resolving power than
prisms.
The third part allows the spectra to be viewed or recorded. It consists of either a telescope, a
focusing mirror with a photographic plate or an electronic image device such as a charged
couple device (CCD). Fibre optics may be used to simultaneously obtain multiple spectra.
Prism spectroscope:
Focussing
slit mirror/lens
Collimator
Viewing
device
Transmission grating:
Reflection grating:
x Identify the general types of spectra produced by stars, emission nebulas, galaxies
and quasars
Stars
Stars act as blackbodies and therefore produce spectra that depend on their surface
temperature according to Plank’s Blackbody radiation. Absorption spectra are produced as
the result of the radiation passing through the star’s cooler atmosphere.
Emission nebulas
Emission nebulae are regions of hot gas (mainly hydrogen) and dust that become heated by
radiation from nearby hot stars. As the electrons in the nebulae drop back to their lower
energy level, they produce emission spectra in the UV, visible, infrared and radio bands
(depending on the nebula composition).
Galaxies
Galaxies consist of up to billions of stars, nebula and planets all circling a common centre.
Therefore, the spectra for galaxies combine the spectra of all these celestial objects. They
emit light from the entire EM spectrum, particularly infrared and radio. Absorption lines of B
and K type stars are common, along with emission lines for hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and
silicon. Almost all galaxies are moving radially away from the Milky Way, so the spectra are
red-shifted.
Quasars
Quasars are distant ‘point sources’ producing vast amount of radiation across the entire EM
spectrum, but mostly in the radio band. The spectra consist of broad, high-intensity emission
lines that are extremely red-shifted. There are only 1-2 LY across and are believed to be
formed by gas being swallowed up by black holes,
x Describe the key features of stellar spectra and describe how this is used to classify
stars
A stellar spectrum is the spectrum of radiation emitted by a star. Stellar spectra consist of a
black body spectra superimposed with absorption lines characteristic of the elements in the
star’s atmosphere.
The shape of the curve, particularly the position of the peak emission wavelength and the
absorption lines for specific elements indicates the surface temperature.
To produce lines for hydrogen, the temperature must be in the range of 4000-12000K while
helium must be in the 15000-30000K range. Too low temperatures and the electrons will
produce faint absorption lines, too high and the atoms will be completely ionised, again
resulting in no absorption lines.
When different stars are compared, there is a change in colour as luminosity increases. The
coolest stars are red, then orange, yellow, white and blue for the hottest stars.
Surface Temperature
The radial velocity obtained by observing the Doppler shift of a star, compared to laboratory-
measured spectra. If a star is moving towards us, the wavelengths will contract and there will
be a blue-shift. Conversely, if a star is moving away the wavelengths will ‘stretch out’ and
there will be red-shift. A red-shift indicates the star is moving away while a blue-shift
indicates a star is moving towards us. The faster the radial velocity, the greater the Doppler
shift.
The translational velocity is measured by determining the change in position of the star over
long time periods. The distance of a star obtained from parallax measurements is used to
determine the translational velocity.
Distant
Proper Velocity
Star
Translational
Proper
Velocity
motion
Sun
Laboratory measured
spectra
Rotational velocity
If a star is rotating, then one edge is moving towards us while the other is receding. One edge
will therefore be red-shifted and the other side will be blue-shifted by the same amount. The
centre will not exhibit Doppler shift. Individual spectral lines are broadened by an amount
dependant on the rotational velocity of the star- the faster it rotates, the more the lines
broaden.
Increasing wavelength (nm)
Non-rotating spectra
Blue-shift
No Doppler Earth
Star
shift
Red-shift
In the case of binary stars, the rotational velocity around their centre of mass can be
determined using the Doppler Effect. The two stars periodically approach and recede; hence
Density
The surface density and therefore surface pressure of a star broadens the spectra lines.
Increased gas pressure produces more rapid collisions between atoms during emission or
absorption of radiation. These collisions result in electrons shifting energy levels, hence
producing broader spectral lines. Dwarf stars with high density produce the broadest spectral
lines whilst super giants produce narrow spectral lines.
Chemical Composition
Each element, ion or molecule has its own characteristic emission lines which represent the
various electron energy levels. These lines are in the same position in a star’s absorption
spectrum. Comparing a star’s absorption lines with the emission lines for known elements
allows the star’s composition to be determined.
Aim: To observe and examine a variety of spectra produced by discharge tubes, reflected
sunlight or incandescent filaments.
Equipment:
For the spectroscope: Light sources:
-a silvered CD -tungsten filament light bulb
-cardboard box -Neon light sign
-cardboard tube -Yellow-orange street light (sodium vapour lamp)
-craft knife -Mercury vapour lamp
-aluminium foil -Halogen car light
-sticky tape
-digital camera
-computer, for analysing spectra images
Method:
1/ At night stand 20m from the light source and holding the CD 40cm in front of your
chest look at the reflection of the light on the silvered side of the CD. The bright and
dark lines or regions are emission and absorption lines respectively.
Results:
Conclusion:
Examples:
25000 24000 K
20000
15000
10000
6000 K
5000
1900 K
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
A black body is an object that is emits or absorbs radiation perfectly i.e. it emits or absorbs
radiation across the entire EM spectrum, at varying intensities.
The black body radiation curve can be used to determine the surface temperature of stars.
c) Explain how Wien’s law is used to determine the temperature and composition
of a star
Wien’s law states that the peak wavelength emission of a blackbody is inversely proportional
W
to its surface temperature i.e. λMax = , where W is a constant. Rearranging, It can be used
T
W
to predict the surface temperature of a star: T
O max . From the surface temperature and the
colour of the star, the star’s chemical composition and spectral class can be predicted.
Brightness (I) of a star is a measure of the intensity of radiation reaching Earth from a star.. It
depends on the intrinsic luminosity (L) of the star and its distance (d) away.
Apparent magnitude (m) is the brightness of a star as observed from Earth. Brighter stars
have lower magnitude and an increase in 1 represents a decrease in apparent brightness of
5
√100 =2.512.
Absolute magnitude (M) is the brightness a star would have when observed from a distance
of 10 parsecs. Absolute and apparent magnitude use the same scale, therefore, more negative
number correspond to higher luminosity. It is estimated by comparison with reference stars of
the same spectral class and known distance (from parallax).
x Explain how the concept of magnitude can be used to determine the distance to a
celestial object
If a star is closer than 10 pc, “m” is larger than M and if it is further than 10 pc., the reverse is
true. The amount by which the absolute magnitude (M) and apparent magnitude (m) differ
depends on the star. If both m and M are known, the difference modulus can be used to
calculate the distance to a star:
d
m − M = 5log10
10
For stars closer than 10 pc, the distance modulus is negative, while for stars further than 10
pc, it is positive.
𝐝
Solve problems and analyse information using 𝐦 − 𝐌 = 𝟓𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 and
𝐈𝐀
𝐈𝐁
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝐦𝐁−𝐦𝐀)/𝟓 to calculate the absolute or apparent magnitude of stars using data
and a reference star
Examples:
1) Our Sun has an apparent visual magnitude of -26.5 and an absolute visual
magnitude of +4.83. Explain why these magnitudes are different
Apparent magnitude is a measure of the intensity as viewed from Earth whereas absolute
magnitude is a measure of the intensity when viewed at a distance of 10 parsecs. The more
negative the value for absolute or apparent magnitude the more negative the value. Therefore,
because we are closer to the Sun than 10 pc, the apparent visual magnitude of the Sun is
negative while its absolute magnitude is positive i.e. d < 10 so m > 𝑀
2) A star of the sixth magnitude is located 40pc from the Sun. Calculate its absolute
magnitude
§d·
M m 5log10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§ 40 ·
? M 6 5 log10 ¨ ¸ 6 5 log10 4 9.01029... # 9.01 (2 d.p.)
© 10 ¹
1
m 8 M 0 d .....equation 1
p
§d·
5log10 ¨ ¸ M m
© 10 ¹
§ d · Mm
log10 ¨ ¸ sub in equation 1
© 10 ¹ 5
§ 1 · Mm
log10 ¨¨ ¸¸
© 10p ¹ 5
§ 1 ·
10 ( M m ) / 5 ¨¨ ¸¸
© 10p ¹
1 4 4
p ( Mm) / 5
3.98107... # 3.98 arcseconds (2 d.p.)
10(10 ) 10(10 ( 08) / 5 ) 10 0.6
a) Identify which star is the brightest to an observer on the Earth. Explain your
answer.
For an observer on Earth, we use the apparent magnitude. The more negative the value, the
brighter the star appears. Therefore, the brightest star to an Earth observer is Sirius, with m=-
1.51
m 0.04 M 0.5
§d·
m-M 5log10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§d·
? 0.04 0.5 5log10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§d· 0.46
log10 ¨ ¸ 0.092
© 10 ¹ 5
d
10 0.092
10
d 10 0.908 8.09095...8.09 pc (2 d.p.)
mB 0.41 mH 0.63
IB
100m H m B / 5 1000.630.41 / 5 1000.044 1.22461... # 1.22 (2 d.p.)
IH
? Betelgeuse appears | 1.2 times brighter than Hadar
MB 5.6 MH 5.2
IB
100m H m B / 5 100[( 5.2 )( 5.6 )] / 5 1000.08 1.44543... # 1.45 (2 d.p.)
IH
? Betelgeuse appears | 1.45 times brighter than Hadar
Stereoscopic parallax is a technique used to determine the distance to a star by comparing the
absolute and apparent magnitude. The term “parallax” is simply an analogy for distance.
A star’s spectrum indicates its spectral class or temperature, which are located on the
horizontal axis of a Hertzprung-Russel diagram and its luminosity, located on the vertical
axis. By finding the position where the lines intercept, the absolute magnitude (on vertical
axis) can be determined. The apparent magnitude can be directly-measured using photometry.
d
The distance modulus equation m − M = 5log10 �10� can then be used to determine the
distance in pc. This method is not precise, but is useful as an estimation of distances to stars.
x Explain how two-colour values (i.e. colour index, B-V) are obtained and why they
are useful
Colour index values are useful because they allow the surface temperature of starts to be
determined without spectra.
Stars may have 3 different magnitudes depending on the instruments used to view them: the
human eye, a photographic emulsion (light-sensitive colloid) or a photocell. The eye is most
sensitive to yellow-green light; photographic emulsions are most sensitive to blue-violet
light; photocells perform well at all wavelengths. Hence, a blue star would appear brighter on
a photograph than to the eye.
Blue or photographic magnitude (B) is the magnitude of a star measured through a blue filter
so it only allows wavelengths of ~440 nm to pass through. The visual magnitude (V) is
measured through a yellow-green filter which allows wavelengths of ≈550 nm to pass
through.
The colour index is the difference between the photographic and visual magnitude i.e.
Colour Index = B − V. It follows that if B − V is positive (B > 𝑉), then the star will be
redder and therefore, cooler. If B − V is negative (B < 𝑉), then the star will be bluer and
therefore, hotter.
B intensity
(440 nm) V intensity
(550 nm)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
The colour index is calibrated so that a (white) main sequence star (spectral class A,
luminosity class V) has a CI of 0.00. The CI for hotter stars will be negative CI while for
cooler stars it will be positive.
Photographic photometry
Photographic photometry uses visual comparison of star images on photographic plates.
Brighter stars appear larger and denser on the plate and it is possible to obtain photometry for
thousands of stars using a single image, using a laser to scan and produce a digitised image. It
does not calibrate stars accurately; however, it provides higher resolution than photoelectric
devices.
Photoelectric photometry
Photoelectric devices include: photomultiplier and charged-coupled device (CCD).
A photomultiplier (vacuum tube technology) converts weak light into stronger electrical
current. It consists of an evacuated tube, with a thin glass window that allows photons to
enter and hit a photo-cathode. Electrons are emitted in proportion to the light intensity
(termed ‘secondary emission’) and a series of 9-14 electrodes (dynodes), of increasing
voltage are used to accelerate the electrons. Secondary emission creates an increasing the
number of photoelectrons and hence, a larger measurable current.
Incoming
Photomultiplier: photon
Thin
window Photo-cathode
+100
+200 V V
+300 V
+400 V
+500 V
+600 V
+700 V
Anode to
measuring
device
x Solve problems and analyse information using: to calculate the absolute or apparent
magnitude of stars using data and a reference star
Examples:
§d·
m - M 5log 10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§d·
? 0.73 (4.7) 5log 10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§d·
3.97 5log 10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§d·
log 10 ¨ ¸ 0.794
© 10 ¹
d
10 0.794
10
d 10 0.206 1.60694... # 1.61 pc (3 s.f.)
1
p d 1 10 0.206 0.62230...0.622 arc seconds (3 s.f.)
d
m 6.0 d 20 pc
§d·
m - M 5log 10 ¨ ¸
© 10 ¹
§d· § 20 ·
M m 5log 10 ¨ ¸ 6 5 log 10¨ ¸ 4.49485... # 4.49 (3 s.f.)
© 10 ¹ © 10 ¹
c) Predict which star is the faintest when viewed from Earth. Explain.
Viewed from Earth refers to the apparent visual magnitude. More positive values for
magnitude correspond to fainter stars. Thus, Hadar is the faintest star when viewed from
Earth.
Aim: To observe the effect of various coloured filters on the brightness of a light source
Equipment:
-Red, Blue and yellow-coloured filters
-data logger with light intensity probe attachment
Method:
1/ Place light meter on flat table in a well-lit room (fluorescent lighting)
2/ To simulate a red star,
Results:
x Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to assess the impact
of improvements in measurement technologies in our understanding of celestial
objects.
Space technology has allowed telescopes to overcome atmospheric distortion. However, these
telescopes are expensive to launch and usually only last several years before falling back to
earth due to orbital decay.
-to constrain the value of the Hubble constant – the rate of expansion of the universe.
--However, by observing distant supernovae, it found that the rate of expansion of the
universe may be accelerating
-It demonstrated the connection between galaxies and their central black holes
-High-resolution images of the collision of comet shoemaker-Levy 9 in 1994 were
crucial in developing an understanding of the dynamics of comet collisions with
J upi t e r
-Discovery of proplyds (dense gas ‘discs’ surrounding newborn stars) and the optical
sources of gamma-ray bursts
- the Hubble-deep and ultra-deep space field images, which utilised the sensitivity of
the HST to obtain optical images of galaxies billion of years away, which has
generated a wealth of scientific papers.
The DMR provided data on the structure formation of the Universe, indicating cluster so
galaxies and vast empty regions. DIRBE detected 10 new IR-emitting galaxies, which were
able to provide data on very cold dust (VCD). It was also able to collect data on
interplanetary dust (IPD) and concluded it originates from asteroids. DIRBE was also able to
model the Galactic disc of the Milky Way, indicating it is not a thick disc. COBE provided
important constraints on the star formation rate, although it was unable to resolve the exact
star formation history, so future observations are necessary.
WMAP’s measurements have been key to establishing our current model of the cosmos.
Among its achievements include:
-mapping the CMB and producing the first microwave high-resolution map of the sky
-determining the age of the universe to be 13.73 ±0.12 Billion years
-determining that ‘normal atoms called baryons only compose 4.6% of the universe,
23.3±1.3% is ‘dark matter’ and 72±1.5% is ‘dark energy’
-narrowing down the possibilities of what occurred during the first trillionth of a
trillionth (10-24) s, ruling out well-known textbook models
Data gathered the Chandra has greatly advances the field of x-ray astronomy:
x Describe binary stars in terms of the means of their detection: visual, eclipsing,
spectroscopic and astrometric
x Perform an investigation to model the light curves of eclipsing binaries using
computer simulation
Visual Binaries
Visual binaries can be resolved directly via telescope as ellipses traced out relative to
background stars. The mutual separation of the stars is from 100-10 000 AU with an angle of
separation ~0.1 arc seconds. Observations must be made with telescopes of at least 15cm
diameter and a micrometer is used to measure the angle of separation.
Eclipsing Binaries
Eclipsing binaries cannot be resolved via telescope and are detected by fluctuations in
brightness when one star moves in front of the other, and vice versa.
When the brighter star (blue) moves completely in front of the duller star (red), there is a
slight dip in brightness called a secondary eclipse. When the duller star moves completely in
front of the brighter star, there is a larger dip in brightness, called a primary eclipse.
Time
Time
Robert Lee Chin Page | 34
HSC Physics Option Module: Astrophysics
Summary
A similar situation occurs for a partial eclipse, with the dips being a V-shape, rather than flat-
bottomed.
Spectroscopic binaries
Spectroscopic binaries cannot be resolved via telescope and are detected by the Doppler shift
of their spectra. When one star is approaching, it will produce blue-shift while the other is
receding from the observer and will produce red-shift. The combination of both broadens the
spectral lines. This technique only works when the motion of the stars is transverse to the
observer’s line of sight (will not work if motion is perpendicular). This method is preferred
to visual binaries as there are more distant stars than near stars and because their speeds are
easily measured using Doppler shift.
Red-shift
Blue-shift
Astrometric binaries
Astrometric binaries cannot be resolved properly because only one star is bright enough to
see. The presence of a companion star is inferred by the oscillation or ‘wobbling’ of the
visible star from the mean path of motion due to the gravity of its companion.
Path of mean
proper motion
Binary stars provide virtually the only means of directly measuring the masses of stars other
than the Sun. The mass of a star is key to determining the processes it undergoes during its
lifecycle and endpoint and is therefore vital in refining our model of stars.
Applying Kepler’s Laws for a binary system where the masses of the two stars are similar:
-the stars orbit each other in ellipses with a common centre of motion called the barycentre
-the line joining the two stars (radius vector) covers equal area in equal periods.
-The square of the period is directly proportional to the cube of its radius: T 2 ∝ R3
Barycentre
m1
m2 r1
r2
From R r1 r2 we obtain r2 R - r1
? m 1 r1 m 2 (R - r1 )
m 1 r1 m 2 R - m 2 r1
m 1 r1 m 2 r1 m2R
r1 (m 1 m 2 ) m2R
m2R
r1 .............................equation 1
(m 1 m 2 )
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐫 𝟐
x Solve problems and analyse information by applying: 𝐦𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 =
𝐆𝐓 𝟐
Examples:
1) Two stars in a visual binary system have an orbital period of 𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐬 and
are determined to be 𝟕. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐤𝐦 apart. Calculate the combined mass of the
system.
T 2.1 u 10 8 s r 7.2 u 10 8 km
4S 2 r 2 4S 2 (7.2 u 10 8 ) 2
M 6.957613... u 1012 # 6.96 u 1012 kg (3 s.f.)
GT 2 (6.67 u 10 11 )(2.1 u 10 8 ) 2
An astronomer made regular measurements of the intensity of a star over the course of
several days and obtained the light curve shown below.
(i) Describe the features of this light curve that suggest the astronomer is
observing an eclipsing binary system.
The light intensity of the system varies periodically with time. The ‘dip’ in luminosity
represents when one star moves completely in front of the other, resulting in a decrease in the
intensity or amount of light coming from the system.
(ii) If both starts have equal masses of 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎 𝐤𝐠, determine the separation
of the two stars.
4S 2
R 3
4.0 u 10 6.67 u 10 1.0368 u 10
30 11 6 2
1.936743... u 1010 # 1.94 u 1010 m (3 s.f.)
4S 2
The spectra of the system would be observed to show both red-shift and blue-shift as one star
recedes while the other approaches, leading to a broadening of the spectral lines. This would
only occur, however, if the system was viewed transverse to the observer’s LOS.
(ii) The graph represents the variation in brightness of a binary star system
Given that the mass of the system is determined to be 𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟐 kg, calculate the
average distance between the stars within the system.
Variable stars are stars whose brightness, colour or other property varies with time. They are
classified according to the cause of the variation and the periodic nature of the variation.
The brightness of non-periodic variables varies irregularly with time. These include novae
and supernovae
Intrinsic variables are stars whose variation in luminosity is due to physical changes within
the properties of the star itself. Intrinsic stars may be divided into two main subclasses:
*periodic variables
*non-periodic variables (novae and supernovae)
Periodic variables are variables that expand and contract fairly regularly with a defined
period. They can be further subdivided into two main groups:
*cepheids: those that have short, regular periods of days to months (generally blue
stars towards spectral class O)
*long period (Mira Ceti) variables: those with longer, more irregular periods
(generally red giants of spectral class M) and large variations in luminosity
Irregular period or non-periodic variables can be subdivided into three main groups:
*semi-regular variables: mainly red stars, giants or supergiants which display small
variations in luminosity and constant brightness
*Irregular variables: include most red giants. They have short periods and display
rapid, although small variations in luminosity (include red giants, white dwarfs)
*Eruptive variables: include the novae and supernovae, which display sudden bursts
in luminosity (typically include giants and supergiants, which emit vast quantities of
energy due to their large mass)
Other examples include flare stars, T-Tauri stars and R Coronawe Borealis variables
Extrinsic variables are stars whose variation is due to external properties. They can be
divided into two main subgroups:
Variable stars
Intrinsic Extrinsic
long-period
cepheids
(Mira Ceti) semi-regular irregular eruptive
Cepheids are periodic intrinsic variables whose periods of pulsation are proportional to their
luminosity. As they expand, surface temperature increases while luminosity decreases and as
they contract, their surface temperature increases while luminosity decreases.
Light
Intensity
Time
It has been found that the maximum intensity occurs just after the minimum radius. Thus, the
steep rise in luminosity is due to the increase in temperature after the star contracts. In 1912,
Henrietta Leavitt discovered the period- luminosity relation, by plotting the luminosity values
of cepheids on a log-log graph.
-6
Type I (classical
cepheids)
Absolute
magnitude
Type II
-2
10 100
Period, T (days)
For cepheids, a definite relationship exists between its period of pulsation and luminosity.
There are two types of cepheids: Type I (classical cepheids) and Type II (younger stars with
lower metal content)
Hence, if we know the period of pulsation we can graphically determine the absolute
magnitude. Combining with the apparent magnitude, we can use the distance modulus to
determine the distance.
Cepheid variables are also observed in other galaxies well beyond the scope of parallax
measurements. Thus, if other galaxies contain cepheids, the distances to those galaxies can be
accurately measured. Cepheid variables have been vital in determining the cosmic expansion
of the Universe.
6. Stellar Evolution
x Describe the processes involved in stellar formation
Protostar
Gravity causes interstellar nebula of gas and molecules to collapse. These nebulas have
diameters of 60 − 300 LY and masses of 105 − 106 solar masses. If the mass exceeds the
“Jeans mass” gravity overcomes any outward thermal pressure and the clouds begin to
collapse.
Protostar:
GPE → heat
During contraction gravitational potential energy converts into heat- a protostar. The star
begins to faintly emit visible red and infrared radiation. The temperature is too low for
nuclear fusion to begin yet but its vast size means it is luminous, placing at the top RH corner
of the H-R diagram.
x Outline the key stages in a star’s life in terms of the physical processes involved
Pre-main sequence
Increased temperature increases thermal pressure, opposing gravity and slowing down
contraction. Eventually the protostar reaches a temperature where hydrogen molecules
decompose into atomic hydrogen, allowing further compression and heating to occur. As the
protostar collapses, it rotates and several stars may form by fragmentation to form a cluster.
Surrounding gas and dust are blown away. When maximum luminosity is reached, it is called
a pre-main sequence star.
The mass and composition of interstellar medium determines when and where the star enters
the main sequence (called the “Zero-age main sequence”). The lower the mass, the longer it
takes the star to enter the zero-age main sequence- stars of less than 0.08 solar masses never
reach the temperatures to begin nuclear fusion.
Main Sequence:
Gravity and
outward thermal
Robert Lee Chin pressure are Page | 43
balanced
HSC Physics Option Module: Astrophysics
Summary
1000
100
10
1
25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
Main Sequence
Once temperature and pressure are high enough for nuclear fusion, the star enters the main
sequence. Outward pressure and gravity are balanced, so the star is stable. Dust and gas not
accreted to the core are removed by the stellar wind. The star begins the process of hydrogen
fusion in its core for energy. It becomes slightly hotter and more luminous as radiation and
particles radiate into space in a stable manner.
Main-Sequence
Main sequence stars produce energy from the conversion of hydrogen to helium in its core.
There are two nuclear fusion reactions involving hydrogen:
In both cases, the net effect is the same: 6 protons are involved, two of which are regenerated
while the other four are converted into two helium nuclei, two neutrinos, two positrons and
gamma radiation. The net reaction is: 411 Ho 24 He 2e 2X 26 MeV of energy
1. Fusion of two protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a deuterium (rare isotope of hydrogen)
nucleus. One proton decays into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
Positrons (positive charge) readily ionise, emitting gamma radiation. Neutrinos have
no mass or charge and pass out of the core.
1
1 H 11 Ho 21 H e J X
2. Fusion of a deuterium nucleus and a proton to form a helium-3 nucleus, with energy
in the form of gamma rays also emitted.
2
1 H e o 23 He J
3. Fusion of two helium-3 nuclei to form a stable helium-4 nucleus and two protons.
These protons may strike other protons and begin the chain reaction again.
3
2 He 23 Heo 42 H 211 H
1. Fusion of a proton and a carbon nucleus to form a nitrogen-13 nucleus and 2 MeV of
energy I the form of gamma radiation.
12
6 C 11 Ho173 N 2 MeV energy
13
7 No163 C e X 1 MeV energy
13
6 C11 Ho174 N 8 MeV energy
4. Fusion of a proton and Nitrogen-14 to form Oxygen-15 and & MeV of gamma
radiation.
14
7 N 11 Ho158 O 8 MeV energy
15
8 Oo175 N e X 1.5 MeV energy
15
7 N 11 Ho126 C 42 H 0.5 MeV energy
Post-Main sequence
Over time, hydrogen-fusion in main sequence stars produces a helium core and an outer
hydrogen-burning shell. When the hydrogen in the core is depleted, hydrogen fusion cannot
occur and gravity causes the core to collapse. GPE is converted into heat, causing the outer
layers to expand. The brightness of the star gradually decreases as the surface area expands
faster than energy is produced so the star becomes a red giant.
As the core continues to collapse and temperature increases, helium fusion begins explosively
in the ‘helium flash’. This causes the star to contract.
Horizontal branch
10
E n d o f MS Red Giant
Zero-age MS 1
10 8 6 4 2 0
Protostar
0.1
0.01
The heat of the Big Bang synthesised only hydrogen and helium. All other elements have
been created by stellar nucleosynthesis.
Further helium is produced in MS stars via hydrogen fusion (PP chain in cooler stars, CNO
cycle in hotter stars).
Helium fusion produces carbon, oxygen, neon and magnesium in post-MS stars via the Triple
Alpha Process i.e. fusion of the product nuclei with alpha particles.
Beyond iron, the reactions are endothermic and occur in the stages beyond Red Giants,
although elements up to lead may be formed by the slow capture neutron process (S-process)
in red giants. All the elements heavier than gold are produced by the rapid capture neutron
process (R-process) in supernova explosions.
x explain how the age of a globular cluster can be determined from its zero-age main
sequence plot for a H-R diagram
Stars in a globular cluster are approximately the same age as they were formed by the same
nebula. This means the stars in the cluster have similar chemical compositions and cover the
Globular clusters are observed to be missing high-mass stars (spectral class O and B). This is
because high-mass stars use their hydrogen more quickly than smaller stars and move off the
main sequence. As a cluster ages, it appears to form a ‘knee’, bending upwards from the right
of the MS. The absolute magnitude at this ‘turn-off’ position is a function of the age of the
cluster.
Thus, the age of a globular cluster can be determined by the position of the massive stars. If
the cluster is:
-old, there will be less of the high-mass stars on the MS
-young, there will be more high-mass stars on the MS
Star death occurs when nuclear fusion in the core of stars ceases and the outward thermal
pressure due to radiation is overcome by the inward force of gravity. The processes that occur
next depend on the mass of the star.
The core temperature is too low for fusion of oxygen and carbon into other elements, so the
core simply contracts, supported only by the quantum effect called “electron degeneracy
pressure” which prevents further core collapse. It is now called a white dwarf. Its high mass
and low surface area means it is hot (~105 K), but low luminosity (therefore very faint). It is
now called a white dwarf.
White dwarfs have no energy source as such, simply relying on residual heat from the core.
Eventually, all this heat is radiated into space and the white dwarf is thought to become a cold
brown or black dwarf. However, no black dwarfs are believed to exist as they would take
longer than the age of the Universe to reach this stage.
Gravity
Robert Lee Chin Core mass of 1.4 - 3.0 solar masses: Page | 48
Electrons stop further collapse
HSC Physics Option Module: Astrophysics
Summary
Any further collapsing matter simply ‘bounces’ off the core with an ejection of subatomic
particles called neutrinos, resulting in a “supernova” explosion. Supernova explosions are
only relatively brief and cannot be seen on an H-R diagram as they are too hot and luminous.
Elements heavier than iron are synthesised during supernova. What occurs next depends on
the core mass of the original star
Neutron stars
If the supernova core mass is 1.4 – 3.0 solar masses, the neutron degeneracy pressure
prevents further core collapse, forming a neutron star. Neutron stars are extremely dense,
small (10-20 km in diameter), with powerful gravitational and magnetic fields. They emit
radiation in the gamma and x-ray wavebands. Most known neutron stars are called pulsars,
which emit beams of radio waves from their magnetic poles as they rotate (light a
lighthouse). When the beams sweep past the Earth, we detect them as regular radio pulses,
hence the term “pulsar.
Neutron stars obtain their energy from either from angular momentum from the supernova
explosion which created them, from their intense magnetic fields or from the accretion of
matter from ‘companion stars’
H-R diagram for nearest stars: log (luminosity) vs. Temp (K)
Sirius A
Alpha Centauri
The Sun
0
10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000
Barnards Star Epsilion Eridani
-1
-2
L726-8A
Sirius B
-3
Wolf 359
Ross 248
-4
Proxima Centauri UV Ceti
BD + 362147
-5
H-R diagram for brightest stars: log (luminosity) vs. Temp (K)
Rigel
4.5
Betelgeuse
4
2.5
Achenar
Capela
Arcturus 2
Aldebaran
Vega
1.5
Sirius A
Altair
1
Procyon
0.5
Alpha Centauri B
The Sun
0
25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0
H-R plot for nearest and brightest stars: log (luminosity) vs.
Temp (k)
6
Rigel
Betelgeuse
4
Beta Centauri
Alpha Crucius
Canopus
lAlpha Centauri B
The Sun 0
30000 25000 20000 15000 10000Barnards St5ar000 0
Epsilion Eridani
-2
L726-8A
Sirius B
Pross 154
Wolf 359
Ross 248
-4
UV Ceti
Proxima Centauri
BD + 362147
-6
10
turn-off point
15
20
25
10
12
14
16
18
All the stars in a globular cluster fall upon a well-defined curve. As each star on an H-R
diagram varies with age, this can be used to estimate the age of the star. The highest mass
stars are the most luminous and the first to become red giants. As the cluster ages, lower mass
stars also begin entering the red giant stage- this forms a “turn-off” point on the diagram.
The absolute magnitude at this “turn-off” point is a function of the age of the cluster, so an
age scale can be plotted parallel to the magnitude.
If the main sequence contains O-type stars, the cluster is less than 10 million years old
because this is the amount of time it takes for an O-type star to deplete its core hydrogen. If
it contains A- or B-type stars, the cluster is older than 10 million years old.
Open Clusters
Stars in an open cluster are approximately the same age, mass, chemical composition and the
masses of the stars vary greatly.
A star of 1 solar mass e.g. the Sun, enters low on the MS (spectral class M). It remains here
for most of its life, slowing moving up the MS to spectral class F. Once it has depleted
hydrogen in the core, it becomes brighter and moves horizontally right to the Red giants
(spectral class K). Once all its nuclear fuel is depleted, its outer layers are radiated off,
leaving a small, hot core. This makes it spectral class F, towards the bottom LH corner of the
diagram.
A 5 solar mass star enters higher on the MS (spectral class F). It spends less time here before
becoming a red supergiant (spectral class G). Eventually, it moves off the H-R diagram as it
forms a supernova explosion, which is too hot and luminous to graph. The neutron star that
forms next is also too hot and luminous to be graphed.
A 10 solar mass star enters even higher on the MS, for an even shorter time period. There are
two possible stages which occur next:
-the star can become a blue supergiant (spectral class B-A) which forms a supernova
directly before forming a black hole
-the star many become a red supergiant (spectral class G), before becoming a
supernova, and the a black hole
In both cases, the star simply moves upwards off the H-R diagram
8
Sun
6
0
25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 -2
Hot and dim Cool and dim
-4
(White dwarf) (Black dwarf)
-6
x Analyse information from a H-R diagram and use available evidence to determine
the characteristics of a star and its evolutionary stage
10
1 solar mass
1
O B A F G K M
0.1
White Dwarfs
0.01
0.001