PCS352 RYERSON PHYSICS LAB #1

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GEIGER COUNTER

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this laboratory is to determine the operating voltage for a Geiger tube and to
calculate the effect of the dead time and recovery time of the tube on the counting rate.

INTRODUCTION

Background & Theory

In medical and biological research, radioactive isotopes are utilized in three types of
measurements: studies of the various chemical and physical interactions within a living
organism or with its environment, measurements of the distribution of elements and
compounds in the body and measurements of radioactive isotopes in the living organisms
without taking samples. The techniques used in these measurements depend on the fact that the
radioactive isotopes emit ionizing radiations, which can be detected by their effects on a
photographic emulsion, or by electrical methods.

Gases conduct electricity only when a number of their atoms are ionized, i.e. split up into a
number of free electrons and positive ions. Alpha, beta or gamma radiation emitted by
radioactive materials ionizes atoms with which they collide. Hans Geiger, an associate of
Rutherford used this property to invent a sensitive detector for radiation.

Outer Cylinder ( - Voltage)

Mica
Window
Central Wire ( + Voltage) +

α, β, or γ Voltage spike
radiation _ R to counter

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FIGURE  1:  SCHEMATIC  OF  A  TYPICAL  GEIGER  COUNTER  

Figure 1 above displays a typical setup for a Geiger counter; it usually contains a metal tube
that encloses a thin metal wire along the middle. The space in between is sealed off and filled
with a suitable gas; the wire is set at a very high positive electric potential relative to the tube.

An electron, positive ion, or gamma radiation that penetrates the tube through a mica (an
extremely low density material that minimizes attenuation of radiation as it enters detector)
window, will ionize a number of the atoms in the gas, and because of the high positive voltage

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of the central wire, the electrons will be attracted to it while the positive ions will be attracted
to the wall. The high voltage accelerates the positive and negative charges, and hence they gain
more energy and collide with more atoms to release more electrons and positive ions; the
process escalates into an "avalanche" which produces an easily detectable pulse of current.
With the presence a suitable filling gas, the current quickly drops to zero so that a single
voltage spike occurs across a resistor; an electronic counter then registers this voltage spike. A
typical composition of the gas filling a Geiger counter tube was usually a mixture of argon and
ethanol; more recently, tubes filled with ethyl formate in place of the alcohol are reported to
have a longer life and smaller temperature coefficients than counters filled with ethanol.

A very important property of the Geiger counter is its self-suppressing mechanism. The
counter is triggered by the pulse from the tube and feeds back a square pulse of 300-500 µsec
duration to the central wire. This pulse has an opposite polarity and high enough amplitude to
extinguish the discharge. This allows for the counter to reset as fast as possible in order to
register the next voltage spike induced by the penetrating radiation.

The Geiger detector is usually called a "counter" because every particle passing through it
produces an identical pulse, allowing particles to be counted; however, the detector cannot tell
anything about the type of radiation or its energy/frequency - it can only tell that the radiation
particles have sufficient energy to penetrate the counter.

To improve its sensitivity to alpha and beta particles, the ST150 detector has a very thin mica
window with a superficial density of only 1.5 – 2 mg/cm2. This window is therefore extremely
fragile and if broken cannot be repaired. Never allow any object to touch the window!

The Geiger Tube Voltage Characteristic Curve

The most important information about a particular counter tube is its voltage characteristic
curve. The counting rate due to a constant intensity radioactive source is graphed as a function
of the voltage across the counter; A curve of the form shown in Figure 2 is obtained.

Counting
Rate Continuous
Discharge
Region
Geiger Plateau
Proportional
Discharge
Region
Applied
Start Geiger Operating Geiger Voltage
Voltage Threshold Voltage V0 Breakdown
Voltage Voltage
FIGURE  2:  GEIGER  TUBE  VOLTAGE  CHARACTERISTIC  CURVE  
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The counter starts counting at a point corresponding approximately to the Geiger threshold
voltage; from there follows a “plateau" with little change in the counting rate as the voltage
increases. Finally a point is reached where the self-suppressing mechanism no longer works,
and the counting rate rapidly increases until the counter breaks down into a continuous
discharge. In order to ensure stable operation, the counter is operated at a voltage
corresponding approximately to the mid-point of the plateau.

Hence, a flat plateau is regarded as a desirable characteristic in a counter; a long plateau is also
desirable, but is not as important. In practice most counters have a slightly sloping plateau,
partly because of geometrical limitations of the counter design, and partly because of spurious
counts due to an unsatisfactory gas filling or to undesirable properties of the cathode surface.

The correct operating voltage for any particular Geiger-Mueller tube is determined
experimentally using a small radioactive source such as Cs-137 or Co-60. A properly
functioning tube will exhibit a "plateau" effect, where the counting rate remains nearly constant
over a long range of applied voltage; the operating voltage is then calculated roughly as the
voltage value corresponding to the middle of the plateau region.

Dead Time, Recovery Time and Resolving Time

Geiger-Mueller tubes exhibit Dead Time effects due to the recombination time of the internal
gas ions after the occurrence of an ionizing event. The actual dead time depends on several
factors including the active volume and shape of the detector and can range from a few
microseconds for miniature tubes, to over 1000 microseconds for large volume devices.

The counter discharge occurs very close to the wire, and the negative particles, usually
electrons, are collected very rapidly. The positive ions move relatively slowly, so that as the
discharge proceeds a positively charged sheath forms around the wire. This has the effect of
reducing the field around the wire to a value below that corresponding to the threshold voltage,
and the discharge ceases. The positive ion sheath then moves outwards until the critical radius
r is reached, when the field at the wire is restored to the threshold value. This marks the end of
the true "dead time". If another ionizing event triggers the counter at this stage, a pulse smaller
than normal is obtained, as the full voltage across the counter is not operative. However, if the
positive ions reach the cathode before the next particle arrives, the pulse will be of full size.

This effect can be demonstrated with a triggered oscilloscope; as shown in Figure 3, the period
during which only partially developed pulses are formed is termed the Recovery Time. The
effective Resolving Time or insensitive time following a recorded pulse, is determined by both
the dead time and the recovery time, and will depend not only on a number of parameters
associated with the counter dimensions and gas filling, but in principle, also on the operating
voltage of the counter, on the sensitivity of the electronic recording equipment and on the
counting rate. It is necessary to apply appropriate corrections to the observed counting rates to
compensate for this resolving time.

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PULSE AMPLITUDE

Initial Second Geiger

Geiger Discharge
Discharge Counted
Counted
Minimum
Input Possible
Sensitivity Events Not
Counted
Level of
Counter

TIME
Dead Recovery
Time Time

Resolving Time

FIGURE  3:    A  PICTORAL  REPRESENTATION  OF  DEAD,  RECOVERY  &  RESOLVING  TIME    

True versus Measured Count Rate

When making absolute measurements, it is important to compensate for dead time losses at
higher counting rates. If the resolving time Tr of the detector is known, the true counting rate
Rt may be calculated from the measured counting rate Rm using the following expression:

Rm
Rt = (Eq. 1)
1 − R m ⋅ Tr

If the detector resolving time is unknown, it may be determined experimentally using two
radioactive sources simultaneously. Maintaining constant counting geometry is important
throughout the experiment; hence a special container carrying both sources would be ideal for
performing the measurement – however, good results may be obtained by careful positioning
the two standard sources side by side. With the operating voltage set for the GM tube, denoting
the measured count rate for the two sources (a+b) side by side as R(a+b), the measured count
rate for source a alone as R(a) and the measured count rate for the source b alone as R(b), the
resolving time is given by:

R(a) + R(b) - R(a + b)

Tr = (Eq. 2)
2R(a).R(b)

Because of the solid state electronics used in the circuitry of the ST150 Nuclear Lab Station its
own resolving time is very short - one microsecond or less – and so, not significant compared
to that of the GM tube. Therefore, only the resolving time of the GM tube affects the true count
rate.

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EQUIPMENT

•   The ST160 Nuclear Lab Station (Figure 4 below) provides a self-contained unit that
includes a versatile timer/counter, GM tube and source stand; High voltage is fully
variable from 0 to +800 volts.
•   Associated software that allows for operation of ST160 and data collection.
•   Two types of radioactive sources: 137Cs and 60Co.

FIGURE  4:  THE  ST-­‐160  NUCLEAR  LAB  STATION  

 

PROCEDURE 1:

Part 1A: Measuring the Geiger Plateau and Determining Operating Voltage

1.   **RECORD THE MODEL NUMBER OF YOUR GEIGER COUNTER**.

2.   Verify that the Geiger counter has been connected to a power source and to the lab
computer.
3.   On the desktop, open Launchpad and open STX; this is the software program used to
operate the ST-150 lab station. Open MATLAB to prepare for data collection.
4.   Switch on the GM Detector. Check that the STX program is now activated.
5.   Get familiar with the software program – refer to the “Intro to STX & Data Extraction”
video for guidance.
6.   Sign out one radioactive source from your TA; record the ID# (Fig. 6A).
7.   Place the source on a source tray and slide it into the closest grating to the window of
the GM detector.
8.   Determine the threshold voltage value of the GM detector:
a.   Start at around 200V, and run a trial for 10 seconds.
b.   If there are no counts measured, increase the high voltage by 10V.
c.   The threshold voltage value is the voltage where you first see radiation counts.
9.   Start your data collection at 10V below the threshold value (the counts will be 0) and
run the trial for 30 seconds. Increase the voltage in increments of 20V until you
reach 800V. Refer to the “Intro to STX & Data Extraction” video to learn how to do
this automatically.
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NOTE 1: If the counts increase dramatically (106-107 counts) before the 800V mark, consult
with your TA - you may be irreversibly damaging the tube.

Part 1B: Saving Data on MATLAB

1.   On MATLAB, clear your workspace.

2.   Import the voltage and counts from Part 1A as two separate arrays; refer to the “Intro to
STX & Data Extraction” video for guidance.
3.   From the workspace, save these two arrays as a .mat file. As a suggestion, this
workspace variable can be named “lab1_part1”. Refer to the “Saving arrays and
workspace variables” video for guidance.

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**Part 1: For your report: **

Prelab – All answers provided in full sentences (mathematical q’s should be typed)

Data Analysis:

•   Q1: Provide the answer in full sentences.

•   Q2: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q3: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q4: Paste the associated m-file code and the graph.
•   Q5: Provide the answer in full sentences.

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DATA ANALYSIS:

1.   In your Report, provide:

a.   The serial number of your GM counter.
b.   The ID# of your source.
c.   The source (isotope) name.

Create & Save an m-file named “Lab1_Q2to4_Q8to15_ firstname1_firstname2_firstname3.m”;

this script must:

2.   Load the lab1_part1 workspace variable. Refer to the “Creating m.files and loading
workspace variables” video for guidance.
3.   Convert the counts array from (counts/30s) to (counts/min). Refer to the “Arithmetic
and averages of arrays” video for guidance.

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4.   Plot the counting rate (counts/min) versus the applied voltage (for example, see Figure
5). Specifically, your graph should have (refer to the “Plotting in Matlab” video for
guidance):
a.   An appropriate title.
b.   Labeled x/y axes (with units, where applicable).
c.   Visible data points.
d.   A curve through the data points.
5.   Determine the approximate value of your instrument’s operating voltage. The
recommended Geiger operating voltage may be determined as the center of the plateau
region. In Figure 5, the plateau extends from approximately 350V to 600V. A
reasonable operating voltage in this case would be 500V.

FIGURE  5:  A  TYPICAL  GRAPH  OF  VOLTAGE  vs.  COUNTS  TO  DETERMINE  OPERATING  VOLTAGE  
 

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PROCEDURE 2:

Part 2A: Acquiring the Resolving Time of the Geiger Tube

1.   Set the STX to be ready to run 3 trials, each of 30s duration, at the calculated
operating voltage.
2.   Record 3 measurements of your current source as (a). Note down the ID# of the source.
See Figure 6A below for ID# location.
3.   Remove your source from the GM detector.
4.   Sign out a second radioactive source, same isotope as the first, from your TA and
record the ID# of the source.
5.   Place the second source on a source tray and slide it into the closest grating to the
window of the GM detector.
6.   Record 3 measurements of your current source as (b).
7.   Remove your second source from the GM detector.
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8.   Carefully place one source on top of the other source such that the circumference of the
top source grazes the boundary of the label of the bottom source - see Figure 6B below
for an example.

NOTE 2: Carefully insert the stacked sources into the Geiger counter; not only does this
preserve the stacked arrangement, but it ensures that the mica window is not damaged.

9.   Record the 3 measurements as (a+b).

NOTE 3: For a quick validation, (a+b) should be close, but less than (a)+(b). If it is more,
carefully tweak the stack so that the sources are further apart; also, you can switch the
order of the stack. For a thorough validation, see Note 4 for details.

10.  Once Note 3 has been verified, set the voltage to 0V and switch off the GM tube.

FIGURE  6:  A)  LOCATION  OF  THE  ID#  OF  A  RADIATION  SOURCE  CIRLCLED  IN  PURPLE  
B)  PLACEMENT  ARRANGMENT  OF  TWO  SOURCES  ON  THE  TRAY  USED  FOR  (A+B)  MEASUREMENT  

**When you have completed the Lab, return and sign out all sources to your TA**

Part 2B: Saving Data on MATLAB

1.   On MATLAB, clear your workspace.

2.   Import the counts from Part 2A in three separate arrays and name these arrays based on
the sources used; As a suggestion, these arrays can be named “a’’, “b” and “a_b”. Refer
to the “Saving arrays and workspace variables” video for guidance.
3.   From the workspace, save these three arrays as a .mat file. As a suggestion, this
workspace variable can be named “lab1_part2”. Refer to the “Saving arrays and
workspace variables” video for guidance.

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** Part 2: For your report: **

Data Analysis:

•   Q6: Provide the answer in full sentences.

•   Q7: Provide the table.
•   Q8: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q9: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q10: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q11: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q12: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q13: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q14: Paste the associated m-file code.
•   Q15: Paste the associated m-file code and the graph.
•   Q16: Provide the answer in full sentences.
•   Q17: Provide the answer in full sentences.
•   Q18: Provide the answer in full sentences.
•   Q19: Provide the answer in full sentences.
•   Q20: Provide the answer in full sentences.

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DATA ANALYSIS CONTINUED:

6.   In your Report, provide:

a.   The ID# of your second source.
b.   The source (isotope) name.
c.   The orientation of the stack used for (a+b) measurement (which source was on
top?).
7.   In a table, provide from Part 2A:
a.   The 3 counts/30s values for (a), (b) and (a+b).
b.   The counts/min for all 9 values (done in your m-file: Q9).
c.   The mean counts/min for each of 3 sets of measurements - R(a), R(b) and
R(a+b) (done in your m-file: Q10).
d.   Label the columns/rows and the entire table appropriately.

Continue with m-file “Lab1_Q2to4_Q8to15_ firstname1_firstname2_firstname3.m”; this script

must also:

8.   Load the lab1_part2 workspace variable.

9.   (For Q7b) Convert the three count arrays from (counts/30s) to (counts/min).
10.   (For Q7c) Find the mean of each of the three arrays.
11.  Calculate the resolving time of the tube with the calculated values from Q10.

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NOTE 4: If the resolving time multiplied by either source’s measured count rate is greater
than 1, approach your GA; you may need to redo the (a+b) measurement. See Note 3 for
direction.

12.  Calculate the true counting rates for your first and second source, using the resolving
time (Q11) and the mean count rates R(a) and R(b) (Q10).
13.  Calculate the percentage difference between the measured count rate and the true
count rate for your first and second source.
14.  Convert your first source count array (Q3) into true counts, using the percent difference
from your first source (Q13).
15.  Re-plot the graph of counts vs. voltage in Q4, and with the calculated true count rates
(Q14); make sure each curve is in a different color, and the graph is labelled as per
instructions in Q4. Refer to the “Plotting in Matlab” video for guidance.
16.  Determine the value of the normal operating voltage for the true count rates; refer to Q5
for guidance.

NOTE 5: You may produce negative true count rates close to the 800V region; this is
because the measured count rates are quite large. Please mention this fact in your report if
you get negative true count rates. If the plateau region for the true count rates is negative,
consult with your TA.

17.  How does the resolving time affect the value of the normal operating voltage, when
compared to the one determined in Q5?
18.  
a.   Using Equation 1, explain (mathematically) the behavior of the true counting
rate if the resolving time increases and decreases with respect to your calculated
resolving time.
b.   Explain how your Q15 plot would change if the resolving time increases and
decreases with respect to your calculated resolving time.
c.   Explain how your Q16 normal operating voltage value would change if the
resolving time increases and decreases with respect to your calculated resolving
time.
19.  Provide two factors that could have contributed error in the lab.
20.  Describe how you could improve the impact of the two factors (Q19) to reduce error in
the lab.

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** Before leaving the lab, confirm with the TA that you have emailed the following **

1)   Report (All Prelab and Data Analysis Qs)

2)   1 m-file: Lab1_Q2to4_Q8to15_ firstname1_firstname2_firstname3.m
3)   2 .mat files:
a.   lab3_part1
b.   lab3_part2

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