Department of Civil Engineering

ECE 2408 – THEORY OF STRUCTURES V

By Kiliswa MW

7/11/2012 1
 Contents
1. Introduction to Finite Element Methods (FEM) and
Application in Structural Analysis
2. Matrix Analysis of Structures
3. Force/Deformation and Displacement Methods for
Determining Forces in Beams, Frames and Trusses

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1. INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT METHODS
& APPLICATION IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Finite Element Method Defined

• Many problems in engineering and applied science are
governed by differential or integral equations.

• The solutions to these equations would provide an exact,

closed-form solution to the particular problem being
studied.

• However, complexities in the geometry, properties and in

the boundary conditions that are seen in most real-world
problems usually means that an exact solution cannot be
obtained or obtained in a reasonable amount of time.
7/11/2012 3
Finite Element Method Defined (cont’d)
• In the FEM, a complex region defining a continuum is
discretized into simple geometric shapes called elements.

• The properties and the governing relationships are assumed

over these elements and expressed mathematically in terms of
unknown values at specific points in the elements called
nodes.

• An assembly process is used to link the individual elements to

the given system. When the effects of loads and boundary
conditions are considered, a set of linear or nonlinear
algebraic equations is usually obtained.

• Solution of these equations gives the approximate behavior of

the continuum or system.
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Finite Element Method Defined (cont’d)
• The continuum has an infinite number of degrees-of-freedom
(DOF), while the discretized model has a finite number of
DOF. This is the origin of the name, finite element method.

• The number of equations is usually rather large for most real-

world applications of the FEM, and requires the
computational power of the digital computer. The FEM has
little practical value if the digital computer were not
available.

• Advances and availability of computers and software has

brought the FEM within reach of engineers working in small
industries, and even students.

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Finite Element Method Defined (cont’d)
• Two features of the finite element method are worth noting:

The piecewise approximation of the physical field

(continuum) on finite elements provides good precision even
with simple approximating functions. Simply increasing the
number of elements can achieve increasing precision.

The locality of the approximation leads to sparse equation

systems for a discretized problem. This helps to ease the
solution of problems having very large numbers of nodal
unknowns. It is not uncommon today to solve systems
containing a million primary unknowns.

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Origins of the Finite Element Method
• It is difficult to document the exact origin of the FEM,
because the basic concepts have evolved over a period of
150 or more years.

• The term finite element was first coined by Clough in 1960.

In the early 1960s, engineers used the method for
approximate solution of problems in stress analysis, fluid
flow, heat transfer, and other areas.

• The first book on the FEM by Zienkiewicz and Chung was

published in 1967.

• In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the FEM was applied to a
wide variety of engineering problems.
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Origins of the Finite Element Method (cont’d)
• The 1970s marked advances in mathematical treatments,
including the development of new elements, and convergence
studies.

• Most commercial FEM software packages originated in the

1970s (ABAQUS, ADINA, ANSYS, MARK, PAFEC) and
1980s (FENRIS, LARSTRAN ‘80, SESAM ‘80.)

• The FEM is one of the most important developments in

computational methods to occur in the 20th century. In just a
few decades, the method has evolved from one with
applications in structural engineering to a widely utilized and
richly varied computational approach for many scientific and
technological areas.
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How can the FEM help the Design Engineer?

• The FEM offers many important advantages to the design

engineer:

 Easily applied to complex, irregular-shaped objects composed

of several different materials and having complex boundary
conditions.

 Applicable to steady-state, time dependent and eigenvalue

problems.

 Applicable to linear and nonlinear problems.

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How can the FEM help the Design Engineer? (cont’d)
• One method can solve a wide variety of problems, including
problems in solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, chemical
reactions, electromagnetics, biomechanics, heat transfer and
acoustics, to name a few.

• General-purpose FEM software packages are available at

reasonable cost, and can be readily executed on
microcomputers, including workstations and PCs.

• The FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate solid

modeling and mesh generation.

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How can the FEM help the Design Engineer? (cont’d)

• Many FEM software packages feature GUI, auto-meshers,

and sophisticated postprocessors and graphics to speed the
analysis and make pre and post-processing more user-
friendly.

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How can the FEM help Design Organization?

• Simulation using the FEM also offers important business

advantages to design organization:

Reduced testing and redesign costs thereby shortening

the product development time.

 Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.

Refine components before dependencies to other

components prohibit changes.

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How can the FEM help Design Organization? (cont’d)

 Optimize performance before prototyping.

 Discover design problems before litigation.

 Allow more time for designers to use engineering

judgment, and less time “turning the crank.”

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Theoretical Basis: Formulating Element Equations

• Several approaches can be used to transform the physical

formulation of a problem to its finite element discrete
analogue.

• If the physical formulation of the problem is described as a

differential equation, then the most popular solution method is
the Method of Weighted Residuals.

• If the physical problem can be formulated as the minimization

of a function, then the Variational Formulation is usually
used.

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Theoretical Basis: MWR
• One family of methods used to numerically solve differential
equations are called the Methods of Weighted Residuals
(MWR).

• In the MWR, an approximate solution is substituted into the

differential equation. Since the approximate solution does
not identically satisfy the equation, a residual, or error term,
results.

Consider a differential equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0 (1)

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Theoretical Basis: MWR (cont’d)
Suppose that y = h(x) is an approximate solution to (1).
Substitution then gives;

Dh’’(x) + Q = R, where R is a non-zero residual.

The MWR then requires that

ò Wi(x)R(x) = 0 (2)

where Wi(x) are the weighting functions. The number of

weighting functions equals the number of unknown
coefficients in the approximate solution.

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Theoretical Basis: Galerkin’s Method
• There are several choices for the weighting functions, Wi.

 In the Galerkin’s Method, the weighting functions are the

same functions that were used in the approximating
equation.

 The Galerkin’s Method yields the same results as the

Variational Method when applied to differential equations
that are self-adjoint.

• The MWR is therefore an integral solution method.

• Many readers may find it unusual to see a numerical solution

that is based on an integral formulation.
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Theoretical Basis: Variational Method
• The Variational Method involves the integral of a function
that produces a number. Each new function produces a new
number.

• The function that produces the lowest number has the

additional property of satisfying a specific differential
equation.

• Consider the integral

p = ò [D/2 y’’(x) - Qy]dx = 0. (1)

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Theoretical Basis: Variational Method (cont’d)
The numerical value of p can be calculated given a specific
equation y = f(x). Variational calculus shows that the
particular equation y = g(x) which yields the lowest
numerical value for p is the solution to the differential
equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0 (2)

• In solid mechanics, the so-called Rayeigh-Ritz technique

uses the Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy (with the
potential energy being the functional, p) to develop the
element equations.

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Theoretical Basis: Variational Method (cont’d)
• The trial solution that gives the minimum value of p is the
approximate solution.

• In other speciality areas, a variational principle can usually

be found.

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Sources of Error in the FEM
 The three main sources of error in a typical FEM solution
are;

Discretization errors

Formulation errors, and

Numerical errors

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Sources of Error in the FEM (cont’d)
 Discretization error results from transforming the physical
system (continuum) into a finite element model, and can be
related to modeling the boundary shape, the boundary
conditions, etc.

Discretization error due to poor geometry Discretization error effectively eliminated

representation

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Sources of Error in the FEM (cont’d)
 Formulation error results from the use of elements that don't
precisely describe the behavior of the physical problem

 Elements which are used to model physical problems for

which they are not suited are sometimes referred to as ill-
conditioned or mathematically unsuitable elements

 For example a particular finite element might be formulated

on the assumption that displacements vary in a linear manner
over the domain.

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Sources of Error in the FEM (cont’d)
 Such an element will produce no formulation error when it
is used to model a linearly varying physical problem (linear
varying displacement field in this example), but would
create a significant formulation error if it used to represent a
quadratic or cubic varying displacement field.

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Sources of Error in the FEM (cont’d)

 Numerical error occurs as a result of numerical calculation

procedures, and includes truncation errors and round off
errors

 Numerical error is therefore a problem mainly concerning the

FEM vendors and developers

 The user can also contribute to the numerical accuracy, for

example, by specifying a physical quantity, say Young’s
modulus, E, to an inadequate number of decimal places.

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Advantages of the Finite Element Method
 Can readily handle complex geometry:
 The heart and power of the FEM

 Can handle complex analysis types:

 Vibration
 Transients
 Nonlinear
 Heat transfer
 Fluids

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Advantages of the Finite Element Method (cont’d)
 Can handle complex loading:
 Node-based loading (point loads)
 Element-based loading (pressure, thermal, inertial
forces)
 Time or frequency dependent loading

 Can handle complex restraints:

Indeterminate structures can be analyzed

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Advantages of the Finite Element Method (cont’d)
 Can handle bodies comprised of non-homogeneous
materials:
 Every element in the model could be assigned a
different set of material properties

 Can handle bodies comprised of non-isotropic materials:

 Orthotropic
 Anisotropic

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Advantages of the Finite Element Method (cont’d)
 Special material effects are handled:
 Temperature dependent properties
 Plasticity
 Creep
 Swelling

 Special geometric effects can be modeled:

 Large displacements
 Large rotations
 Contact (gap) condition

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Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method
 A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific
problem. A general closed-form solution, which would
permit one to examine system response to changes in
various parameters, is not produced.

 The FEM is applied to an approximation of the

mathematical model of a system (the source of so-called
inherited errors.)

 Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct

a good finite element model.

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Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method (cont’d)
 A powerful computer and reliable FEM software are
essential

 Input and output data may be large and tedious to prepare

and interpret

 Numerical problems:
 Computers only carry a finite number of significant
digits
 Round off and error accumulation
 Can help the situation by not attaching stiff (small)
elements to flexible (large) elements
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Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method (cont’d)
 Susceptible to user-introduced modeling errors:
 Poor choice of element types
 Distorted elements
 Geometry not adequately modeled

 Certain effects not automatically included:

 Buckling
 Large deflections and rotations
 Material nonlinearities
 Other nonlinearities

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Procedure for FEM in Structural Analysis
 Divide the structure into pieces (elements with nodes)

 Describe the behaviour of the physical quantities on each

element

 Connect (assemble) the elements at the nodes to form an

approximate system of equations for the whole structure

 Solve the system of equations involving unknown quantities

at the nodes

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Procedure for FEM in Structural Analysis (cont’d)
 Calculate desired quantities (e.g. strains, stresses) at selected
elements
As an example, consider a truss configuration below;

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Procedure for FEM in Structural Analysis (cont’d)
Elemental breakdown constitutes the illustrated deconstruction
below to come up with beam elements for analysis;

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Beam elements
• Beam elements are developed first, as a stiffness matrix
[Ke], which can be found exactly for elastic behaviour and
small deflections if there are boundary conditions and
loading at each end only

• The matrix [Ke] links forces and moments (a vector F) to

displacements and rotations (a vector u) at each end (each
node)

F = [Ke]u

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Beam elements (cont’d)
• In 3D, 3 force components and 3 moment components act
on each end - hence the element matrix is a 12 by 12

• Individual terms are noted in the Euler-Bernoulli Beam

Theory. They depend on such properties as length, the area
of cross-section, the second moments of area, and effective
area deforming in shear

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Euler-Bernoulli vs Timoshenko Beam Elements
 The simplest beam element uses the Euler-Bernoulli Beam
Theory, the same used in hand calculations, which neglects
deflection transversely due to shear strain.

This theory notes that M/(EI) = 1/R integrated twice

implies deflection

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Euler-Bernoulli vs Timoshenko Beam Elements (cont’d)

 However, if the length of a beam is short, and for example

equal to its depth, then this assumption leads to an error.
So most FEM packages use beam elements obtained from
Timoshenko Beam Theory, which includes deflection due
to shear strain, as well as that due to bending strain and
rigid body motion

 An element may revert to a Euler-Bernoulli beam if the

“shear area” (cross-sectional area used to find shear
deformation) is not specified by the user

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Terms in a Beam Element Matrix

 With the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, the following types of

terms arise in a beam element matrix for bending a beam of
length L on a principal axis of the cross-section, with second
moment of area I

Transverse force/deflection relations give ±12EI/L3

Transverse force/rotation or bending moment/displacement

relations give ±6EI/L2

Bending moment/rotation relations give 4EI/L or 2EI/L

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Terms in a Beam Element Matrix (cont’d)
Twisting a beam gives GIP/L
where Ip = effective second moment of area

Axial deformation gives EA/L

where A = cross-sectional area

Transverse shear deformation gives GAS/L

where AS = effective cross-sectional area for shear

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Terms in one column of a Stiffness Matrix
 One column of [Ke] get multiplied by a particular element
in the vector of displacements and rotations, u

 Hence one column corresponds to those forces/moments

causing unit movement of one component of displacement
or rotation, at one end of a beam only

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Terms in one column of a Stiffness Matrix (cont’d)
 For example, for unit transverse displacement at the left
end of the beam shown below, without rotation, the forces
and moments act as shown - for the Euler-Bernoulli Beam
Theory.

12EI/L3 12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
1

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Unit Rotation of one end of a Beam Element
 For small angles, the forces and moments acting are as
shown below:

6EI/L2
4EI/L 1

2EI/L
6EI/L2

• These terms become a column of [Ke]

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The Full Matrix for Transverse Deflection
• For bending about one principal axis only, the transverse
deformation can be described by 4 equations, assuming that
the cross section does not change, as shown below:

 Fy1   12 EI / L3 6 EI / L2  12 EI / L3 6 EI / L2   u y1 
 M   6 EI / L2 4 EI / L  6 EI / L2

2 EI / L   z1 
 z1   
 Fy 2    12 EI / L3  6 EI / L2 12 EI / L3  6 EI / L2  u y 2 
M    
 z 2   6 EI / L
2
2 EI / L  6 EI / L2 4 EI / L   z 2 

Fy1 Fy2

Mz1 Mz2
L

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2. MATRIX ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
Review of Matrix Algebra – Assignment No. 1
• Linear systems of algebraic equations
• Row and column vectors
• Matrix addition and subtraction
• Scalar multiplication
• Matrix multiplication
• Transpose of a matrix
• Symmetric matrix
• Unit (Identity) matrix
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Review of Matrix Algebra – Assignment No. 1 (cont’d)
• Determinant of a matrix
• Singular matrix
• Matrix inversion
• Solution techniques for linear systems of equations
• Positive definite matrix
• Differentiation and integration of a matrix

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The contents of this introductory unit will be limited to
One-Dimensional and Two-Dimensional Systems only

a) Flexibility & Stiffness Methods Background

• Flexibility of a structure can be defined as the displacement
caused by a unit force
• Stiffness is the force required to cause a unit displacement
• Consider a single DOF element like a spring below;

1
P
A B

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• The spring AB, is fixed at ‘A’ and has a single DOF at ‘B’
along coordinate 1. The flexibility of the spring is defined
as the displacement δ11 at coordinate 1 due to a unit force at
coordinate 1.
• If a force P1 produces a displacement Δ1 at coordinate 1,
Δ1
 Flexibility = = δ11
P1

• Similarly, the stiffness of the spring is defined as the force

k11 required for a unit displacement at coordinate 1.
P1
 Stiffness = = k11
Δ1

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• Now consider a structural element ‘AB’ of uniform cross
section below;
2

3
1 4
A B

• The following types of displacement are possible;

 Axial displacement Δ1 at coordinate 1
 Transverse displacement Δ2 at coordinate 2
 Bending/flexural displacement Δ3 at coordinate 3
 Torsional displacement Δ4 at coordinate 4
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• Axial displacement
 If axial force P1 is applied at coordinate 1, displacement at
coordinate 1 is given by;

Δ1 = P1L
AE
where L = Length AB
A = cross section area
E = Young’s Modulus

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 As flexibility is the displacement caused by a unit force,
the flexibility w.r.t axial displacement is obtained by
putting P1 = 1.
therefore axial flexibility δ1 = L
AE
 Similarly, the axial stiffness of the member is the force
required for unit displacement along coordinate 1. Hence,
putting Δ1 =1 in the displacement equation gives;
axial stiffness k 11 = AE
L

 Axial flexibility and stiffness are of relevance to members

of pin-jointed frames which carry axial forces only
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• Consider a prismatic member ‘AB’ simply supported at ‘A’
and far end ‘B’ as shown below;

A B

L
constant EI

• Transverse displacement
 Suppose ‘A’ is given a transverse displacement Δ relative to
‘B’ but NO rotation is allowed, and
 Let the transverse force at ‘A’ be P2, and the displacement
due to P2 be Δ2 …….

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 It can be shown using either the Slope Deflection or
Conjugate Beam Theory that;

P2 = 3EIΔ2
L3 (assuming ‘B’ is hinged)

Therefore the transverse flexibility δ22 is obtained from the

above by replacing P2 with 1 and Δ2 with δ22
3
δ22 = L
3EI

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 Similarly by replacing Δ2 with 1 and P2 with k22, the
transverse stiffness is;
k 22 =3EI
L3

These expressions assume NO axial displacements. Also, if the

far end ‘B’ is fixed, then……..

3
δ22 = L k 22 =12EI
and
12EI L3

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• Bending/Flexural displacement
 Considering bending displacement only, and assuming that
far end ‘A’ is fixed. It can be shown that;
P3 = 4EIΔ3
L
By definition, flexural flexibility δ33 = L
4EI

and flexural stiffness k 33 =4EI

L

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 If the far end ‘A’ is hinged, it can be shown that;
P3 = 3EIΔ3
L
By definition, flexural flexibility δ33 = L
3EI

and flexural stiffness k 33 =3EI

L

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• Torsional displacement
 From the equation of torsion, the angle of twist Δ4 due to the
torque P4 is given by Δ4 = P4L
GK
where G = shear modulus of elasticity
K = torsion constant

By definition, torsional flexibility δ44 = L

GK
and torsional stiffness k 44 =GK
L
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 Values of flexibility and stiffness of a prismatic member w.r.t the
four types of displacements are tabulated below. It may be noted
that in each case, the flexibility and stiffness are reciprocal of
each other.
No Type of displacement, Δ Flexibility, δ Stiffness, k

L AE
1 Axial
AE L
3
Transverse: (a) Far-end fixed L 12EI
12EI L3
2
(b) Far-end hinged L3 3EI
3
3EI L
Bending/Flexural (a) Far-end fixed L 4EI
4EI L
3
(b) Far-end hinged L 3EI
3EI L
L GK
4 Torsional
GK L
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Example 1
A steel bar AB of uniform circular-section has a diameter of 20mm
and a length of 1m. Calculate the maximum values of the
displacements Δ1, Δ2, Δ3, Δ4, which can be given separately at
coordinates 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in Fig. below, if the maximum
direct stress is limited to 100N/mm2. Take E=200kN/mm2 and
G=80kN/mm2.
2

3
1 4
A B

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Solution
• Cross-sectional area, A = (πd2)/4 = 314.3mm2
• Moment of inertia, I = (πd4)/64 = 7860mm2
• Section modulus, Z = 786mm2
• For a circular cross-section, the torsion constant, K =
(πd4)/32 = 15720mm2
• The flexibilities w.r.t the four types of displacements may now be
computed as:
δ11 = 1000 = 0.015908mm/kN
314.3x200

δ22 = 53mm/kN

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 -4
δ33 = 1.5908x10 radian/kN.mm
-4
δ44 = 7.95165x10 radian/kN.mm

• Forces P1, P2, P3, and P4 at the coordinates may now be computed
by using the condition that the maximum direct stress is not to
exceed 100MPa.
P1 = 100x314.3 = 31.43kN
• When displacement Δ2 is given at coordinate 2 without any
displacement at coordinate 3, the bending couple at coordinate 3
is P2L/2. Hence,
P2L/2 = 100, and P2 = 0.1572kN
Z

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• For a circular cross-section, the maximum shear stress =
(4/3) x average shear stress = (4/3) x 157.2/314.3 = 0.667N/mm2
• Because the shear stress is small in comparison to the bending
stress which has been equated to the maximum permissible direct
stress of 100N/mm2, in computation of P3, the maximum
permissible direct stress shall be considered.
P3 = 100x786 = 78600N.mm = 78.6kN.mm

• Since torsion produces a state of pure shear, the maximum direct

stress is equal to the maximum shear stress. Using the equation of
torsion, P4 = (maximum shear stress x K)/radius
P4 = 157.20kN.mm

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• The displacements at the coordinates may now be computed by
multiplying forces P1, P2, P3, and P4 by their respective
flexibilities.
 Δ1 = 31.43 x 0.015908 = 0.5mm
 Δ2 = 0.1572 x 53 = 8.33mm
 Δ3 = 78.6 x 1.5908 x 10-4 = 0.0125 radians
 Δ4 = 157.2 x 7.95165 x 10-4 = 0.125 radians

• It may be noted that axial displacement Δ1 is small in comparison

to transverse displacement Δ2. It is for this reason that axial
displacements are usually ignored in comparison to transverse
displacements in the analysis of rigid-jointed frames.

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Formulation of Matrices
• One Dimensional – One Spring Element

i j
fi fj
ui uj
k
• Consider a one spring element above with
 Two nodes: i and j
 Nodal displacements: ui and uj
 Nodal forces: fi and fj
 Spring constant (stiffness): k

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• Spring force-displacement relationship:
F = kΔ, and Δ = ui - uj

Linear

F
Nonlinear

• k = F/ Δ (>0) is the force needed to produce a unit stretch

• Note: Only linear problems will be considered in this

introductory course
7/11/2012 66
• Consider the equilibrium of forces for the spring. At node i, we
have
fi = -F = -k(uj – ui) = kui - kuj
and at node j,
fj = F = k(uj – ui) = - kui + kuj
• In matrix form,
k k ui fi
=
k k uj fj

or ku = f where k = (element) stiffness matrix; u = (element

nodal) displacement vector; f = (element nodal) force vector

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• Now consider a Spring System below;
x
k1 k2

1 2 3
u1, F1 u2, F2 u 3, F 3

• For element 1,

k1 k1 u1 f11
=
k1 k1 u2 f21

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• For element 2,

k2 k2 u2 f12
=
k2 k2 u3 f22

where fim is the (internal) force acting on local node i of the element
m (i=1,2)

• Assembling the stiffness matrix for the whole system:

• Consider the equilibrium of forces at node 1,
F1 = f11

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at node 2,
F2 = f21 + f12
at node 3,
F3 = f22

That is,
F1 = k1u1- k1u2
F2 = - k1u1+ (k1 + k2)u2 – k2u3
F3 = k2u2- k2u3

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• In matrix form,

k1 k1 0 u1 F1
k1 k 1 +k 2 k2 u2 = F2
0 k2 k2 u3 F3

Or KU = F
K is the stiffness matrix (structure matrix) for the spring system.

• Boundary and load conditions:

Assuming u1 = 0 and F2 = F3 = P
we have

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 k1 k1 0 0 F1
k1 k 1 +k 2 k2 u2 = P
0 k2 k2 u3 P

which reduces to
k 1 +k 2 k2 u2 = P
k2 k2 u3 P

and F1 = - k1u2
Thus the unknowns are
u2
U =
u3 and the reaction force F1 (if desired)

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Solving the equations, we obtain the displacements

u2 2P/k1
=
u3 2P/k1 + P/k2

and the reaction force, F1 = - 2P

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Exercise 1:

k1 k2 P k3

x
1 2 3 4

For the spring system shown above, given k1 = 100N/mm2,

k2 = 200N/mm2, k3 = 100N/mm2, P = 500N, u1 = u4 = 0
Find (a) the global stiffness matrix
(b) Displacements of nodes 2 and 3
(c) The reaction forces at nodes 1 and 4
(d) The force in spring 2

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3. FORCE/DEFORMATION AND DISPLACEMENT
METHODS FOR DETERMINING FORCES IN BEAMS,
FRAMES AND TRUSSES

• The use of flexibility and stiffness matrices provides systematic

method for the analysis of large structures with a high degree of
static or kinematic indeterminancy. The matrix approach is
particularly amenable to a computer oriented solution of the
problem.
• The solution of using the matrix approach usually involves the
inversion of either the flexibility of the stiffness matrix which is a
common subroutine of modern digital computers.
• The force and deformation methods are the two main methods of
structural analysis using the matrix approach.

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Force/Deformation Method
• Also known as flexibility or compatibility method
• In this method, the degree of static indeterminacy of the structure
is determined and the redundants identified. A coordinate is
assigned to each redundant.
• Thus P1, P2,……, Pn are the reduntants at coordinates 1, 2,…, n. If
all the redundants are removed, the resulting structure, known as
the released structure, is statically determinate. This released
structure is also known as basic determinate structure.
• From the principle of superposition, the net displacement at any
point in a statically determinate structure is the sum of the
displacements in the basic determinate structure due to the applied
loads and the redundants.

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• This condition, known as compatibility condition, may be
expressed by the equations

Δ1 = Δ1L + Δ1R
Δ2 = Δ2L + Δ2R

Δj = ΔjL + ΔjR

Δn = ΔnL + ΔnR (Eq. 3.1)

where Δj = displacement at coordinate j in the statically

indeterminate structure
ΔjL = displacement at coordinate j in the released structure
due to the applied loads
ΔjR = displacement at coordinate j in the released structure
due to the redundants
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• (Eq 3.1) may be expressed in the matrix form as
[Δ] = [ΔL] + [ΔR] (Eq. 3.2)

• But displacement at a coordinate in the released structure due to

the redundants, Δn, may be written as δn1P1.
• Therefore (Eq. 3.1) can be expressed as;
Δ1 = Δ1L + δ11 P1 + δ12P2 + …….δ1nPn
Δ2 = Δ2L + δ21 P1 + δ22P2 + …….δ2nPn

Δn = ΔnL + δn1 P1 + δn2P2 + …….δnnPn (Eq. 3.3)

• (Eq. 3.3) may be written in matrix form as;

[Δ] = [ΔL] + [δ][P] (Eq. 3.4)

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• Solving (Eq 3.4) for the redundants, we have

[P] = [δ]-1 {[Δ] - [ΔL]} (Eq. 3.5)

• If the net displacements at the redundants are zero, i.e. Δ1 = Δ2 =

….. = Δn = 0, (Eq. 3.5) takes the form

-1
[P] = [δ] [ΔL] (Eq. 3.6)

• It may be noted that the force method is actually the method of

consistent deformation expressed in a systematic manner through
the use of matrices.
• The method is known as the force method because the
compatibility equations are derived by the superposition of two
systems of forces, one constituting the applied loads and the other
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constituting the redundants
• Another reason for calling it the force method is that in this
approach the forces are treated as unknowns.
• The method is also known as the flexibility method because the
flexibility matrix has to be developed to establish the compatibility
of displacements. As the condition of compatibility of
displacements is utilized in this method, it is also referred to as the
compatibility method.

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Displacement Method
• Also known as stiffness or equilibrium method
• In this method, the degree of kinematic indeterminacy (degree of
freedom) of the structure is determined and a coordinate is
assigned to each independent displacement component.
• In general, the displacement components at the supports and joints
are treated as independent displacement components.
• Let 1, 2,…, n be the coordinates assigned to these independent
displacement components Δ1, Δ2, ……. Δn. In the first instance,
lock all the supports and joints to obtain the restrained structure in
which no displacement is possible at the coordinates.

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• Let P1’, P2’,……, Pn’ be the forces required at coordinates 1, 2,
….., n in the restrained structure in which the displacements Δ1, Δ2,
……. Δn are zero.
• Next let the supports and joints be unlocked permitting
displacements Δ1, Δ2, ……. Δn at the coordinates. These
displacements require forces P1Δ, P2Δ, …… PnΔ, at coordinates 1, 2,
……, n respectively.
• If P1, P2, …….. Pn are the external forces at coordinates 1, 2, …..,
n, then the condition of equilibrium of the structure may be
expressed by the equations;
P1 = P1 ' + P1Δ
P2 = P2 ' + P2Δ

Pn = Pn ' + PnΔ (Eq. 3.7)

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• (Eq. 3.7) may be expressed in matrix form as
[P] = [P'] + [PΔ] (Eq. 3.8)

• (Eq. 3.7) can also be written as

P1 = P'1 + k11 Δ1 + k12Δ2 + …….k1nΔn
P2 = P'2 + k21 Δ1 + k22Δ2 + …….k2nΔn

Pn = P'n + kn1 Δ1 + kn2Δ2 + …….knnΔn (Eq. 3.9)

• And (Eq. 3.9) in matrix form as

[P] = [P'] + [k][Δ] (Eq. 3.10)

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• Solving (Eq. 3.10) for the unknown independent displacement
components
[Δ] = [k]-1 {[P] - [P']} (Eq. 3.11)
• If the external forces act only at the coordinates, the terms P’1, P’2,
…….. P’n vanish and (Eq. 3.11) takes the form

[Δ] = [k]-1 [P] (Eq. 3.12)

• On the other hand, if there are no external forces at the coordinates,

i.e. P1 = P2 = …. = Pn = 0, (Eq. 3.11) takes the form
-1
[Δ] = [k] [P'] (Eq. 3.13)

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• After the computation of displacements, the bending moments in
the members of the structure may be calculated by using the slope-
deflection equations.
• It may be noted that in the displacement method, it is not necessary
to identify the redundants. The method is applicable to statically
determinate as well as indeterminate structures.
• The method is known as the displacement method because in this
approach the displacements are treated as unknowns. To calculate
the displacements and to establish equations of equilibrium, it is
necessary to develop the stiffness matrix for the structure.
• The method is, therefore, also known as the stiffness method. As
the condition of equilibrium of the structure is utilized for the
determination of displacements, the method is also referred to as
the equilibrium method.

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• It may be noted that the two matrix methods show striking
similarities in respect of the steps to be followed in the solution of
the problem. The steps in the two methods proceed on almost
parallel lines. Yet, there are also equally striking differences.
• For example, whereas the statically indeterminate structure to be
analyzed is released to obtain the basic determinate structure by
removing the redundant in the force method, it is restrained by the
addition of restraining forces so as to obtain the restrained structure
in the displacement method. These are summarized in Table 3.

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 Force (flexibility or compatibility) Displacement (stiffness or equilibrium)
Step
method) method

Determine the degree of static

1 indeterminacy (degree of
redundancy), n
2 Choose the redundants
Assign coordinates 1,2,…..,n to the
3
redundants
Remove all the redundants to obtain
4 components to obtain the restrained
released structure
Determine [ΔL], the displacements at
5 the coordinates due to the applied
loads acting on the released structure
Determine [ΔR], the displacements at
the coordinates due to the redundants
6
acting on the released structure
Determine the degree of kinematic
indeterminacy (degree of freedom), n
Identify the independent displacement
components
Assign coordinates 1,2,……n, to the
independent displacement components
Prevent all the independent displacement
structure
Determine [P’], the forces required at the
coordinates in the restrained structure due to
the loads other than those acting at the
coordinates
Determine [PΔ], the forces required at the
coordinates in the unrestrained structure to
cause the independent displacement
component [Δ]
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 Force (flexibility or compatibility)
Step
method)
Compute the net displacements at the
7 coordinates,
[Δ] = [ΔL] + [ΔR]
Use the conditions of compatibility of
displacements to compute the
8 redundants
[P] = [δ]-1 {[Δ] - [ΔL]}
Knowing the redundants, compute the
9 internal member forces by using
equations of statics
Displacement (stiffness or equilibrium)
method
Compute the net forces at the coordinates,
[P] = [P'] + [PΔ]
Use the conditions of equilibrium of forces
to compute the displacements
[Δ] = [k]-1 {[P] - [P']}
Knowing the displacements, compute the
internal member forces by using slope-
deflection equations
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Tutorials:

Question 1:
Using the stiffness method, analyse the continuous beam shown in
Fig. T1. Also, sketch the free-body and bending-moment diagrams

100kN 200kN 150kN

A B C D

2m 1m 2m 2m 1m 2m

EI Constant

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Question 2:
Use the force method to analyse the portal frame shown in Fig. T2.
80kN
B C

2m

5m
D

5m

EI Constant

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