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Chapter3
TechnofunctionalIngredientsforMeat
Products:CurrentChallenges
FedericaBalestraandMassimilianoPetracci
DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences,AlmaMaterStudiorum-UniversityofBologna,Cesena,Italy
3.1INTRODUCTION
Nonmeatingredientsareusedinthemeatindustrytoachievedifferenttasks.Theingredientscanbeusedtoreduce
formulationcostandtoenhancenutritionalcontentandconsumerimageoftheproductwiththemainobjectivebeing
improvedfunctionality, avor,appearance(color),andshelflife(Barbut,2017).

#Pages[21]
Asageneraldenition,unlikefoodingredients,anadditiveisacomponentofafoodproductwithatechnological
fl
functioninthefoodproductasdenedbyfunctionalcategoriesinEURegulation1333/2008/EC.However,themeat
fl
industryusesbothingredientsandadditivestoretainmoistureandmodifytexture.Thischapterwilldiscussaboutthe
so-calledtechnofunctionalingredients/additiveswhichcanbedividedintothoseaddedtoenhancefunctionalityofthe
muscleproteins(myobrillar),orthoseaddedasanadditionalsystemtoaidintheretentionofmoistureandfatas
fl
wellasinthemodulationoftexture.Thetoleranceofmeatsystemforabinderislimitedbyeithercompetitionfor
moistureordisruptionofthemeatgelstructure.Meatproteinsrequirewatertoformastronggelandingeneral,itis
desirablethataddedingredientsdonotcompeteforwater,whereasforhighlyextendedmeatproductsastrongbinderis
requiredasthemeatsystemhashigherquantitiesofavailablewater.However,competitionforwaterisstillprevalentin
suchmeatmixtureswherefullfunctionalityoftheingredientsrequirescompletehydration(Lamkey,1998;Petracci #Pages[23]
etal.,2013).
#Pages[23]
The fl rstgroupoftechnofunctionalingredientsthatenhancemeatproteinfunctionalityconsistofsodiumchloride,
phosphates,carbonates,andcitrates,whilethesecondgroupincludesstarches,ours,hydrocolloids,vegetable
bersas fl
wellasplantandanimalproteins(Petraccietal.,2013).Otherwise,descriptionsofingredientsobtainedfrombyproducts
#Pages[23]
andwastematerialsfrommusclefoodarecoveredinChapters4and8.
Thechoiceandtechnologicalreasonforadditionoftechnofunctionalingredientstomeatproductsvariesaccordingto
meatapplications.Theproductscanbegroupedintofourcategoriesbasedonthedegreeofsizereductionofthemuscle
accordingtoPetraccietal.(2013):(1)whole-muscleproductswherethecytoarchitecturaldesignanddistributionofintra-
#Pages[23]
andextracellularwateraremaintainedintact(i.e.,parts,cut-up,wholecarcassofsmallanimals);(2)formed/restructured
productsmanufacturedbychunksorpiecesofmeatbondedtogether(i.e.,hams);(3)groundproductsmadeofcoarse
mincedmeatwherethe fl brousstructureisstilldetectabletosomeextent(i.e.,burgersandsausages);(4)emulsied fl
productsmadeofnelycomminutedmeatslurryinwhichbrousstructureisdisintegrated(i.e.,frankfurters,bologna-type
fl fl
sausages;seeFig.3.1).Incomminuted(bothcoarseand nelyminced)products,themeatandnonmeatingredientsare
fl
mixedtoghr,wasncpf #Pages[2]
ientsowhl-mucadrpyvbjg(OGK,201).
Usingtechofualrdpmz #Pages[23]
ctionalpresfdmuh

procesdmatuinbf efcto naturlqiyvbofmeg(Pc.,2013)Ahspd exibltyfor #Pages[23]
oductsmehnrapiz
ofrmulatins.Ide,hc
nctioalgreds(.,xuv
etabl
proteins,whaglubmydcz
mes,tarch)lokyingdf(A.201;Ku7 #Pages[21]
SustainableMeatProductionandProcessing.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814874-7.00003-1 45
Copyright © 2019ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
46 SustainableMeatProductionandProcessing
FIGURE3.1 Classicationofmeatproductsaccordingtorawmeatmaterialsusedtoitsmanufacturinganddifferentrolesplayedbytechnofunctional
fl
ingredients. ModiedfromPetracci,M.,Bianchi,M.,Mudalal,S.,Cavani,C.,2013.Functionalingredientsforpoultrymeatproducts.TrendsinFood
fi
ScienceandTechnology33(1),2739. e
Nowadays,theuseoftechnofunctionalingredientsinindustrializedsocietiesisalsostronglyaffectedbymarkettrends
suchashealthconcernsandsustainability(Grunert,2013).Healthconcernsaredrivenbyconsumersafuence,butalso
#Pages[22]
explainedbytheincreasingnumberoffoodandlifestylerelateddiseases,allergiesandintolerances.Inthelastfewyears,a
newtrendinfoodproductshasalsoemerged,whichisoftensummarizedundertheumbrellaofcleanlabelwhichis
denedasbeingfreeofchemicaladditives,displayingeasy-to-understandingredientlistsandbeingproducedbyuseof
fl
traditionaltechniqueswithlimitedprocessing(Cheungetal.,2016;Asiolietal.,2017).Sustainabilityconcernsoriginated
#Pages[22]
duetothegrowingawarenessofenvironmentalpollutioncausedespeciallybymeatproduction.Suchtrendsofhealthiness
consciousnessandsustainabilityhavetriggeredconsumersintoconsideringwhichingredientsarepresentinthefood
products(Asiolietal.,2017).Todate,therearemanystudiesdealingwithenvironmentalimpactofrawmaterials(i.e.,
#Pages[21]
meat,milk,eggs,legumes,cereals,vegetables)butscarceinformationisavailableonsustainabilityofsinglefoodin-
gredients(i.e.,proteinisolates,starches,etc.).Therefore,itcanbeexpectedthatinthenearfutureestimationoflifecycle
carbondioxideemissionsaswellaswaterandecologicalfootprintsofmainfoodingredients,includingthoseusedinmeat
sector,willbeextensivelyevaluatedtoassesstheenvironmentalimpactofnotonlyrawmaterialsbutalsoofprocessed
foodsandreadymeals(Calderónetal.,2010).However,oneofthe fl rststudiesonthistopicshowedthatnonmeatin-
#Pages[22]
gredientshadalimitedimpactonoverallsustainabilityofprocessedmeatproductssuchasbeefmeatball(about7%of
totalcarbonfootprint)andbreadedchickenbreast(1%aboutoftotalcarbonfootprint)(Fig.3.2)(BiswasandNaude,
#Pages[3] #Pages[22]
2016).
Theuseoftechnofunctionalingredientsinthemeatsectorhasalsosignicantimplicationsonfoodlossesbecauseof
fl
theirabilitytoincreasethephysicochemicalshelflife(i.e.,preventchangesintaste,aroma,textureorappearance)and
indirectlylimitthespoilage(i.e.,waterandfatentrapment,pHchange).AccordingtotheEuropeanCommission(2010),#Pages[22]
foodwasteintheEUaccountsforaround88milliontonsofwasteperyear.Currently,formeatandmeatproductsmostof
thelossesoccuratconsumptionanddistributionlevels(63%)duetotheirhighlevelofperishability(Bräutigametal.,
#Pages[22]
2014).Inprinciple,properuseoftechnofunctionalingredientscanplayanactiveroleinpreventingfoodwastebypre-
servingfoodquality.However,thisisincontrastwiththegrowingtrendtowardincreaseindemandforminimallypro-
cessedfoodswhicharemoreperishablebecauseoftheirwayofproduction(Troyetal.,2016).
#Pages[24]
Inthiscontext,thepresentchapterdealswiththemechanismsoftechnofunctionalingredientsusedinmeatproductsto
retainmoistureandmodifytexture,theirimplicationsonsustainabilityaswellastheirusageaccordingtocurrentmarket
trends.
TechnofunctionalIngredientsforMeatProducts:CurrentChallenges Chapter|3 47
FIGURE3.2 EstimationofcarbonfootprintofaSwedishmeatball(beef73%,water9%,spicesandsoyproducts9%,andvegetableoil9%)and
crunchychickengarlicbreast(chickenmeat61%,water8%,spicedbreadcrumbs8%,vegetableoil8%,wheatour7%,andspicesandsoyproducts7%).

DatatakenfromBiswas,W.K.,Naude,G.,2016.AlifecycleassessmentofprocessedmeatproductssuppliedtoBarrowIsland:aWesternAustraliancase
study.JournalofFoodEngineering180,4859. e
3.2SODIUMCHLORIDE
3.2.1MechanismofAction
Sodiumchloride,commonlycalledsalt,consistingof40%sodiumand60%chloridebyweightisconsideredasa
multifunctionalingredientandimpartsmultiplefunctionalpropertiesinprocessedmeatproducts.Inadditiontotheusefor
avoringorasa avorenhancer,itisalsoresponsibleforthewater-holdingcapacityanddesiredtexturalpropertiesof
processedmeat(OGradyandKerry,2010;Petraccietal.,2013).
#Pages[23]
Thetheoryontheroleofsodiumchlorideinpromotingsolubilization/extractionofthesalt-solublemyobrillarproteins
fl
andimprovingwater-holdingcapacityofmeatproductshasbeenextensivelyreviewed(PuolanneandHalonen,2010; #Pages[23]
þ
RuusunenandPuolanne,2005).Inthemeatmatrix,sodiumchloridedissociatesintosodium(Na)andchloride(Cl)ions
#Pages[23]
ofwhichCl ionsaremorestronglyadsorbedthanNa þ ionstopositivelychargedgroupsofmyosin.Bindingofthe
chlorideionstomyosinandactinlamentsincreasestheelectrostaticrepulsiveforcesbetweenbers,causingunfoldingof
fl fl
theproteinstructurematrix,therebyexpandingthespacesbetweenactinandmyosin(Hamm,1986).Moreover,the
#Pages[22]
adsorptionofCl ionswithpositivelychargedgroupsofmyosinresultsinashiftoftheisoelectricpointtowardamore
acidicpHvalueincreasingthedifferencebetweentheultimatepHofmeatandisoelectricpoint(pI)therebyprovidingmore
exibilitytoimprovewater-bindingcapacity(Feiner,2006a).Indeed,whensodiumchlorideisusedinmeatwhichison
#Pages[22]
basicsideoftheisoelectricpointofactomyosin(pI ¼
5.0),thebindingofCl ionstopositivelychargedproteinsside-
groupsscreensthepositivechargeandbreakssaltbridges,allowingtheproteinstandstospreadresultingingreaterhy-
dration.Moreover,thebindingofanionsshiftstheisoelectricpointtoalowerpH(Brewer,2004). #Pages[22]
3.2.2SustainabilityConcernsandMarketTrends
Eventhoughsodiumchlorideistechnicallyanonrenewableresource,itisveryabundant,anditsproductiondoesnotimply
highsustainabilityissues.However,excessiveconsumptionofsodiumhasbeenassociatedwithnegativehealtheffects,
withthemostalarmingbeingelevatedbloodpressureandaconsequenthigherriskofcardiovascularandrenaldiseases.It
hasbeenestimatedthatiftheaveragepersonwoulddecreasesaltintakebyabout5gperdaytotheintakerecommendedby
theWorldHealthOrganization,areductionof23%ofstrokesand17%ofcardiovasculardiseaseswouldresultpreventing
e
anestimatedfourmilliondeathsannuallyworldwide.Inindustrialcountries,about75%80%ofdietarysaltisobtained
e
throughprocessedfoodconsumption,5%10%isnaturallyoccurringinthefoodsthatmakeupthedietandtheremaining
e
10%15%comesfromsaltaddedduringcookingoratthetable.Meatproductsareconsideredasthesecondsourceof
sodiumintakeafterbakeryproducts(Klossetal.,2015).
#Pages[23]
Strategiestoreducesaltinprocessedmeatproductsinitiatedabout30yearsagoduetohealthreasons.Recently,
strategiesforsaltreductioninmeatsectorhavebeenwellreviewedbyIngugliaetal.(2017)(Table3.1).
#Pages[22] #Pages[4]
48
Sustainable Meat Production and Processing
TABLE3.1 MajorStrategiestoReduceSaltinMeatProducts
Approach Description Issues

StrategiesforSaltReduction
Loweringsaltcontent:reductionbystealth Stepwisereductionofsaltoveraprolongedperiod time-consumingapproach
tobeappliedatanindustrial-scale
reductionofpalatabilityandshelflife
Useofsaltalternatives Improvepalatabilityofreducedsaltfoodsbyadditionof aftertastes
Mineralsalts(KCl,CaCl,MgCl,lactates,MgSO)
2 2 4 substitutes.Inaddition,tosaltsubstitutes,technofunc- consumerperception(morecomplexformulationand
Flavorenhancers(sodiumglutamate,aminoacids,yeast tionalingredientsareusuallyaddedtocompensatelos- increaseduseoffoodadditives)
extracts,hydrolysatesproteins,maltodextrins)and sesinproteinfunctionality(i.e.,phosphates, challengesinproductdesign
maskingagents(i.e.,herbsandspices) hydrocolloids,etc.)
Changeinthesizeofsalt Highersaltperceptionduetofasterdissolutionof noteffectiveinmeatproducts
smallersaltparticles
Changeintheshapeofsalt Changephysicalformofsalt(i.e.,flaked) limitedcommercialapplications
AlternativeProcessingTechniquesforLow-SaltMeatProducts
High-pressureprocessing Partialmicrobialinactivationandincreaseinperceived drawbacksincolorandtexturalproperties
saltiness limitedcommercialapplications
Powerultrasound Partialmicrobialinactivationandincreaseinperceived limitedknowledge

saltiness
AdaptedfromInguglia,E.S.,Zhang,Z.,Tiwari,B.K.,Kerry,J.P.,Burgess,C.M.,2017.Saltreductionstrategiesinprocessedmeatproducts e e
areview.TrendsinFoodScienceandTechnology59,7078.
Whileprogressioninthedevelopmentofsaltreplacingingredientsandtasteenhancershavebeenmadeinthelast
decades,thereisstillnegativesensoryimpactassociatedwiththeiruse.Challengesresultfromthenecessitytouseother
ioniccompoundstoreplacethewater-holding,protein-binding,andfat-bindingfunctionsoftheeliminatedsalt.Overall,
saltinessincreasesinproductswithhighfatcontentanddecreasesinproductswithhighproteincontent.Therefore,itis
easiertoreducethesaltcontentinhighfatmeatproductsthanleanmeatproducts.Designingpreservativestrategiesto
maintainmicrobialsafetyinreducedsaltproductsiscomplicatedaseachonereliesoncombinationsofdifferentpre-
servativefactors.Thedegreeofsafetythatisbuiltintoaproductisoftenlimitedbythesensoryproperties.Anumberof
’
challengeshavetobefacedinordertosatisfyconsumersopinionaboutlow-saltmeatproduct(taste,color,avor,texture, fl
aroma,etc.)parameterswhichcanbecomeunacceptableiftoomuchsodiumisremoved(Ingugliaetal.,2017).
3.3PHOSPHATES
Phosphatesaresaltsofphosphoricacidavailableindifferentchemicalforms(orthophosphates,pyrophosphates,tripoly-
phosphates,polyphosphates)whichareusedtoimprovethequalityofmanyfoodstuffs,butspecicallyinmeatandfi
seafood,phosphatesactaswaterbinding,antioxidant,antimicrobialandbufferingagents.Inmeatrelatedapplications,
differentphosphateblends,whichareavailableinthemarket,showbetterfunctionalitythansinglephosphates.Themost
popularphosphatesarealkalinepolyphosphatessuchastripolyphosphatewhichrepresentsmorethan50%ofthephos-
phatesthatareusedbythemeatindustry(Feiner,2006a;Longetal.,2011;Petraccietal.,2013).Somecrucialfactorsthat
inuencethechoiceofappropriatephosphatemixturesinmeatprocessingindustriesaresolubility,pHvalueofproducts,
fl
anditseffectonmuscularproteins(Table3.2).
Mostphosphatesarenoteasilysolubleinmarinadesolutionsandhencearetypicallydissolvedinwateratroom
temperature,addedwithsaltandthenchilledbeforeuse(AlvaradoandMcKee,2007).Monophosphatesarecommonly
usedtoadjustandbufferthepHvalues;however,individuallytheyhaveaminoreffectonthemuscularprotein(Feiner,
2006a).Thus,monophosphatesarenotusuallyappliedindividuallyinmeatproducts.Themostfunctionalphosphatesare
thediphosphates,especiallysodiumpyrophosphatesastheyactontheactomyosincomplexofmeatproteinimmediately
andhaveahighpHvalueeveniftheirsolubilityislow(Table3.2).Therefore,longer-chainphosphatessuchassodium
tripolyphosphateandhexametaphosphatearemostcommonlyusedasablendtoimproveandoptimizesolubilityaswellas
functionalityinavarietyofmeatproductformulations(Brewer,2004;AlvaradoandMcKee,2007;Longetal.,2011).
However,theuseofphosphatesisusuallyinrestricteddosagesandinsomeCountriesisbannedinmeatproducts
(Feiner,2006a).InEU,phosphatesarenotpermittedinfreshmeat,butcouldbeaddedtomeatpreparations,mincedmeat
andmeatproducts(Regulation853/2004/EC).Themaximumpermittedlevelofphosphatesinmeatandmeatproducts
accordingtoEUlegislationis5g/kgasphosphorusperoxide(PO)individuallyorincombinationinthenishedproduct
2 5 fi
(Directive95/2/EC,Rev.2006).
Phosphatesareknowntoimprovethefunctionalityofmeatproteinsindifferentways.Commercialphosphateswitha
e
pHof910canraisetissuepHaboveisoelectricpointbyincreasingchargeonthemyobrillarproteins,causingthemto
fi
repeleachotherandallowingwaterinterspersion.However,bufferingcapacityofmeatproteinsissubstantialand
e
phosphateswithpH10shiftmeatpHbyonly0.10.2pHunits,whichwouldbeexpectedtohavenegligibleeffectson
’
water-holdingcapacityunlessthetissuewillbeatorveryclosetothemuscleproteinsisoelectricpoint.
Low-molecular-weightinorganicphosphatescanreactdirectlywithactomyosincomplex.Thiseffectisrelatedtoa
breakdownoflow-molecular-weightinorganicphosphatestopyrophosphatesbymuscleATP-ase,whichhasspecic fi
swellingeffectonleanmeatinadditiontoitspHeffectandabilitytosplitactomyosincomplexformedduringrigormortis
bysequestratingcalcium(Ca 2þ )andmagnesium(Mg 2þ )cations( Brewer,2004).Inaddition,phosphatesincreasethe
electrostaticrepulsiveforceswhichexpandthespacesbetweenactinandmyosinallowingforentrapmentofmorewaterin
thesegaps.Finally,phosphatesalsoincreasetheionicstrengthofthemeatwhichleadstosevereswellingofmusclebers fi
andactivationofprotein.Onlyphosphatesareknowntoexertallthesefunctionswhichjustifytheirworldwideuse(Feiner,
2006a).Sodiumchlorideincombinationwithphosphatecanfurtherimproveproteinfunctionality.Whenactomyosin
complexesareseparatedbytheeffectofphosphate,additionofsodiumchlorideincreasesionicstrengthandthereforethe
solubilityofmuscularproteinsimproves.Solubilizedproteinshavehigherabilitytoimmobilizehighlevelsofaddedwater
andemulsifyalargeamountoffat.Thissynergisticeffectbetweenphosphatesandsodiumchloridegivesmoreexibility fl
formutualreplacementandsubstitution(Xiongetal.,2000).Therefore,phosphatescanbeusedinthedevelopmentoflow-
saltmeatproducts(RuusunenandPuolanne,2005).
50
TABLE3.2 TheListandPropertiesofPhosphatesCommonlyUsedinMeatProducts
CommonName Abbreviation Formula pH(1%Solution) Solubility(g/100gHO)at20C

2 8 ENumber %PO
2 5
Monophosphates(Orthophosphates)
l sodium MSP NaHPO
2 4 4.4 85 339 59.2
l potassium MKP KHPO
2 4 4.4 20 340 52.1
l disodium DSP NaHPO
2 4 8.8 7.7 339 50.0
l dipotassium DKP KHPO
2 4 9.5 120 340 40.8
l trisodium TSP NaPO
3 4 12 13 339 43.3
l tripotassium TKP KPO
3 4 12 51 340 33.4
Diphosphates(Pyrophosphates)
l sodium TSPP NaPO
4 2 7 10.2 6 450 53.4
l potassium TKPP KPO
4 2 7 10.4 180 450 43.0
l disodium SAPP NaHPO
2 2 2 7 4.2 12 450 64.0
Polyphosphates
l sodiumtripolyphosphate STPP NaPO
5 3 10 9.8 15 451 57.9
l potassiumtripolyphosphate KTPP KPO
5 3 10 9.6 178 451 47.5
l sodiumhexametaphosphate SHMP (NaPO)nn

3 e
¼1015 6.2 Highsoluble 452 69.6
e
n ¼50100 7.0

AdaptedfromLong,N.H.B.S.,Ga´l,R.,Bunka,F.,2011.Useofphosphatesinmeatproducts.AfricanJournalofBiotechnology10(86),1987419882. e
Phosphorusisanaturallyoccurringelementessentialtolifeonearth,howeverthereareconcernsregardinglong-term
sustainabilityandreliabilityofsupply.Asearlyas2035,itiscalculatedthatthedemandforphosphorusoutpacesthe
supply(Comberetal.,2013;Cordelletal.,2012).Ontheotherhand,massiveemissionsofphosphorusintheenvi-
ronment,especiallyinwater,causesalgaetogrowfasterthanecosystemscanhandle.Thistwo-sidedchallengeof
phosphorussustainability(pollutionandscarcity)alsoinvolvestheuseofphosphatesinfoodsector,whichisestimated
tobeapproximately90%ofallphosphatedemandforagrifoodproduction,however,anegligiblefraction(1%2%)is e
duetotheuseoffoodadditivecontainingphosphorus(Schröderetal.,2010).Ithasbeenestimatedthatthereisa
signicantintakeofphosphorusviaadditivesindrinksandprocessedmeats(0.59g-P/personday),whichaccountsfor
fi
about30%oftotalphosphorusintakeanddomesticexcretion(Comberetal.,2013).Inthiscontext,evenifsustainability
implicationsontheuseofphosphatesinfoodsectorseemnegligiblecomparedwithoverallexploitationbyhumans,
foodindustryisdirectedtoreducetheuseofphosphatesasafoodadditive.Thisrequestisalsostrengthenedbythe
negativeconsumerperceptiontowardthistypeofadditivebecauseofnutritionalconcernsabouttheuseofphosphatesin
foods.Someresearchershaveshownthatphosphatesforminsolublesaltswithcalcium,ironandothermetalionswhich
mightresultinloweringtheabsorptionofthesemineralsinsidetheintestinaltractandasaresultincreaseriskofbone
diseasesandirondeciency,anemia.Moreover,highphosphorusintakeincreasesthepotentialriskofchronickidney
fi
“
diseases(Gutiérrezetal.,2017).Nowadays,apartfromthesenutritionaldrawbacks,thetermphosphatesometimeshas ”
negativeconnotations.Tothisextentandtoaddressthenaturalorclean-labeltrends,processorsareincreasingly
’
interestedinphosphatereplacerswhichtwithficonsumerspreferenceforperceivednaturalfood( Petraccietal.,2013;
Romanetal.,2017).
Inresponsetothesustainabilityissuesandespeciallytonutritionaldrawbacksandnegativeconnotationofphos-
phates,thecurrenttrendistoevaluatedifferentfoodingredientsasphosphatereplacers,optimizingprocessingtech-
niquesandimprovingtheformulationtoreduceoreliminatephosphatesinmeatproducts(Table3.3).Consequently,
findingingredientsthathaveequivalentfunctionalityasphosphatesisanimposingchallengeforthemeatindustry.
However,morepromisingingredientsforsomeapplicationsinporkandpoultryseemtobecarbonates,whichcan
increasewaterretentionevenifsomeproblemsariseintheappearanceandmicrobialshelflife.Also,alternative
technologicalapproaches(i.e.,high-pressureprocessing)havebeenproposedasalternativestrategiestoreducethe
’
phosphateadditivelevels(OFlynnetal.,2014).
3.4CARBONATESANDCITRATES
Carbonatesaresaltsofcarbonicacid(HCO)andthemostcommonsaltsusedinmeatindustryaresodiumandpotassium
2 3
carbonates(Table3.4)whichareclassiedbyEUlegislationasacidityregulators(E500).Trisodiumortripotassium,salts
fi
ofcitricacid,areusedasingredientsinprocessedmeatproductsduetotheiralkalizationeffectandareclassiedwithinthefi
E300category(Table3.4).
Asexplainedforalkalinephosphates,functionalpropertiesofcarbonatesandcitratesaremainlyrelatedtotheir
alkalinizationeffectthatshiftsthemeatpHawayfromtheisoelectricpointofmyobrillarproteinsandincreasesthenet
fi
negativecharge(Feiner,2006a;Xiong,2012).Forexample,itwasestimatedthatmeatpHaftermarinationlinearly
respondedwithabout0.17pHunitincreaseper0.1%-unitadditionofsodiumbicarbonate(Petraccietal.,2013),while
additionofcitratesislesseffectiveinraisingpH(Feiner,2006a).Overall,thispHincreaseleadstomuscle ber
fi
expansion(swelling)causedbyelectrostaticrepulsionthatallowsformoreintrinsicandaddedwatertobeimmobilized
inthemyobrillarlattice(Xiong,2012).Bertrametal.(2008)demonstratedthatsodiumbicarbonateifcomparedwith
fi
phosphates,incertainconditionsseemstoinduceahigherdegreeofswellingofthemyobrilsandahighersolubi-
fi
lizationeffectonmeatproteinstructures,especiallyinreducingtheexpulsionofwaterduringcooking.Ithasbeen

speculatedthatduetothesmallersizeofHCO 3 ions,comparedtoPO ð 3 10 Þ5 ions,theycouldeasilypenetrateinto
meatmuscleandinteractwithmanyproteinsidechains,leadingtolargerincreasesintherepulsiveforcesamongmeat
proteins(KaewthongandWattanachant,2018).Apartfromthechangeinproteincharge,carbonatesalsoproduce
carbondioxideduringcooking,whichimprovetheabilityofthemeattoholdwaterbyphysicalentrapment(Sheardand
Tali,2004;Mudalaletal.,2014).However,ithasbeendemonstratedthatveryhighconcentrationofsodiumbicar-
bonateinpresenceofsodiumchloridemayhaveadverseeffectsonfunctionalpropertiesandintegrityofactomyosin
(Saleemetal.,2016).
52
TABLE3.3 SummaryoftheStudiesInvestigatingAlternativeIngredientsUnderPhosphate-ReplacingStrategy
Typeof IngredientUsedasPhosphate
TypeofMeatProduct Phosphate Replacer Advantages Drawbacks References
Beefstriploins Blend Acidsolubilizedproteins l lean and fat VannandMirelesDeWitt
color (2007)
l aerobic plate
count
l lipidoxidation
l purge, cook
yield
l shearforce
Beefstriploins MSP Dehydratedbeefprotein(0.45%) l lipidoxidation Lowderetal.(2011)
Beefstriploins TSPP/STPP Ammoniumhydroxide l colorstability l purgeandcook Parsonsetal.(2011a,b)
loss
l microbialcounts
Porkloin(whole-muscle) STTP Sodiumbicarbonate(0.3%) l weightgain l cookloss SheardandTali(2004)
Porkloin(whole-muscle) TSPP Sodiumbicarbonate(0.3%) l weightgain Bertrametal.(2008)
l cookloss
Porkloin(whole-muscle) STTP Sodiumbicarbonate(0.2%) l tenderness Santosetal.(2012)
Porkloin STTP Alkalineelectrolyzedwater l purgeloss Rigdonetal.(2017a,b)
l lipidoxidation
l colorstability
Chickenbreast(whole- STTP Sodiumbicarbonate(0.3%) l weightgain l darkening Petraccietal.(2012)
muscle) l water retention
ability
Chickenbreast Blend SavorPhos(0.50%) l texture Cascoetal.(2013)
Chickenbreast(whole- STTP Sodiumbicarbonate(0.3%) l weightgain l driploss Mudalaletal.(2014)
muscle) l texturalproperties
Restructuredchicken STPP Inulin(4.5%) þsodiumcarbonate l cookloss l pHincrease ¨
Oztu¨rkandSerdaroglu
steaks (0.2%) (2017)
TABLE3.4 PropertiesofCarbonatesandCitratesCommonlyUsedinMeatProducts
CommonNames Formulas pH(1%Solution) Solubility(g/100gHO)at20C

2 8 ENumber
Bicarbonates
l sodium NaCO
2 3 8.3 8.7 501
l potassium KCO
2 3 8.5 112 501
Carbonates
l sodium NaHCO3 11.4 30.7 500
l potassium KHCO3 11.6 111 500
Citrates
l sodium CHONa
6 5 7 3 7.5 42.5 331
l potassium CHOK
6 5 7 3 7.5 Notavailable 332
AdaptedfromKim,S.,Thiessen,P.A.,Bolton,E.E.,Chen,J.,Fu,G.,Gindulyte,A.,Han,L.,He,J.,He,S.,Shoemaker,B.A.,Wang,J.,Yu,B.,Zhang,J.,
Bryant,S.H.,2016a.PubChemsubstanceandcompounddatabases.NucleicAcidsResearch44(D1),D1202D1213. e
Therearenomajorconcernsonconsumerperceptionandsustainabilityissuesfollowingtheuseofcarbonatesand
citratesinmeatindustry.Indeed,sodiumbicarbonateisacommonsaltusedathomelevelfordifferentpurposesandits
chemicalproductiondoesnotimplicateproblemsrelatedtoenvironmentalpollution.Therefore,theproblemsaresolely
oftechnicalnatureandderivebasicallyfrompossiblenegativeoutcomesonproductshelflifeandappearanceduetothe
increaseinpHtomuchhigherthan6.0(Petraccietal.,2013).ThisisbecausepHnotfarfromneutralitysupports
“ ”
microbialspoilageduringshelflife(Allenetal.,1997)andcanfavormeatpinkingphenomenonincookedproducts(a
defectpotentiallyleadingtoanundercookedappearance)duetoincreasedresistancetodenaturationofmyoglobin
duringheattreatment(Petraccietal.,2012,2014;Leeetal.,2015).Incontrast,anincreaseofthedarkcolordueto
Maillardreactioningrilledchickenmarinatedbysodiumbicarbonatehasbeenobserved(Wongmaneepratipand
Vangnai,2017).Ontheotherhand,theincorporationofpotassiumlactatehasbeendemonstratedtomitigatedifferences
inproductcolorandappearanceduetobicarbonateaddition.Moreover,onestudyevidencedthatadditionofalkaline
marinadesolutions(throughtheinclusionofsodiumbicarbonate)signicantlyincreasedtheconcentrationofthe
fi
carcinogenicpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbonsingrilledchickenbreastmeat(WongmaneepratipandVangnai,2017).
Also,nodrawbacksonlipidandproteinoxidationinbeef(Semitendinosusmuscle)marinatedwithalkalinesolution
havebeenobserved(Sharedehetal.,2015).However,attentionshouldbepaidtodosageinrelationtoitseffecton
productquality.
Currently,inmeatindustrytheuseofcarbonatesisquitelimited.DuetotheveryeffectivepHraisingability, rst
fi
applicationshaveproposedtousebicarbonatestominimizequalitydefectsandreduceofvariationduetooccurrence
ofpale,soft,exudative(PSE)inpork(Kauffmanetal.,1998;Wynveenetal.,2001;Boorenetal.,2017)andinbroiler
meat(WoelfelandSams,2001;AlvaradoandSams,2003;Santosetal.,2012)aswel asto maskatypicalaromasand
flavorsinsowmeat(Sindelaretal.,2003a,b).However,inthelastdecadesthemarkettrendto findalternative
technofunctionalingredientstophosphateshasstimulatedresearcherstotestcarbonatesasphosphatereplacerwith
promisingoutcomes(seeTable3.3).Inaddition,followingtrendtowardreductionofsodiuminmeatproducts,po-
tassiumcarbonateshavebeenshowntoexertsimilarperformancecomparedtothesodiumcounterpartingroundbeef
(Mohanetal.,2016),porkfrankfurters(Boorenetal.,2017),andchickenwhole-musclebreast(Leeetal.,2015).
PracticalinterestontheuseofcarbonateshasalsobeendemonstratedbytherecentadoptionofEURegulation601/
2014/EC,whichallowstheuseofsodiumcarbonatesashumectantinsomepoultrymeatpreparationstomaintain
consistencyandjuicinessduringsubsequentprocessing.Afurtherstatedreasonisthatitsusageallowscooking
poultrymeatlongerandmoreeffectively,maintainingitsjuicinessandavoidingtheconsumptionofundercooked
poultry.
3.5STARCHES
Starch,aprimarycarbohydratereservepresentinplanttissues,additionallytoitsnutritivevaluecontributioncanbeusedto
modifythephysicalpropertiesofmanyfoods.Commercialstarchesobtainedfromcorn,wheat,rice,andtuberssuchas
potato,sweetpotato,andcassava(tapiocastarch)arecommonlyusedin:thickening,gelling,adhesion,stabilizing,
moistureretention,texturizing,andantistalingapplications(ThomasandAtwell,1997).Starchesareusuallyaddedtomeat
productformulationsaswaterbinderstoreduceformulationcosts,increaseyields,reducecookinglosses,improvetexture,

sliceabilityandsucculence,andextenddurability(Totosaus,2009;Eliásováetal.,2012).
Starchisformedbytwodifferentglucosepolymers:amyloseandamylopectin.Amyloseisalinearstructurebondedvia
a
1,4--glycosidiclinkageandisprimarilyresponsibleforthermnessorgelstrengthofastarchgel.Inhotstarchslurryof
fi
cookedmeat,theamyloseparticlesmovefreely,andthewaterisimmobilized.Inahotmeatproductifthehotstarchslurry
iscooledveryslowlyortooquickly,retrogradationtakesplace.Becauseofthiseffect,cautionmustbetakentocoolthe
starch-containingmeatproductquicklyenoughtoavoidretrogradationthatcanbecausedbyslowcooling,simultaneously
avoidingplacingoftheproductatverylowtemperature.Storageofmeatproductscontaininghigh-amylosestarches,atlow

temperaturesfromaround 1to0Cforaprolongedtimeaswellfavorsretrogradation.Thelevelofretrogradationde-
pendsonthetypeofstarchandincreasesinthesequence:tapioca potato > maize> >
wheat,withwheatstarch
demonstratingthegreatesttendencytowardretrogradation.Syneresisandpurge(weeping),commoninslicedandvacuum-
packedmeatproducts,arearesultofretrogradation.Thesecondmajorcomponentofstarch,amylopectin,abranched
a
structurewithglucoseunitslinkedvia1,6--glycosidicbond,isresponsiblefortheelasticityandviscosityofstarchgel
(Feiner,2006b).
Thestructuraldifferencesbetweenthesetwopolymerscontributetosignicantdifferencesinstarchpropertiesand
fi
functionality.Indeed,differentstarchsources,theratioofamylosetoamylopectinandtheircontentaffectstarchproperties
(ThomasandAtwell,1997).MaincharacteristicsofstarchescommonlyusedinfoodproductsarereportedinTable3.5.
Starchesarecommonlyaddedtocoarsegroundandemulsion-stylemeatproductsnotonlyfortheirfunctionalprop-
erties,butalsofortheirlowcostifcomparedtoalternatives(Genccelepetal.,2015).Starcheswithhighviscosityproles fi
e
andhighwaterholdingcapacitiesaretypicallygoodtoimprovethetextureandshelflifeofprocessedmeatproducts
(ThomasandAtwell,1997).
Themostimportantcriterioninchoosingastarchformeatproductsisitsgelatinizationtemperaturethatmustcorre-
spondwiththetemperaturesachievedduringthermalprocessingofthemeatproductandclosetothetemperatureatwhich
themeatproteinsdenatureandreleasewater,sothatthestarchcanbeusedtoswellandholdmoisture(Jolyand
Anderstain,2009).Itisworthtoconsiderthatheat-treatedmeatproductsmustbeheatedtoaminimumcoretemperatureof

70Cforaperiodof10mintobesafeforhumanconsumption(Eliásováetal.,2012).
TABLE3.5 CharacteristicsofVariousTypesofStarch
Swelling Gelatinization
Size Amylose Amylopectin Capacity Temperature
Source Type GranularShape (m)
m (%) (%) (%) 8
(C)
Potato Tuber Round,oval e
2580 21 78 700 e
5968
Corn/ Cereal Roundpolygonal e
520 26 e
6570 24 e
6272
maize
Rice Cereal Roundpolygonal 3e 8 0 2 78 19 878 6 e
Tapioca Tuber Truncatedround, e
525 e
1518 e
8085 75 e
6273
oval
Wheat Cereal Roundlenticular 25 27 75 21 e
5864
Waxy Cereal Roundpolygonal e

525 2 95-98 65 e
6372
maize
AdaptedfromFeiner,G.,2006b.Additives:proteins,carbohydrates,fillersandotheradditives.In:MeatProductsHandbook-PracticalScienceand
e
Technology.WoodheadPublishingLimited,Duxford,pp.89141;Joly,G.,Anderstain,B.,2009.Starches.In:Tarte´,R.(Ed.),IngredientsinMeatProd-
ucts.Springer,NewYork,pp.2555. e
Starchesappliedinmeatproductcanbedividedintotwogroups:thecook-upandthecoldswellingstarches.Cook-up
starchesareusedinmanymeatproductsbecauseoftheirabilitytobindwaterwhenthemeatisbeingheattreated,whereas
thecoldswellingstarchesworkinmincedmeatproductaswaterbindersandtexturizerstoimprovetheprocessabilityof
theuncookedmeat.Differenttypesofstarchcouldbeuseddependingondifferentmeatproductssuchasemulsiedmeats, fi
minced/groundmeatproducts(JolyandAnderstain,2009).
Ingeneral,rootandtuberstarchesswellmorerapidlyandinanarrowtemperaturerangethancerealstarches.Rice
starchisthemostneutraltastingstarchwhilemodiedtapiocaandpotatostarchesshowgoodfreeze-thawstability(Feiner,
fi
2006b).Potatostarchisfrequentlyusedinmeatproductsduetoitshigh-waterbindingcapacityandhighviscosity(Petracci
etal.,2013).Moreover,potatostarchstartsgelatinizingsimultaneouslyatthetemperatureatwhichmeatproteinslosemost
waterandisfullygelatinizedinthesametemperaturerangetowhichmostmeatproductsarecooked(JolyandAnderstain,
2009).Tapiocastarchisappliedmainlyinblandmeatsystemstoimpartsmoothtextureandneutraltastebutisgenerally
moreexpensivethanotherstarches(Petraccietal.,2013;JolyandAnderstain,2009).
Starcheswhichcontain97%ormoreamylopectin,andthereforelittleornoamylose,arecollectivelyknownaswaxy
starches.Thesetypesofstarchesresultinclearandtransparentgelswhichdonotretrogradeprimarilybecauseofthehigh
percentageofbranchedmoleculesandabsenceofamylosefraction.Waxystarchesgenerallydemonstrategoodfreeze-thaw
stabilityandarealsousedforheat-freezeprocesses.Meatproduct,containingstarchandbeingstoredfrozen,shouldbe
producedbyutilizingwaxystarchestoavoid,orreduce,syneresisduringthawing(Feiner,2006b).
Starchisaversatileandwidelyusedadditiveinfood,paper,chemicalandpharmaceuticalindustriesandisexpectedto
recordincreasingdemandinthenextdecades.Aspreviouslystated,themostimportantbotanicaloriginsforproducing
starchesaremaize,cassava,wheat,andpotato(ThomasandAtwell,1997).Asforotheringredientsobtainedfromcrops,
sustainabilityandkeyenvironmentalissuesattheagriculturalstagearerelatedtolanduse,soilnutrientsdepletionand
erosion,whileattheprocessingstagearethoseconcerninguseoffossilenergyandfreshwaterwithregardstoresource
depletionandgreenhousegasesemissions(Anetal.,2012;Tranetal.,2015).Duetowideuseinthefoodindustry,
environmentalimpactofstarchesandstarch-containingingredients(cerealours)hasbeenamongtherstfoodingredients
fl fi
tobeassessed(Table3.6).
Overall,starchesappeartohavealimitedenvironmentalimpactwhencomparedwithanimal-derivedingredientsand
leguminouscrops(Nielsenetal.,2003).However,asforallthefoodingredients,theiruseisalsostronglyaffectedbythe
growingdemandforclean-labelfoods.Regardingthis,starchescanbecategorizedmainlyintotwogroups,particularly
TABLE3.6 EstimationofLifecycleCarbonEmission,Water,andEcologicalFootprintofSomeStarchIngredients
CarbonFootprint WaterFootprint EcologicalFootprint

2
Product (gCO/kg)
2 (L/kg) (m/kg) References
Wheatflour 1,010 Notavailable Notavailable Nielsenetal.(2003)
Notavailable Notavailable 7 CollinsandFairchild(2007)
1,130 Notavailable Notavailable MichaelowaandDransfeld(2008)

366(organic) Notavailable 10 Meisterlingetal.(2009)
411(conventional)
576 Notavailable Notavailable XuandLan(2016)

Ryeflour 980 Notavailable Notavailable Nielsenetal.(2003)
Starch(native) 877 42 Notavailable Anetal.(2012)
Starch(tapioca) 594 Notavailable Notavailable UsubharatanaandPhungrassami

(2015)
539 e
2162 Notavailable Tranetal.(2015)
fromalabelingpointofview,aseithernativeormodied.Nativestarchesareproducedthroughtheseparationofnaturally
fi
occurringstarchfromgrainorrootcropsandcanbeuseddirectlyinfoodproduction(McDonagh,2012).However,
unmodiedstarcheshavelimiteduseinthefoodindustrybecauseoftheirinferiorqualityandareuneconomical.Native
fi
starchesgenerallyexhibitlimitedresistancetowardlowpHvaluesinfood,impactofheatduringprocessing,impactof
shearandlowerperformanceregardingthestabilityinrefrigeratedandfreeze-thawconditions(Feiner,2006b).
Themodernfoodindustrywithitsenormousvarietyoffoodproductsrequireastarchabletotolerateawiderangeof
processingtechniquesaswellasvariousdistribution,storageandnalpreparationconditions.Thesedemandsaresatised
fi fi
bymodifyingnativestarchesbychemicalandphysicalmethods(ThomasandAtwell,1997).Thevariousmodicationsof fi
nativestarcharedesignedtochangeoneormoreofthefollowingproperties:pastingtemperature,solid-viscosityre-
lationships,resistanceofstarchpastestobreakingdown,gelatinizationandcookingcharacteristics,retrogradationten-
dencyviscositybyacids,heatand/ormechanicalshear,ioniccharacterandhydrophiliccharacter(McDonagh,2012)
(Fig.3.3).
FIGURE3.3 Schematicsummarizingsome
commonmethodsofchemicalandphysical Cross-linking
modicationofstarches.
fi AdaptedfromMasina,
N.,Choonara,Y.E.,Kumar,P.,duToit,L.C.,
Govender,M.,Indermun,S.,Pillay,V.,2017.A
reviewofthechemicalmodicationtechniquesof
fi Acetylation
ratePsch.Cboyd
-1236olymers57,
;
g,H.FeiP2017hyscalndmotfr:AvwZ-uDX fi Oxidation
CritcalRevwsnFo
odScienaNutr57(12),69-0. Chemical
Hydroxypropylation
Cationization
Acid Hydrolysis
Starch modification
Drum drying
Pregelatinization Spray drying
Thermal treatment Extrusion
Physical
Ultrasonication
High hydrostatic
pressure (HHP)
Non thermal
treatment
Microwave
Pulsed electric field

(PEF)
Starchesaremodiedto:(1)reducegelatinizationtemperatureorreducehotpasteviscosity;(2)providefunctional
fi
attributesinfoodapplicationsthatnativestarchescannotnormallyprovide;and(3)provideaneconomicaladvantagein
manyapplicationswherehigherpriceditemssuchasgumsmustbeused(Genccelepetal.,2015).Modiedstarchesarefi
lesslimitinginextremeprocessesandformulations.Theselectionofastarchthatiscompatiblewithaprocessisoneofthe
mostcriticalaspectsofachievingproperstarchperformanceandthedesiredproductquality.Certainmodiedstarchesare
fi
alsobeingincreasinglyusedasfatsubstitutesinlow-andno-fatproducts(ThomasandAtwell,1997).Theuseofmodied fi
starchesinprocessedmeatproductshelpstobindmoisture,besidesprovidingheatandshearstability,extendingshelflife
andimprovingfreeze-thawstabilityandtexture(Totosaus,2009).
ChemicallymodiedstarchesareconsideredasfoodadditivesandtheyhaveanEnumberdesignationandarenot
fi
perceivedasnaturalingredients(McDonagh,2012).InEurope,thesemodiedstarchesareassignedEnumbersand
fi
“
areregulatedinaccordancewithDirective95/2/EConfoodadditivesotherthancolorsandsweeteners,asamended ”
(EuropeanParliamentandCouncil,2006)andmustbemanufacturedinaccordanceofspeciedpuritycriteria(Jolyand
fi
Anderstain,2009).
Nativestarcheswithoutchemicalmodicationsareconsideredclean-labelingredientsandarenow
fi ndinggreater
fi
’
acceptanceinfoodproductsduetoconsumersdemandsfornaturalproducts(Lawton,2004).Nowadaystheissue
forstarchmanufacturesisto fi ndinnovativewaystocreateclean-labelsolutionsthatofferthefunctionalityand
qualitiesofmodiedstarch(McDonagh,2012).Therefore,inrecentyears,tomeetmarketrequirementsforclean
fi
label,special “ nativefunctional ” starchesproducedbyusingphysicalprocessestoconferthemcomparableprop-
ertiestochemicallymodiedones,withtheadvantageofretainingthelabeldeclaration
fi native “ ”
andtheirclean
“image,” havebeenintroducedinthemarkets( McDonagh,2012).Thesestarchesexhibitedimprovementintech-
nologicalbehaviorandcomparablepropertiestochemicallymodiedstarcheswiththeadvantageofaclean-label
fi
status(Petraccietal.,2013).
3.6VEGETABLEPROTEINS
Vegetableproteins,frequentlyaddedinmeatformulation,canbeincludedamongbinderswhichareingredientsusedto
“ ”
helpglueparticles,increasewater-holdingcapacityandformagelsystemorparticipateinmeatproteingelation.Some
proteinsevenenhancetheavorinnishedproductsandarealsooccasionallyaddedtomeatproductstoraisethelevelof
fl fi
proteintofullllegalrequirements(Feiner,2006b).Thevegetableproteinsarecommonlymarketedundercertaincate-
fi
fl fi e
gories(Barbut,2017):(1)our-neparticleswith40%60%proteincontent;(2)concentrateswith70%proteinlevel;(3)
isolateswith 90%proteincontent.
Theseingredientscanbeexpensiveandthereforeprocessorsshouldconsidertheiraddedvalue,suchasreducing
shrinkageduringprocessing,textureenhancement,emulsicationcapabilities,andreductionofformulationcostwhen
fi
usingthem(Barbut,2017).Fatemulsicationisoneofthekeyfunctionalpropertiesofplantproteinsinprocessedmeat
fi
systems.Theemulsifyingcharacteristicsofplantproteinscanvarybasedontheproteinsource,solubility,concentration,
andtheprocessingconditionsunderwhichtheproteinwasmanufactured.
Waterbindingisanothercriticalfunctionalpropertyrequiredinplantproteinsthatareusedinprocessedmeatsystems.
Thecompositionandconformationalstructureoftheproteinplaykeyroleinitswater-holdingcapacity.Waterbinding
propertiesofproteinscanalsobeinuencedbyavarietyoffactorswithinthemeatsystem,includingpHandsaltcon-
fl
centration.Thewater-holdingcapacityoftheplantproteinusedinprocessedmeatproductsiscriticaltotheoveralleating
qualityandtheshelflife(EgbertandPayne,2009).
Plantproteinscanbeusedinprocessedmeattoenhancethetexturalpropertiesofthesystemthroughincorporationof
additionalproteinintotheproductmatrix.Thetexturalcharacteristicsofeachprocessedmeatproductaredependenton
productformulationaswellastheprocessingconditionsemployedinthemanufactureofthenalproduct(Feiner,2006b).
fi
Thevegetableproteinsareusedasmeatextendersbecauseoftheirlowerpricecomparedtomuscleproteinsand,
consequently,lowerthecostofthenalproduct.Infact,highmeatpriceshavepromptedtheindustrytoproducemeat
fi
productswithinexpensivesourcesofproteinssuchassoybeanproteins.Furthermore,inmanyunderdeveloped
countriesanimalproteinsareveryscarceandfoodsuppliesmustbesupplementedwithvegetableproteins(Belloque
etal.,2002).
Therehasbeenincreasinginterestinvegetableproteinsduetotheirvarioushealthbenetsandprospectiveapplications
fi
inthefoodindustry.AsshowninFig.3.4,therearethreemaintypesofvegetableproteins:leguminousproteins,cereal
proteins,andoilseedproteins(Linetal.,2017).
VEGETABLE
PROTEINS
LEGUMINOUS CEREAL OIL SEED

PROTEINS PROTEINS PROTEINS
Soy Peanut
Mung bean Sunflower
Red mung Wheat Canola
Kidney bean Corn Flax seed
Lupin Rice Sesame
Chickpea Safflower
Pea
FIGURE3.4 Theclassicationofvegetableproteinscommonlyusedinfoodindustry.
fi AdaptedfromLin,D.,Lu,W.,Kelly,A.L.,Zhang,L.,Zheng,B.,
Miao,S.,2017.Interactionsofvegetableproteinswithotherpolymers:structure-functionrelationshipsandapplicationsinthefoodindustry.Trendsin
FoodScienceTechnology68,130144.e
Worldwide,themostcommonplantproteinsfoundinmeatproductsarethosederivedfromsoybeansorwheat.There
areavarietyofotherplantproteinsthatareorcouldbecommerciallyavailableincludingpea,potato,corn,canola,rice,
andvariousotherproteinsfromlegumesandoilseedsources(EgbertandPayne,2009).
LegumesrefertoedibleseedsofleguminousplantsbelongingtothefamilyLeguminosae,whichincludebeansand
pulses.Legumeourssuchasblack-eyedbeans,chick-peas,andlentilscanbesuccessfullyusedinmeatballformulations
fl
asextenderstoincreasethetoughnessofmeatballs(Asgaretal.,2010).Mung-bean fl ouranditsproductsareusedasa
waterandmeatbinderinprocessedmeatproductsandtheuseofmung-beanproteinisolateaswater-bindingagentand
substrateforthemicrobialtransglutaminaseinporkmyobrillarproteinswasproposedbyLeeandChin(2013).
fi
Soybeanproteinsarethemostwidelyutilizedvegetableproteininthemeatindustryduetotheirnutritionaland
functionalproperties.Itiscommonlyusedowingtoitsbiologicalvalue,fatabsorption,andemulsicationcapacities; fi
gelling/texturalandwater-holdingcapabilities;abilitytocontrolcolorandimprovethetexturalpropertiesofthe nal
fi
’
product(Belloqueetal.,2002;Feiner,2006b;Asgaretal.,2010;OGradyandKerry,2010).Togetherwiththese,health
andeconomicreasonsarethemajorcausesfortheadditionofsoybeanproteintomeatproducts.Someadvantagesofusing
soybeanproteinsasadditivesare(1)verylittleoff-avor;(2)lowcost;(3)highnutritionalvalue;(4)interestingfunctional
fl
properties(soybeanproteinscaneasilyassociatewithwaterandfatshowinggoodhydration,gellingandemulsifying
properties);(5)improvementoftheappearanceandorganolepticcharacteristicsofmeatproducts.Everysoybeanproduct
presentsdifferentfunctionalproperties,andtheselectionofasoybeanproductformanufactureofameatproductdepends
onthetypeofproduct(Belloqueetal.,2002).Mainusesofsoybeanproductsasadditivesinmeatproductsarereportedin
Table3.7.
Soyisolatesaregoodwaterbinders(higheryield,reducethepurgelossduringstorageandmorejuicinessformari-
nated,injected/tumbledwholemeatorrestructuredproducts),andexcellentemulsiersoffat(improvesliceabilityinmeat
fi
sausagerollsandconsistencyinbologna-typeproducts).Inwhole-muscleinjectedhamproducts,soyisolatesareappliedto
add fi rmnessandtexturetotheproduct.Differentinjectablesoyisolatesexhibitdifferentmolecularstructures,which
determinetheirdispersibilityincoldwaterandtheirwater-holdingcapacity(Feiner,2006b;Petraccietal.,2013).
Therateofadditionofsoyproteinstomeatproductsvariesconsiderablyandisgenerallybetween0.5%and3.0%inthe
finishedproduct.Injectablesoyconcentratesareusedatanincreasingrateratherthanisolatesininjectedwhole-muscle
productsasthewater-holdingcapacityofaconcentrateisaround20%lessthananisolatebutthecostofconcentrate,
comparedwiththatofanisolate,issignicantlyless.Ingeneralterms,asoyisolateimmobilizeswaterataratioof1:5
fi
whilesoyconcentratesataratioof1:4.Thedifferencebetweensoyisolateandconcentrateininjectedmeatproducts
becomesevenlessdistinguishablewhenotheradditivessuchascarrageenanand/orstarchareappliedincombination
(Feiner,2006b).Soyproteinconcentrateiswidelyusedinmeatformulationstoimprovewaterandfatholdingcapacityand
canaddnutritionalvaluetomeatproductsduetoits fi bercontent( Petraccietal.,2013).
TABLE3.7 SoybeanProductsUsedasProteinIngredientinMeat
FunctionalPropertiesImprovedbytheAdditionofSoybeanandExample
SoybeanProduct ProteinContent(%) ofMeatProductPrepared
Flourandgrits 65 Proteinsolvation,waterabsorptionandbinding,viscosity,cohesion-adhesion,
emulsification,andcolorcontrol(e.g.,chiliwithmeat,meatballs,patties,etc.)
Textured 65 Waterandfatabsorption,textureandflavor(e.g.,chiliwithmeat,meatballs,meat
bits,stews,etc.)
Proteinconcentrate e
6590 Proteinsolvation,waterabsorption,andbinding,gelation,cohesion-adhesion,
emulsification,fatabsorptionandflavorbinding(e.g.,frankfurters,ham,poultry
breast,stews,etc.)
Proteinisolate >90 Proteinsolvation,viscosity,gelation,cohesion-adhesion,elasticity,fatabsorption,
flavorbinding,andcolorcontrol(e.g.,Bolognas,frankfurters,miscellaneoussau-
sages,chiliwithmeat,meatballs,patties,ham,etc.)
AdaptedfromBelloque,J.,Garcia,M.C.,Torre,M.,Marina,M.L.,2002.Analysisofsoyabeanproteinsinmeatproducts:areview.CriticalReviewsin
FoodScienceandNutrition42(5),507532.e
“
TheUnitedStatesDept.ofAgriculture(USDA)hasdenedtexturizedvegetableproteinproductsasfoodproductsmade
fi
fromedibleproteinsourcesandcharacterizedbystructuralintegrityandidentiablestructuresuchthateachunitwill
fi
”
withstandhydration,cooking,andotherproceduresusedinpreparingthefoodforconsumption( Asgaretal.,2010).Flaked
texturizedvegetableproteinisheavilyusedinmeatproductssuchasburgers,patties,piesandsalamitoimitateleanmeatby
substitutingmeatwithhydrated fl akesoftexturedvegetableprotein.Thedriedandfrequentlycolored akesareusually
fl
soakedwithwaterinratioofaround1:3(onepartofakestothreepartsofwater)andthenaddedtothemeatproductmostly
fl
fl “ ”
duringthemixingprocess.Thesehydratedakescanhardlybedifferentiatedfromrealmeatinthenishedproductandthis
fi
e
additioninmostcasesisforcost-reduction,giventhatatexturizedvegetableproteinwatermixislesscostlythanmuscle
proteinand,subsequently,canreducethecostofmeatproducts( Feiner,2006b;Asgaretal.,2010 ).
Soyourisusedasllerandextenderinmeatproducttoimprovethewater-bindingcapacity(Petraccietal.,2013).In
fl fi
coarselychoppedmeats,suchasmeatpatties,sausages,chili,Salisburysteaksandmeatsauces,texturizedsoyprotein
concentratesandsoy fl oursarethepreferredingredientstoobtainthedesiredtexture.Soyisolatesarealsousedin
meatballs,groundmeat,bolognasandfrankfurterstoimprovethetextureandquality(Asgaretal.,2010).
Asanalternativetosoybean,proteinsobtainedfrompeashavegainedacertaininterestduringthepastfewyears.Pea
proteinisolatesaresolubleproteinsusedinprocessedmeatsystemsfortheirgoodgelation,emulsication,water-binding
fi
andtexturizingproperties(EgbertandPayne,2009;Tulbeketal.,2017).Currentresearchindicatesthatpeaprotein
productstendtoexhibitweakergelstrength,viscosityandtexturecomparedtoegg,soy,andmeatprotein.However,new
extractionanddryingtechnologiescouldbeproposedtoimprovethefunctionalattributesofpeaproteins.Peasandpea
ingredientscanbeusedinmeatapplicationsinseveralformsbasedonformulation,technologyandregulatorycompliance.
Peaproteinsandourscanbindwaterandfattogeneratermtextureafterthermalprocessduetotheiramylasecontent,
fl fi
starchretrogradation,gelformationandproteingelationproperties(Tulbeketal.,2017).
Ascategorizedinthesourcesofproteins,anotherclassofproteinswhichexhibitssimilarpropertiesasleguminous
proteinsarecerealproteins,amongwhichwheatproteinshavethestructural,emulsication,andwater-bindingproperties.
fi
However,intherecentyears,wheatglutenisnothighlyusedinthemeatindustryasotherplantproteinspartiallyduetoits
nutritionalinadequaciescomparedtootherproteinsandincreasingceliacconcerns.Studieshavebeenconductedusing
wheatgluteninbologna-typeproducts,meatbatters,andrestructuredbeefsteaks,inwhichmostofthestudiesdemon-
stratednocompellingreasontousewheatglutenintheseproducts.Glutenhasfoundmorewidespreaduseincoarse
groundmeatapplicationsintheformoftexturizedpiecesthatmimicmeatandisextensivelyusedincombinationwithsoy
proteintoproducemeatanalogs.Itactstogivetexturedproteinpiecesameat-likebitecharacteristic.Similarly,powdered
vitalglutencanalsohelpformthechewymatrixnecessarytoreplacemeateatingcharacteristics.Thisistruewhenrmness fi
ofaproductisneededwhilereplacingleanmeatinaproductformulation(EgbertandPayne,2009).
Thesedesirablefunctionalpropertieslikewaterandfatbindingandemulsicationarealsofoundinoilseedproteins
fi
whichformthethirdclassofvegetableproteins.Moreover,thefunctionalpropertiesofsunowerproteinproductshave
fl
beenreportedtobecomparabletothoseofsoybeanourindicatingthepotentialoftheseproductsforuseinavarietyof
fl
foodproducts.Sunowermealabsorbed107%waterand205%fat,withstrongemulsicationproperties.Studiesonthe
fl fi
TABLE3.8 EstimationofLifecycleCarbonEmissionandWaterandEcologicalFootprintofSoyIsolate

2
Product (gCO/kgProtein)
2 (l/kgProtein) (m/kgProtein) References
Soyisolate 2.4 Notavailable Notavailable Braunetal.(2016)
1e
7 kg e
38205 e
68 Thraneetal.(2016)
functionalpropertiesofpeanutproteinsindicatedthattheyhaveastrongcapacitytowardwaterabsorption,fatabsorption
andemulsication.Also,safowerproteinswerefoundtohavefatbindingandemulsicationpropertiesthatareequivalent
fi fl fi
tosoybeanproteins.Butthesepropertiesofcanolaproteinswerefoundtobeadequatebutnotcomparabletosoybean
proteins(Asgaretal.,2010).Increasingresearchontheusageoftheseproductsshouldbedirectedatproductspecic fi
applications.
Theavailabilityanduseofplantproteinsshouldcontinuetogrowinthefutureastheworldpopulationgrowsandbecomes
moreprosperousandtheirmeatconsumptionpatternsincrease.Withanever-increasingdemandforanimalproteins,there
willbeagreaterneedforplantproteinsto fi llthegapbetweentheglobalanimalproteinproductioncapabilitiesand
demandforprotein-basedfoodproducts(EgbertandPayne,2009).Somepreliminarystudiesareavailabletoassess
environmentalimpactofmostcommonplantproteinsusedinfoodsectorsuchasthosederivedfromsoybean(Table3.8).
Apartfromenvironmentalissues,soyproteinwas,andstillis,oneofthefoodsubstancesatthecenterofthedebateon
geneticallymodiedorganisms(GMOs)andleadingproducersofsoyproteinhavestrictqualitycontrolmeasurementsin
fi
placetoguaranteethattheyareproducingnon-GMOproducts.Whereasmanycountriesarecomfortablewiththeuseof
geneticallymodiedsoy,others,suchasEuropeandAustralia,showgreatresistancetowardgeneticallymodiedsoy
fi fi
protein(Feiner,2006b).
Duetothisissue,peaproteinsarepopularinEuropebecausetheyarecurrentlyproducedfromnon-GMOs.Thanksto
thegrowingproductionsustainability,lowcarbonfootprint,non-GMO,allergen-free,cleanlabel,andsingle-ingredient
trendsintheglobalmarketplace,peasandpeaingredientsarebecomingmajoralternativeingredients,whichpresent
opportunitiesforvalueadditioninthefoodindustry.Taste,avor,andoverallsensoryattributesaretheleadingchallenges
fl
forrestrictingpeaingredientsuseinmajorfoodapplicationsandinmeatproductsastheydetrimentallyinuenceprocessed
fl
meatsensoryattributes.Thus,useofpeaproteinisolate,de-avoredandthermallystabilizedpulseingredientscanbe
fl
suggestedasalternativeingredients.Stabilizedpeaingredients,suchasdeavoredoursandpeaproteinsisolates,contain
fl fl
nolipoxygenaseenzymewhichcannegativelyaffectprocessedmeatquality(Tulbeketal.,2017).Growingeffortsfor
improvedtasteandavor,enhancedproteincontentandquality,reducedenergyuse,increasedyieldattributeswillbethe
fl
targetsforthefutureresearchofpeas.Moreover,potatoproteinsarerelativelynewtothefoodprocessingindustryandare
stillintheearlycommercializationprocessinEurope.
3.7HYDROCOLLOIDS(GUMS)ANDVEGETABLEFIBERS
Hydrocolloidshavebeentraditionallyusedsincemanyyearsinthemeatindustryduetotheirpropertiesofformingviscous
dispersions(thickeningfunction)andselectiveabilitytoform(reversibleorirreversible)gelswhendispersedinwater
(gellingability)(Feiner,2006a).Hydrocolloids,alsoknownasgums,aresubstancesthatformcolloidalsystemswhen
dispersedinwater.Withtheincreasedinterestinthebenecialhealthpropertiesofdietarybers,especiallyobtainedfrom
fi fi
vegetablebyproducts,(soluble/insoluble fi berfractionsobtainedbyminimallyprocessedvegetable,fruit,andcereals
materials),thevisionoffoodhydrocolloidshasprofoundlychanged(Hotchkiss,2015).Nearlyallfoodhydrocolloids
wouldqualifyasdietarybersaccordingitsmoderndenition(Viebkeetal.,2014).Asaconsequence,untilafewyears
fi fi
ago,hydrocolloidsand fi bershavebeenviewedasdistinctcompounds,althoughwithmanycommunalitiesinfunction-
ality;withthedrivetowardnaturalnessandlessprocessedfoodingredientsthereisanincreasedoverlappinguseinmeat
industry(Hotchkiss,2015;Romanetal.,2017).Forthisreason,hydrocolloidsandbershavebeenconsideredtogetherin
fi
thischapter(Table3.9).
TABLE3.9 OriginsandFunctionalPropertiesofMainHydrocolloidsandFoodFibersUsedinMeatProcessing
Agent MainFunctions
HydrocolloidsObtainedFromPlants(Fragments)
Carboxymethylcellulose(E466) Usedasthickener(highlyviscoussolution)infinelymincedproducts
Konjac(E425) Usedincombinationswithstarchesandvegetableproteinswithreduced/low-fatmeatappli-
cationsasthickener(highlyviscoussolution)
Pectins(E440) Usedasboththickenerandgellingagents.Pectinsformathermo-reversiblegeloncooling
andareusedforreadymealscontainingmeatasingredients
HydrocolloidsObtainedFromSeaweeds(CellWalls)
Agar(E406) Agarformsathermo-reversiblegeloncoolinghighlysensibletosyneresis.Mainlyusedin
retortedmeatproducts
Alginate(E401-402) Alginateformsathermo-stablecold-settinggelsinthepresenceofcalciumions.Mainly
Technofunctional Ingredients for Meat Products: Current Challenges Chapter | 3

usedforcoldmeatbinding,fatemulsionsorasmeatextender
Carrageenans(kappaandiotaforms,E407) Carrageenansformthermo-reversiblegelsoncoolingandareincludedininjected,
tumbledandemulsifiedmeatproductsasgellingagentformedium(20%40%)tohighe
e
(60%100%)extensionandalsoasmeatorfatreplacer
HydrocolloidsObtainedFromSeeds(Flours)
Guargum(E412) Usedasthickenerinthemanufacturingofsausageproductsandstuffedmeatproductsin
conjunctionwithotheringredients(starches,vegetablefibers,etc.)
Carrob/locustbeangum(E410) Ownboththickeningandgellingproperties,inmeatsectormainlyusedforitssynergistic
behaviorwithk-carrageenanstoincreasegelelasticityandresistancetosyneresis
HydrocolloidsObtainedUsingMicroorganisms(Fermentations)
Xanthangum(E415) Foritsthickenerproperties,itisgenerallyusedinfatreplacementapplicationsandas
adjuncttoincreasebrineviscositytoavoidstarchprecipitation
FoodFibersObtainedFromVegetableByproducts(NoENumber)
Fibersconsistingofalmostinsoluble( >80%)fiberfractions(bamboo,wheat,oat, Foodfibersmainlycontaininginsolublefractions(cellulose,hemicellulosesandlignin)are
etc.) abletocreateathree-dimensionalnetworkwheremoistureisbound,sotheycanbeusedas
thickenersinrestructured,coarse/groundoremulsifiedmeatproducts
Fiberscontainingamixofinsoluble(70%)andsoluble(20%)fiberfractions
< < Foodfibersmainlycontainingalsosolublefractions(gums,pectinsandmucilages)impart
(pea,carrot,potato,citrus,sugarbeet,etc.) coldswellingabilitywithoverallhigherwateradsorptioncapability.Thesefibersaremainly
usedinrestructured,coarse/groundoremulsifiedmeatproducts
RefinedSolubleFoodFibers(NoENumber)
Inulin Inulinisafructan-typepolysaccharideandmainlyextractedfromrootsortubersofthefam-
ilyofplantsknownas Compositae (i.e.,chicoryandlettuce)anditisabletoformthermo-
reversiblegeloncooling.Mainlyusedasfatreplacerincomminutedandemulsifiedmeatproducts
Psyllium Psylliumisasmucilagegumsandcanbeusedasthickenersbecauseofitsabilitytoswells
andformsamucilaginousdispersionwithgel-likeproperties
61
AdaptedFromFeiner,G.,2006a.Additives:phosphates,salts(sodiumchlorideandpotassiumchloride,citrate,lactate)andhydrocolloids.In:MeatProductsHandbook-PracticalScienceandTechnology.
e
WoodheadPublishing,Duxford,pp.7288;Saha,D.,Bhattacharya,S.,2010.Hydrocolloidsasthickeningandgellingagentsinfood:acriticalreview.JournalofFoodScienceandTechnology47(6),
e
587597;Petracci,M.,Bianchi,M.,Mudalal,S.,Cavani,C.,2013.Functionalingredientsforpoultrymeatproducts.TrendsinFoodScienceandTechnology33(1),2739. e
Hydrocolloidsareclassiedinfoodadditivesasgellingandthickeningagentsandfulllseveralfunctionsinmeat
fi fi
productsalongwithreductionincookinglossandtherebyassistinginincreasingyield.Inaddition,formationofgelassists
inobtainingtextureinameatproductandresistsagainstsyneresisinthe fi nishedproduct( Feiner,2006a).Theyare
<
generallyaddedatverylowdosage(1%)becauseoftheirhighmolecularweightandtechnologicalfunctionalityand
moreoverawiderangeofgelswithdifferenttextures(i.e.,soft,elastic,veryrm,andbrittles)canbepreparedbyselecting
fi
differenttypesofgumsandbyvaryinggelationconditions.
Manyhydrocolloidsareavailableinthemarket,butcarrageenansandalginatesarethemostcommonlyusedinmeat
productformulations.Thehydrocolloidchosenformeatprocessingisbasedontheattributesdesiredinthe nished
fi
productandprocessingcapabilities,aswellasdistribution,holding,andreconstitutionrequirements.Forexample,in
whole-muscleproductshydrocolloidapplicationsaregenerallydirectedatattemptingtoretainmoistureand/orimprove
yield,reducedriploss,andtoprotectagainstfreeze/thawconditionsinwhichtheformationoficecrystalscanleadto
greaterweepingandthedestructionofthemuscletissue.Carrageenansareoneoftheprimaryhydrocolloidsusedbythe
processedmeatsindustrymainlyinthemanufactureofcomminutedproducts,butalsoworkwellinreformedmeat
productswhenitisinjectedviathebrineduringmeatpumping(McArdleetal.,2011).
Theuseoffoodbersinthemeatsectorastechnofunctionalingredientsinadditiontonutritionalenrichmentpurposes
fi
isnewandrepresentsapromisingtrend.Fibershavemultifunctionalproperties:enhancewater-holdingcapacity,modulate
texturebyviscosityandgel-formingabilities,stabilizefatinemulsiedproducts,exertafatmimeticbehaviorinreduced-
fi
fatproducts,etc.Varioustypesofbershavebeenstudiedsinglyorincombinationwithotheringredientstoformulate
fi
reduced-fatmeatproducts,coarsegroundandrestructuredproducts,andmeatemulsions(BodnerandSieg,2009;Kimand
Paik,2012;Mehtaetal.,2015).Thefunctionalpropertiesof fi bersprimarilydependontheirwatersolubility.Insoluble
fiber-richproductsaremainlyderivedfromcerealsandbamboo,whilefruits,vegetables,andlegumesarericherinsoluble
fibers.Therearealsorenedfoodfi fi bersavailablewhichareverysolubleandareclassiedaseitheradditives(i.e.,
fi
carboxymethylcellulose)oringredients(i.e.,inulinandpsyllium).Otherthantheplantorigin,botanicalpartutilizedto
extractthebers(i.e.,peahuskvs.peainnerpart),physicalstatusofbersparticles(i.e.,berlengthorberexpansion),
fi fi fi fi “ ”
andextractiontechnologyplayanimportantroleindeningspecictechnofunctionalproperties.Therefore,eachcom-
fi fi
mercialproducthasuptosomeextentaspecialfunctionalbehavior,andsoislessaccessibletonddifferentcommercial
fi
productswiththesamengerprintoffunctionalproperties.Inaddition,asonesinglebersourceisnotabletoprovideall
fi fi
possiblefeatures,thereisprogressivedevelopmentofcommercialsolutionsenablingtocombinetheuniquecharacteristics
ofsingle fi bers( BodnerandSieg,2009;Petraccietal.,2013).
Therearenotspecialsustainabilityissuesconcerningtheuseofhydrocolloidsandfood fi bersinmeatsectorbecause
overalltheyareobtainedbydifferentsourceswhichalsoincludebyproductsandrenewablematerials.Indeed,inour
knowledgetherearenotpublisheddataonenvironmentalimpactofthesecategoriesofingredients.However,asforall
foodadditives,somehydrocolloidscansufferfromnegativeconnotationstowardconsumerseveniftheyareincludedin
verylowpercentage.
Thedemandforfoodhydrocolloidshasrisensignicantly,partlyinresponsetotherapidexpansionintheconvenience
fi
foodsandreadymealssector,butmostlyasaresponsetotheriseinconsumerawarenessandgrowingdemandformore
healthyfoods.Hydrocolloidsprovidefunctionalsolutionsthatallowthereductionandreplacementoffat,sugar,andsalt
(sodium).Asforotherfoodadditives,amonghydrocolloidsthosewithmorefamiliarconnotations(pectinvs.carrageenans),
thosenotcontainingallergens,etc.arepreferredandtheiroveralluseisusuallyavoidedinhigh-qualityandclean-label
products(McArdleetal.,2011).However,asgellingandthickeningagents,hydrocolloidsareclassiedasfoodadditives
fi
evenincaseslikeguargumwhichisextractedfromseedsessentiallybyamechanicalmeans.Therefore,duetoincreasing
“ ”
marketingrequestsforclean-labelformulations,thereisanemergenceintheuseofclean-labelfunctionalfoodberswhich fi
offersignicanttextureandnutritionalfunctionalitytothemeatindustry(
fi Hotchkiss,2015).Inaddition,bersareprotably
fi fi
usedtoimprovehealthyperceptionandnutritionalvaluesthroughberenrichmentandfatreduction(
fi Talukder,2015).
3.8ANIMALPROTEINS
Numeroustypesofanimalproteinsderivedfromanimals(meat,skin,andblood)orfromtheirproducts(eggandmilk)
areavailableinthemarketasfunctionalingredientsformeatproductsfortheirtechnologicalandsensorialproperties
TABLE3.10 DairyProteinsandMainApplicationsinMeatProducts
ProteinIngredient PrincipalFunctionalPropertiesandMainApplications
Non-fatmilksolid Texturization,flavor,emulsification(allmeatproducts)
Wheyproteinconcentratesorisolates Waterbinding,gelation,inhibitingpinkcolor(injectedmeats)
Pre-heatedwheyproteinconcentratesor Gelation,Texturization(sausage,emulsion-typemeats)
isolates
Texturizedwheyproteinconcentratesor Texturization,emulsification(sausage,emulsion-typemeats)
isolates
Sodiumcaseinate Emulsification,texturization,meatbinding(sausage,emulsion-typemeats)
Partiallyhydrolyzedcaseinate Emulsification,texturization,waterbinding(sausage,emulsion-typemeats,
gravies)
AdaptedFromXiongY.L.,2009.Dairyproteins.In:Tarte´,R.(Ed.),IngredientsinMeatProducts.Springer,NewYork,pp.131144. e
(Petraccietal.,2013).Asmentionedbefore,descriptionsofingredientsderivedbytheutilizationofbyproductsandwaste
materialsfromanimalslaughteringareincludedinChapters4and8,soonlydairyandeggproteinsaredescribedinthe
presentparagraph.Inaddition,theuseofproteinsderivedfromedibleinsectsarediscussedaspromisingmarkettrend.
Dairyproteinsaregenerallydividedintotwogroups:caseinsandwheyproteins.Wheyandwheyproteinsthatareused
inprocessedmeatsincludesweetwhey,reduced-lactosewhey,demineralizedwhey,wheyproteinconcentrates,and
isolates.Texturizedwheyproteinscanbeusedasmeatextenders,whereashydrated,texturizedwheyproteinscanbeused
toreplaceupto40%oftheweightofhamburgerpattieswithoutaffectingconsumeracceptanceoftheproduct.Becauseof
theirstructuraldifferences,dairyproteinsorprotein-derivedingredientsusuallyhavedifferentpredominantfunctionalities
(Table3.10)(Xiong,2009).
Bothcaseinsandwheyproteinshavebeenusedcommerciallyincomminutedandemulsiedmeatssuchasfrankfurtersand
fi
bologna-type,andincoarsegroundproducts,suchasfreshsausage,meatpatties,andmeatballs.Thesedairyproteiningredients
areusedtoimprovemoistureretention,fatbinding,andtexturalcharacteristicsofcookedmeats.Whenusedinrestructured
products,includingavarietyofbonelesshamandchickenrolls,theseexogenousproteinscanimprovethebindingstrength,
firmnessandsliceability.Inadditiontotheirtexture-relatedfunctionality,milkproteinsshowantioxidantactivityincooked
meatsprobablycausedbytheformationofantioxidantMaillardreactionproducts,thatoccurbecauseofacondensationreaction
betweenaminoacids(orproteins)andreducingsugars(i.e.,lactosepresentinwheyproteinconcentrate)( Xiong,2009).Casein
andwheyproteinsaredistinguishedbytheirinsolubilityofcaseinatitsisoelectricpoint(pH4.6).Thewheyfractionremaining
followingcaseinseparationcontainssolubleproteinswhichmaybeconcentratedbyultraltrationproducingarangeofwhey
fi
’
proteinconcentrateswithproteincontentsrangingtypicallyfrom35%to80%( OGradyandKerry,2010 ).Mostcommonly,
wheyproteinconcentratesofaround35%proteinareusedinmeatproducts( Feiner,2006b).
Themostimportantfunctionalpropertiesofwheyproteinsinmeatapplicationsare:solubility,waterbindingand
viscosity,emulsication,adhesion,gelation,andorganolepticcharacteristics(Prabhu,2006).Wheyproteinconcentrates
fi
e
areeasytouseininjectionbrinesastheyarehighlysolubleovertheentirepHrange(pH210),withlowviscosityatthe
sametime(Feiner,2006b).Inmeatproducts,thewater-bindingpropertyofwheyproteinscontributestothetextureofthe
meatproductreducingcookinglossesandcontributingtothejuicinessormoistnessofthenalproduct.Theemulsication
fi fi
propertiesofwheyproteinscanbeveryusefulinemulsiedproductssuchashotdogsandbologna-typeproductsto
fi
improvestability,especiallywhenlowqualitymeatisused,ortoreplaceexpensiveleanmeat(Prabhu,2006).Theability
ofwheyproteintogelandthetemperatureatwhichthistakesplacearelargelydeterminedbytemperaturesappliedduring
manufacturingofthewheyproteinitselfandonthepHlevelsandsaltconcentrationwithinameatproduct.Intheirpure
form,wheyproteinsareveryblandin fl avor,generallyequivalenttothatofmeatanditalsomatchesthelightcolorof
poultrymeat.WheyproteinisalsoreasonablystableagainstvaryingpHvaluesinmeatproducts(Feiner,2006b).Whey
proteinconcentratehastheabilitytoformheat-inducedthree-dimensionalgelstructureswithincreasedwater-holding
’
capacityandpotentialtexturemodifyingproperties(OGradyandKerry,2010).
Caseinateisproducedfromdefattedmilkanddemonstratesexcellentfatemulsicationpropertiesbutquitelimited
fi
water-holdingcapacity.Toimproveitswater-bindingability,caseinsaresometimessubjectedtolimitedhydrolysis
beforeadditiontomeats.Meatbatterscontaininghydrolyzedcaseinsalsoexhibitimprovedtexturalcharacteristics

(Feiner,2006b;Xiong,2009).Theproteincontentofcaseinateisaround90%andisfullydenaturedataround110115C. e
Ingeneral,theavorofcaseinatemimicstheavorofmeatveryeffectively.Thedisadvantageofcaseinate,however,is
fl fl
thatitisrelativelyexpensive(Feiner,2006b).Sodiumcaseinatehastheabilitytoimprovethequalityofsausagesandother
emulsiedmeatproductsbybindingfatandwater,andtherebyincreasingyieldandreducingshrinkage,whilecontributing
fi
high-qualityprotein(JolyandAnderstain,2009).
Eggswhichareknowntohavemanyfunctionalpropertiessuchasfoaming,emulsifyingandauniquecolorandavor, fl
areimportantinseveralfoodproducts(Abeyrathneetal.,2013).Liquidfulleggconsistsofaround65%eggwhiteand
35%eggyolk;andeggwhitecontainsaround11%protein.Eggalbumenispreferredovereggyolkasingredientinmeat
productsforitsgellingabilityowingtoitslowerlipidcontentaswellasbeingcolorlessandmilderinavor.Eggalbumen
fl

canformathermallyirreversiblegelevenattemperaturesaround60Clowerthanthoseusuallyusedformeatcookingat
e
industriallevel(7072C).Itisbasicallyusedtoimprovewater-holdingcapacityandgelstrengthof nelyminced
fi
productsthuspositivelycontributingtothe fi rmnessoflow-costemulsiedproducts(
fi Feiner,2006b;Mine,2015).
Recently,theintroductionofrestrictivelegislationinmanycountriesregardingfoodwastetreatmentandthepossibilityof
takingadvantageoftheinterestingpropertiesofwheycomponentshavecontributedtotheconsiderationofwheyasa
valuableandprizedrawmaterialinsteadofawaste.However,therearealsosomeavailableevaluationsontheirenvi-
ronmentalimpact(Table3.11)whichshowhighervaluesifcomparedwithplantproteins(seedatareportedinTable3.8).
InEUcountriesaswellascountriesfrommostotherpartsoftheworld,milkproteins,caseins,andcaseinatesarenot
consideredfoodadditives.Therefore,theirusageinmusclefoodisessentiallyunregulated.However,intheUnitedStates,
wherediaryproteinsintendedformeatproductsareusedprimarilyasbinders,extenders,andwaterbinders,specic fi
regulationsareestablishedtocontroltheirlevelofapplication.
Milkandeggallergiestogetherwithwheatarethemostcommonallergens,sodairyandeggproteinsmustbeidentied fi
intheproductlabelwhenusedasadeliberateingredientinanyprepackedfoodproduct(Xiong,2009).However,aspartof
“ ”
theclean-labelinitiative,companiesarealsomakingitapointtoemphasizeallergen-freeclaims(i.e.,lactosefree)
(Asiolietal.,2017).Thus,currentlycompaniesaremotivatedtodevelopallergen-freemeatproducts,andforthisreason
useofdairyproteinsandeggalbumenisdecreasingespeciallyinhigh-qualityproducts.
Besidesthesemarkettrendsintheuseofconventionalanimalproteins,todaythereisanincreasingintereston
alternativeandmoresustainablesources.Indeed,amonganimal-derivedproteins,edibleinsectsarereceivedgrowing
interestasasustainableproteinsourcemainlybecauseoftheirenvironmentalandnutritionaladvantages(Alexanderetal.,
2017;Megidoetal.,2016;Kimetal.,2016b).
Besidesthepositiveeffectsontheenvironment,edibleinsectsarealsoconsideredavaluablefoodproductwithan
adequatenutritionalcomposition(Schoutetenetal.,2016).Theproteincontentandaminoacidcompositionofmostedible
’
insectsislikethatofconventionalmeatproducts.Thequalityofinsectsproteiniscomparabletosoybeanandbeef,is
muchhigherthanwheat fl our,andloweronlyifcomparedwithcaseinandeggwhite.Limitingaminoacidsinmany
incompleteplantproteins,suchaslysineinwheatproteinandmethionineinsoyprotein,areinhigherconcentrationin
yellowmealwormprotein.Insectscontainmoremono-andpoly-unsaturatedfattyacidsthanconventionalmeatbutarelow
incalciumbecausetheydonothaveaninternalskeleton.Severalspeciesarerichinmostotherminerals,suchascopper,
magnesium,manganese,phosphorous,selenium,iron,andzinc.EdibleinsectsarealsoagoodsourceofBvitamins,but
notofvitaminA(vanHuis,2017).
SeveralfoodproductscontainingedibleinsectshavebeenlaunchedinEurope,however,littleiscurrentlyknownabout
howconsumersevaluateandexperiencesuchproducts(Schoutetenetal.,2016;vanHuis,2017).Asurveyonento-
mophagyperceptionandhedonictestswererealizedtoassessthelevelofsensory-likingofhybridinsect-basedburgers
(beef,lentils,mealwormsandbeef, Tenebriomolitor mealwormsandlentils)demonstratedthatinsectintegrationinto
TABLE3.11 EstimationofLifecycleCarbonEmission,WaterandEcologicalFootprintofWheyProteins

2
Product (gCO/kgProtein)
2 (l/kgProtein) (m/kgProtein) References
Wheyproteins e
1520 e
32203 e
1219 Thraneetal.(2016)
e
3641 Notavailable Notavailable Bacenettietal.(2018)
Westernfoodculturewillinvolveatransitionalphasewithmincedorpowderedinsectsincorporatedintoready-to-eat
“ ”
preparations,aspeoplearenotyetreadytoaddinsectstotheirdietsinwholeform(Megidoetal.,2016).Recently,itwas
investigatedtheoverallliking,perceivedquality,nutritivevalue,theemotionalandsensoryprofilingofthreecommercially
availableburgers(insect-based,plant-based,andmeat-based),underblind,expected,andinformedconditions(Schouteten
etal.,2016).Thendingsofthisstudyrevealedthatalthoughtheoveralllikingfortheinsectburgerwascomparabletothe
fi
likingfortheplant-basedburger,furtherproductdevelopmentisneededtoimproveitssensoryquality.
TherearealreadysignsthatconsumersattitudesindevelopedcountriessuchastheUnitedStatesandtheUnited
Kingdommaybestartingtochange,andtheremaybelessofabarriertoincludinginsect-derivedmaterialsinother
products,forexampleinpowderedform.However,insomejurisdictions,therearelegalbarriers;forexample,withinthe
EuropeanUnion,regulationsonnovelfoodandthelegalstatusofinsect-basedfoodsmeansthatinsectscannotbepro-
cessedandmustbemarketedaswhole(Alexanderetal.,2017).In2015,theEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthorityaddressed
thisissue,andmadeariskproletoidentifythepotentialbiologicalandchemicalhazards,aswellasallergenicityand
fi
environmentalhazardsassociatedwiththeuseoffarmedinsectsasfoodandfeed(EFSA,2015).
Besidescurrentlegislationandconsumerperceptionbarriers,edibleinsectproteinshavebeenalreadytestedasa
functionalingredientforprovidingtechnologicalbenetssuchasemulsioncapacity,gel-formingabilityandwater/oil
fi
absorptionability.Indeed,theinclusionofinsectoursinnelycomminutedporksausageshasbeenevaluatedanditwas
fl fi
concludedthatedibleinsectproteinscanbepracticallyutilizedasanonmeatfoodingredientwithoutcompromisingthe
nutritionalandtechnologicalpropertiesoftheproducts(Kimetal.,2016b).Thus,itwouldbereasonabletopredictthat
sooninsectproteinswillbeusedasanovelproteinsourcetopartiallysubstitutemeatinprocessedproducts.
3.9CONCLUSIONS
Thetechnofunctionalingredientssectorisalwayscontinuallyevolvinginrelationtothenewneedsofindustryandsociety.
However,novelconceptsarecrucialtodrivefoodinnovationsinthedirectionthatalsoaccountsfornon-technicalissues,
suchashealthandsustainability.Currently,innovationsinthemeatprocessingsectoraredemandinghighersocialre-
sponsibilitiesandenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts.Forthisreason,eveniftheeffectofingredientsonenvironmental
issuesappearslimited,atleastinthecontextofmeat,itisforeseenthatsoontherewillbeaspasmodicsearchfornew
ingredientsandresourcesandtechnologicalsolutionsforproductionabletosatisfythisdemand.Additionalchallengesfor
meatindustryaretoaddressconsumerdemandforhealthiermeatproducts(i.e.,lowsodium)andmeetthesoclean-label
trend(i.e.,freefromsyntheticadditives,allergens,GMOs).Inthisunstablecontext,however,theknow-howconcerning
themeatmatrixandthemechanismofactionoftheindividualingredientsisevenmorecrucial.
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Approach Description Issues

Powerultrasound Partialmicrobialinactivationandincreaseinperceived limitedknowledge

CommonName Abbreviation Formula pH(1%Solution) Solubility(g/100gHO)at20C

l sodiumhexametaphosphate SHMP (NaPO)nn

CommonNames Formulas pH(1%Solution) Solubility(g/100gHO)at20C

Waxy Cereal Roundpolygonal e

CarbonFootprint WaterFootprint EcologicalFootprint

Notavailable Notavailable 7 CollinsandFairchild(2007)

1,130 Notavailable Notavailable MichaelowaandDransfeld(2008)

576 Notavailable Notavailable XuandLan(2016)

Starch(tapioca) 594 Notavailable Notavailable UsubharatanaandPhungrassami

Pregelatinization Spray drying

Thermal treatment Extrusion

Pulsed electric field

LEGUMINOUS CEREAL OIL SEED

CarbonFootprint WaterFootprint EcologicalFootprint

Technofunctional Ingredients for Meat Products: Current Challenges Chapter | 3

CarbonFootprint WaterFootprint EcologicalFootprint

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