SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS

The Freud Psychosexual Stages Of Development

Oral Stage (0 – 1 year old)

A child derives pleasure from oral activities, such as sucking and tasting. Successful
fulfillment of the child’s feeding needs and proper weaning may result in the
establishment of trust. Too much or too little gratification can bring about an oral
fixation for the adult individual. This is represented by a preoccupation with oral
activities such as drinking alcohol, smoking, over eating, or nail biting.

Anal Stage (2 – 3 years old)

The main source of gratification at this stage is the ability to control bladder
movement and the elimination or retention of feces. A positive and appropriate
experience revolving around potty training can encourage competence, creativity and
productivity in individuals. Contrarily, anal fixations can translate into obsession with
perfection, extreme cleanliness, and control or the opposite which is messiness and
disorganization in adulthood.

Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years old)

At this Freud psychosexual stage, the focus of pleasure is the genitals. Boys start to
perceive their father as rivals for their mother’s affections, while girls feel similarly
towards their mother. Fear of punishment can lead to repression of feelings felt toward
the opposite sex parent. Fixation at this stage may bring about sexual deviancy or
weak sexual identity.

Latency Period (6 years to puberty)

At this stage, sexual urges are usually repressed and the individual spends most of
his/her time interacting with same sex peers, engaging in hobbies and acquiring skills.

Genital Stage (Puberty onward)

The focus at this Freud psychosexual stage is on the sexual urges that are reawakened
and are directed toward opposite sex peers, with genitals as the primary source of
pleasure. Individuals who completed the earlier stages successfully become well-
adjusted, caring and secure individuals.
Erikson's Stage Of Psychosocial Development

Trust vs. Mistrust

The trust versus mistrust stage is the first stage of psychologist Erik Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development, which occurs between birth and approximately 18
months of age. According to Erikson, the trust versus mistrust stage is the most
important period in a person’s life because it shapes our view of the world, as well as
our personalities.1 Erikson's psychosocial development theory has seven other stages
that span throughout a person's lifetime

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages
of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to
around age 2 or 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on
developing a greater sense of self-control.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of 3 and
5. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and
control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development, which happens after the third stage of initiative versus guilt. The stage
occurs during childhood between the ages of approximately six and eleven.

Identity vs. Role Diffusion

Identity versus diffusion is the fifth stage of ego according to psychologist Erik
Erikson'stheory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs during adolescence
between the ages of approximately 12 and 18. During this stage, adolescents explore
their independence and develop a sense of self.

Intimacy versus Isolation

The sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage
takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success at this stage leads to fulfilling relationships.
Failure, on the other hand, can result in feelings of loneliness and Isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood between
the ages of approximately 40 and 65.

Integrity vs. Despair

Integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’stage theory
of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at
death. Psychologists, counselors, and nurses today use the concepts of Erikson's
stages when providing care for aging patients.

Moral Development

If we are to related the effectiveness with other people in our environment, we must
make judgments about what is right and what is wrong. These judgments change with
age.

Piaget's Framework of Moral Reasoning

 Piaget loved to observed children as they reacted to their environment. He

concluded that there are general types of moral thinking:

1. Moral of constrait

 Moral realism

 Define what is right and what is wrong and come from external authority.

2. Morality of cooperation

 Older children practice the morality of cooperation, alternatively called moral

relativism or moral flexibility. The older child is a relativist; rules are not
"carved on stone".

 A hallmark of cognitive development is decentration.

 Rules should be obeyed not just because some "authority" has established
them, but because they guard against violation of the rights of others.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning

 Laurence Kohlberg, during his graduate studies, became fascinated with

Piaget's views on moral development.
 The stories Kohlberg created have become well known as "moral dilemmas".

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level I.

Preconventional Morality (birth-9 years)

 Refers to judgments made before children understand the conventions of

society.
 Children at this level base their reasoning base on:

Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Level

 Also known as "Obedience and punishment orientation".

 The child behaves in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental Exchange Orientation

 Also known as "Naively egoistic orientation".

 They will do good to another person if they expect the other person to
reciprocate or return the favor.

Level II.

Conventional Morality (9 years-young adulthood)

 Refers to judgments based on the rules or conventions of society; behaviors

that maintain the social order are considered good behaviors.
 The reasoning at this level is based on a desire to impress others.
 Peer relationships become very important during this period.

Stage 3: Interpersonal Conformity Orientation

 Also known as "Good-boy/Good-girl orientation".

 In order to create and maintain good relationships with other people, it is
important to conform to their expectations of good behavior.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

 Also known as "Authority-and-social-order maintaining orientation".

 The convention of society have been established so that society can function.
Laws are necessary and, therefore, good.
 The moral person is one who follows the laws of a society without questioning
them.

Level III.

Postconventional Morality (Adulthood)

 Typified by judgments that recognize the societal need for mutual agreement
and the application of consistent principles in judgments.
 Through careful thought and reflection, the postconventional thinker arrives at
a self-determined set of principles or morality.

Stage 5: Prior Rights and Social Contract Orientation

 Also known as "Contractual-legalistic orientation".

 At this stage, laws are open to evaluate. A law is good if it protects the rights
of individuals.
 Law should not be obeyed simply because they are laws, but because there is
mutual agreement between the individual and society that these laws guarantee
a person's rights.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

 Also known as "Conscience or principle orientation".

 The principles that determine moral behavior are self-chosen. They unify a
person's belief about equality, justice and ethics.

Gilligan's Stages of Moral Development

 Gilligan's theory is called a "morality of care and responsibility". This theory

stresses relationship, care, harmony, compassion and self-sacrifice.

Gilligan's theory comprises three levels and two transitions:

Stage I: Individual survival

 Identifies selfishness as its primary concern.

 The first transition is from individual survival to self-sacrifice and social
conformity leads to the realization that caring for others rather than just caring
 for oneself is "good". From selfishness to responsibility.

Stage II: Self-sacrifice and social conformity

 Involves a growing realization that in order to care for others, one must also
take care of oneself.
 The second transition is from the self-care motive to the motives of the first
transition. From goodness to truth

Stage III: Morality of nonviolence

 The ethnic of this is the equality of self and others. It is wrong to serve oneself
at the expense of others.

Lickona's Model of Moral Education

1. Building Self-esteem and Social Community

 This process involves building a child's self-esteem, sense of competence and

mastery in the social community of the classroom. This process also requires
that students come to know each other as individuals, respect and care about
each other, and feel that they are members of and accountable to the group.
 Any sort of public effort to share personal feelings and perceptions cab
contribute to a sense of community. In developing this sense of community, it
is important that each student feel
that he or she is being listened to with respect.

2. Cooperative Learning and Helping Relations

 The spirit of cooperatiob and the skills to realize that spirit are essential to
adult living. Cooperative learning, student learning from and with each other,
can be fostered in classroom at any grade level.
 The teacher reported thay children enjoyed the active nature of the exercise
and the active nature of the interaction with their partners.
 Acknowledgements allowed students to value helpfulness and thoughtfulness.
It also gave students practice in delivering and receiving compliments.

3. Moral Reflection

 Focuses on the cognitive aspects of moral development. It might involve

reading, thinking, debate, and/or discussion.
 Reading and discussing good literature-which engages the mind and the heart-
can go far beyond a contrived moral dilemma in eliciting moral reflection.
  Here was a moral dilemma that required reasoning, a clarification of feelings,
and ultimately, action.

4. Participatory Decision Making

 Holds students accountable for decisions that influence the quality of

classroom life. This process is not simply a matter of having students
participate in defining classroom rules; it is also a matter of establishing a
sense of responsibility and genuine participation in the welfare of the
classroom community. The process, when practice well, yields a set of norms
that guide students' behavior.
 The substitute immediately brought the class together to decide what rules
were needed and why they were necessary.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING OR OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Learning by observation was emphasized as a psychosocial theory by Albert bandura.

He introduced a social learning theory through observation or modeling. Modeling
has been recognized as an important influence on behavior exhibited by an adult
model in the presence of the model.

The study's findings were:

a. ) subjects exposed to aggressive models would reproduce aggressive acts

resembling those of their models and would differ in this respect both from subjects
who served non-aggressive models from those who had no prior exposure to any
models. this hypothesis assumed that subjects had learned imitative habits as a result
of prior reinforcement.

b.) Subjects give an opportunity to observe aggressive models later reproduced a good
deal of physical and verbal aggression ( as well as non-aggressive responses )
substantially identical with that of the model. In contrast, Subjects who were exposed
to non-aggressive models and those who had no previous exposure to any models
only rarely performed such responses.

c.) In the case of a highly masculine-typed behavior such as physical aggression ,

there is a tendency for both male and female subjects to imitate the male model to a
greater degree than the female model. Thus, it showed that maleness- femaleness
rather than some other personal characteristics of the particular models involved, is
the significant variable. it was also evident, particularly from boys' spontaneous
remarks about the display of aggression by the female model, that some subjects at
least were responding in terms of a sex discrimination and their prior learning about
what is sex appropriate behavior ( e.g. "who is that lady. that's not the way for a lady
to behave. Ladies are supposed to act like ladies.)

d.) the finding that subjects exposed to the quiet models were more inhibited and
unresponsive than subjects in the aggressive condition, suggets that exposure to
inhibited models not only decreases the probability of accurrence of aggressive
behavior but also restricts the range of behavior emmitted by the subjects.

The Bobo doll Experiment

The study consisted of 24 preschool children assigned to three conditions:

1) an experimental group which observed aggressive adult models;

2) another group which observed inhibited non-aggressive models; and

3) a control group which had no prior exposure to the models.

Half the experimental subjects were exposed to aggressive models and half were
subdued and non-aggressive in their behavior. These groups were further subdivided
into male and female subjects. Half the subjects in the aggressive and non-aggressive
conditions observed same-sex models, while the remaining subjects in each group
viewed models of the opposite sex. The control group had no prior exposure to the
adult models and was tested only in the generalization situation.

Response Measures

Three measures of imitation were obtained from the observation experiment.

1. Imitation of physical aggression - This category included acts of striking the

bobo doll with the mallet , sitting on the doll and punching it in the nose,
Kicking the doll, and tossing it in the air.

2. Imitative non-aggressive verbal responses - subjects repeats the phrases,

"Sock him ". "Hit him down." "Kick him." " Throw hin in the air," "Pow."

3. Imitative non-aggressive verbal responses - Subjects repeats, "He keeps

coming back for more," or " He sure is a tough fella."

4. Nominative physical and verbal aggression - This category included

physically aggressive acts directed toward objects other than the bobo doll and
any hostile remarks except for those in the verbal imitation category, e.g.
"Shoot the bobo," "Cut him." "Stupid ball," "Knock over people," "Horse
fighting , biting."
 The study thus shows that subjects given an opportunity to observe aggressive
models later reproduced a good deal of physical and verbal aggression ( as well as
non-aggressive responses ) substantially identical with that of the model.In contrast,
subjects who were exposed to non-aggressive models and those who had no previous
exposures to any models only rarely performed such responses. To the extent that
observation of adult models displaying aggression communicates permissiveness for
aggressive behavior, such exposure may serve to weaken inhibitory responses and
thereby increase the probability of aggressive reactions to subsequent frustrations. The
fact, however, that subjects expressed their aggression in ways that clearly resembled
the novel patterns exhibited by models provide striking evidence for the occurrence of
learning by imitation.

ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It includes

some big changes—to the body, and to the way a young person relates to the world.

STAGES OF ADOLESCENCE

Early Adolescence (Ages 10 to 13)

During this stage, children often start to grow more quickly.

•These body changes can inspire curiosity and anxiety in some-especially if they do
not know what to expect or what is normal

•Early adolescents have concrete, black-and-white thinking

Middle Adolescence (Ages 14 to 17)

Physical changes from puberty continue during middle adolescence

•At this age, many teens become interested in romantic and sexual relationships.

•Many middle adolescents have more arguments with their parents as they struggle
for more independence

•The brain continues to change and mature in this stage, but there are still many
differences in how a normal middle adolescent thinks compared to an adult

Late Adolescents (18-21 and beyond)

 ADOLESCENT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT

During adolescence, young people experience many changes as they transition

from childhood into young adulthood. These changes include physical, behavioral,
cognitive, and emotional-social development.

 Physical Development:

�Entering puberty heralds the physical changes of adolescence: a growth spurt and
sexual maturation
�Puberty and Sexual Development
�Physical Appearance and Body Image
�Physical Activity and Weight

 Cognitive Development:

The changes in how adolescents think, reason, and understand can be even more
dramatic than their obvious physical changes. Cognitive competence includes such
things as the ability to reason effectively, problem solve, think abstractly and reflect,
and plan for the future.

 Emotional Development:

Emotional development during adolescence involves establishing a realistic and

coherent sense of identity in the context of relating to others and learning to cope with
stress and manage emotions (Santrock, 2001), processes that are life-long issues for
most people.

 Social Development:

The social development of adolescents is best considered in the contexts in which it

occurs; that is, relating to peers, family, school, work, and community

PARENTING STYLE

A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that

parents use in their child rearing. Parenting styles are the representation of how
parents respond to and make demands on their children.
Authoritarian Parents

Authoritarian parents are often thought of as disciplinarians.

�They use a strict discipline style with little negotiation possible. Punishment is
common.

�Communication is mostly one way: from parent to child. Rules usually are not
explained.

�Parents with this style are typically less nurturing.

�Expectations are high with limited flexibility.

Permissive Parents or Indulgent parents

Mostly let their children do what they want, and offer limited guidance or direction.
They are more like friends than parents.

�Their discipline style is the opposite of strict. They have limited or no rules and
mostly let children figure problems out on their own.

�Communication is open but these parents let children decide for themselves rather
than giving direction.

�Parents in this category tend to be warm and nurturing.

�Expectations are typically minimal or not set by these parents.

Authoritative Parents
- pantay ang anak at Parent sa right .
-Smooth communicative relation

Uninvolve Parents
- Parents who totally have no care in their child

Identity

 A man's character is discernible in the mental and moral attitude in which,

when it came upon him, he felt himself most deeply and intensely active and
alive (William James).
 Focusing the discussion on Eriksons view, identity can be described in
psychological terms. It includes identity formation which employs a process of
simultaneous reflection and observation.
  It is a process that takes place on all levels of mental functioning, by which
the individual judges himself in the light of what he perceives to be the way in
which others judge him in comparison to themselves and a typology
significant to them; while he judges their way of judging him in the light of
how he perceives himself in comparison to them and to types that have
become relevant to him.
 Youth Identity

 Formulation of identity to the Freudian theory of the "i'd," the instinctual force
driving man from within and the "groups ego" of the society which influences
and controls him; and which he conceptualizes as a model of his existence.
 The ego, according to Erikson, is one of the three indispensable and ceaseless
processes by which man’s existence become remain continuous in time and
organized in form. This task is possible through:

 first, the biological process by which an organism comes to hierarchic

organization of organ systems living out its life cycle.
 second is the social process by which organisms come to be organized in
groups which are geographically historically , and culturally defined.

The Development of Identity in the Life Cycle

Identity is founded on the epigenetic principle which Erikson derived from the growth
of organisms in the utero. This principle states that anything grows has a ground plan,
and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part having it's time of formation
and maturity, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole. This is true for
fetal development where each part of the organism has it's critical time of ascendance
or danger of defect. In the presentation of an epigenetic diagram, Erikson employed
Freud's psychosexual stages. The diagram shown above bridges the theory of infantile
sexuality and the child's physical and social growth.

The diagram formalizes a progression through time of differentiation of parts. This

indicates:

(1) that each item of vital personality is systematically related to all others, and that
they all depend on the proper development in the proper sequence of each item; and

(2) that each item exists in some form before "it's" decisive and critical time normally
arrives.
Infancy and Basic Trust

The Development of a sense of basic trust in infancy, the first stage in the
psychosexual life of an individual and the cornerstone to his vital personality is where
the formation of identity starts. When a child is born, he cuts his symbiotic
relationship from his mother and depends only on his oral faculties for existence. In
the same way, maternal instinct and physical body component are prepared to meet
the child's need. When such need as feeding suffers a severe estrangement, the
individual withdraws unto himself and with others such as the mother. Such
withdrawal is displayed by refusing food and comfort and becoming oblivious to
companionship. In addition to the overwhelming need for food, the child also is able
to "take in" with his eyes whatever enters his visual field. Pyschotherapy must then
try to "reach" them with the specific intent of convincing them that they can trust
someone to trust them and that they can trust themselves.

Early Childhood and the Will to be Oneself

 This stage is of significance because here happens a rapid gain in muscular

maturation and verbalization. In these and in many other ways, the highly
dependent child begins to experience his autonomous will, but the child is
often at odds with one another. This whole stage becomes a battle for
autonomy. As he gets ready to start on his own feet more firmly, the infant also
learns to delineate his world as "I" and "you" and "we" and "mine".

Childhood and the Anticipation of Roles

Convinced that he is a person on his own, the child must now find out what kind of
person he may become. At this stage, he is deeply and exclusively "identified" with
his parents, who appear to him to be powerful and beautiful, although often quite
unreasonable, disagreeable and even dangerous.

This stage has three development which may bring about it's crisis:

1.) the child learns to move around more freely and more violently and therefore
established a wider and to him, unlimited radius of goals;

2.) His sense of language becomes perfected to the point where he understands and
can ask incessantly about innumerable things often hearing just enough to understand
them thoroughly; and

3.) both language and locomotion permit him to expand his imagination to so many
roles that he cannot avoid frightening himself has dreamed and thought up.
.
School Age and Task Identification

 Children at this stage attach themselves to teachers and the parents of other
children and they want to watch and imitate people representing occupations
which they can grasp firemen, policemen, gardener, plumber, baker, teacher,
etc. They want to live at least a part of their lives near farins or safe streets
 around busy people and around many other children of all ages so that they
can be observe and participate as their capacities and their initiative grows in
tentative

Mother Child Bond

 The child's need for parents is inherent in being human much more than
belonging to the group of mammals. "There is an even or fundamental bond
that all mammals at least have to respect- the bond between mother and child."
In the bonding process the first example is mating or "pair" bond. However,
where mating is brief and where the sexes part immediately after the mating
season, the association of the young with the mother remains important. This
is particularly true in all those species where the young are relatively
dependent.

Father Child Bond

 The father- child bond, detailing how it functions and how it differs from the
bond between mother and child. What emerged from their work is the
beginning of a truly modern concept of paternity, one in which old
assumptions are overturned or cast in a radically different light, a unique
phenomenon with huge consequences for the emotional and intellectual
growth of children.

• Start early - While involvement doesn't always equal intimacy, father' s who
immerse themselves in all aspects of parenting from birth on are more likely to be
closer to their children.

• Creating "fathering space." - Schedule time and activities in which you take care
of your newborn entirely on your own. The traditional practice of deterring to
mother's as "experts" gives new father's few chances to hone their parenting skills,
bolster their confidence, and build solid bonds with baby.

• Articulate feelings - Although fatherhood is routinely described as "the most

wonderful experience" a man can have , new fathers and may feel anxious, fearful,
and frustrated.

• Mind the details - Tune in the children and avoid relying on mom to "read" what
the baby wants.

• Respect Diversity - Accept partners parenting style without criticizing. Mother's

often regard
father's more boisterous style as too harsh or insensitive.

• Be Realistic - Father' s who want to adopt a more hands- on approach than they
themselves experienced are often frustrated when kids don't immediately respond.

What Children Say about Their Parents

Parenting ideas may not just emanate from parents, whether old who had years of
experience or new couples who had just been married and blessed with one or two
children. Parenting views can be gleaned from how children react to their parents.
Several attempts have been done by different researches to collect opinions and
viewpoints from children who are receivers of parenting styles. The five year study
discussed in the book, Ask the Children, included children's perceptions and opinions
on many topics and issues: how much parents like their work; quality time vs.
quantity time; how mother's parent their children compared to father's; how much
children really know about the daily lives of parents at work; and other issues.

Mother's at Work

How do children react to mother's at work? How does work effect mothers
relationship about with their children? The findings from this study hold many
suprises. It was found that children learn more about the world of work from their
mothers than from their fathers. Children don't think parents like their work as much
as they really do. These perceptions came from what parents said:" I have to go to
work." Or " I wish I didn't have to leave." Now let us look at the results of the study
regarding the question: Is having a working mother good or bad for children? This
question was first fueled by studies of children in orphanages showing that children
seperated from their mothers for long periods and raised in environmentally depressed
conditions failed to thrive, evens thought they received adequate physical care.

Television

Television,which offers opportunity for both a visual an auditory response, seems to

occupy a more important position than radio or any other mass media in the lives of
today's children.
In terms of physical effects, television and radio seem to have caused no appreciable
damage to eyesight or hearing, although parents are told to leave a light on in the
room with the television and to encourage children to sit at least six feet from the
screen. On the other hand, teachers say that children who watch television programs
far into the night come to school hollow-eyed, unable to concentrate on the days
activities. Although there are misgivings and apprehensions from different sectors- the
home and the classrooms about the how much control there should be in viewing
television there is no strong evidence to support it's elimination.

Television and School Performance

Statistics on the result of the Scholastic Achievement Test in US in 1941 compared

with the previous decade showed that the average student who took the test that year
was no more intelligent than today's (Trelease,1995). The real problem, the
researchers said, was that student knowledge has no kept pace with the growing
complexity of the world. Social scientists, educators, and psychologists point to
television as a prime suspect. It's time consuming nature may have prevented the
children from becoming more intelligent by interrupting the largest and most
instructive class in childhood life experience.

Violence on Television

Another question which most concerns adults is undoubtedly the moral effect children
of radio and television program Speaking generally, newscasts and informational
programs are morally sound, situation comedies and programs where games are
played are usually devoid of provocative ideas and morally insignificant; shows of
violence usually point out that " crime doesn't pay," at least during the last few
minutes, and dramas usually develop fairly obvious universal truths and are therefore
morally instructive to a degree. For the most part children are not being turned into
delinquents through the mass media, but values and tastes can be disorted by too
much and television and radio.

Positive Approach to Television

When young people's educational, social and moral well-being are a stake, society
cannot just be complacent. According to Slaby ( 1994). "Until recently, researchers
voices have been drown out in the din of denial and disinformation coming from
executives of the television and movie industries, whose self-serving defense if
violent programming has prevailed. TV industry spokepersons argue that violent
programs are mere reflection of the society, and that any effort to modify
programming would interfere with guarantees of freedom of the press. Others claim to
be giving the public "what they want" and take no responsibility for the effects on
viewers.

Technology Potential in Schools

There is no question that technology holds significant potential when it comes to

improving classroom practices and encouraging more effective learning. Computers,
tablets, and other devices can help boost the reach of highly effective teachers,
allowing more students to study with the best math and reading teachers, for instance.
Several schools have successfully experimented with such reforms, and in various
forms, the schools allow highly effective teachers to focus less on administrative
duties and more on teaching.

Exceptional Development: Mental Disorders

Some people may demonstrate behavior that seems abnormal in the sense that they
are far beyond expectation. There are three ways given by Plotnik such as
statistically, socially, and maladaptive ways as a gauge to decide whether a behavior
is abnormal. And yet Plotnik was of the opinion that neither of the three can
measures accurately describe abnormal behavior.

GAUGE IN ASSESSING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

Statistical Frequency

This approach says that a behavior may be considered abnormal if it occurs rarely or
infrequently in relation to the behavior of the general population. And yet we would
not consider these individuals to necessarily have mental disorders.

Social Approach

The social norm approach says that a behavior is considered abnormal if it deviates
greatly from accepted social standard values, or norms. Thus defining abnormality
on the basis of social norms can be risky as social norms change over time.

Maladaptive Behavior

This approach defines a behavior as psychologically damaging or abnormal if it

interferes with the individual’s ability to function in one’s personal life or in society.

TREATMENT OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

There are three major approaches in understanding and treating mental disorders:
medical, cognitive and behavioral approach by Plotnik.

Medical Model Approach

The medical model approach views mental disorders as similar to physical diseases
with symptoms that can be diagnosed and treated. Psychiatrist use psychoactive
drugs to treat mental disorders.One advantage of medical model was the emphasis on
the role of genetic make-up and chemical balance in mental disorders.

Cognitive-Behavioral Approach

It emphasizes that mental disorders result from deficits in cognitive processes, such
as thoughts and beliefs, and from behavioral problems such as deficits in skills and
abilities. It views mental disorders as resulting of maladaptive ways of thinking and
behaving. Accordingly, treatment for mental disorders involve changing a person’s
maladaptive thoughts and behaviors.

Psychoanalytic Approach

It states that mental disorders are due to unconscious conflicts or problems with
unresolved conflicts at one or more of the psychosexual stage. Freud believed that
various personality problems could result from the unsuccessful resolutions of
conflicts during psychosexual stage in early childhood and may result to anxiety.

ASSESSING MENTAL DISORDERS

Psychological Test

It is given to persons who show symptoms of mental disorders. This include the self-
report questionnaire which is an objective personality test and consists of specific
statements or questions in which the person responds with specific answers; and, the
other is the projective tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test, which have not set
answers tub consists of ambiguous stimuli that a person interprets or makes up a
story about.

Clinical Interviews

This is one method of gathering information about a person’s past and current
behavior, beliefs, attitudes, emotions, and problems. Some clinical interviews are
unstructured which means there are no set of questions. Other are structured which
means they follow a standard format of asking the same question.

COMMON MENTAL DISORDERS

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

It is characterized by excessive so unrealistic worry about almost everything or

feeling that something is about to happen.

Symptoms
This anxiety disorder includes both psychological and physical symptoms.
Psychological symptoms include being irritable, having difficulty concentrating, and
being unable to control one’s worry which is out of proportion to the actual event.
While physical symptoms include restlessness, being easily fatigued, sweating,
flushing, insomnia, headache and muscle tension.

Treatment

Generalized anxiety disorder is commonly treated with psychotherapy with or

without drugs. The drugs most frequently prescribed are tranquillizers.

Panic Disorder

This is characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks. People who suffer
from panic disorder have an increased risk of alcohol and other drug abuse, an
increased incidence of suicide, decreased social functioning, and decreased marital
happiness.

Symptoms

It is a period of intense fear or discomfort in which four or more of the following

symptoms are evident; pounding heart, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath,
feeling of choking, chest pain, nausea, feeling dizzy and fear of losing control or
dying.

Treatment

Successful treatment may require 3-8 months of drug therapy and psychotherapy.

Phobia

This is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense and irrational fear that is out
of all proportions to the possible danger of the object or situation. Because of this
intense fear, a person goes to great lengths to avoid the feared event. If the feared
event cannot be avoided, the person feels intense anxiety Social phobias are
characterized by irrational, marked, and continuous fear of performing in social.
situations.

The individuals fear that they will humiliate or embarrass themselves Specific
phobias formerly called simple phobias are characterized by marked and persistent
fears that are unreasonable and triggered by anticipation or of exposure to a specific
object or situation.
Disorders Mood

Is a prolonged and disturbed emotional state that affects almost all of a person ’s
thought and behavior. Major Depression is marked by at least two weeks of
continually being in a bad mood, having no interest in anything, and getting no
pleasure from activities. In addition, a person must have at least four of the following
symptoms: problem in eating, sleeping, thinking, concentrating, or making decision,
thinking about suicide, and feeling worthless or guilty.

A person’s personality is a psychosocial factor that contributes to depressive moods.

Some individuals have the kind of personality that makes their self-esteem primarily
depends on what others say or think and how much they are liked and accepted.
Individuals with this kind of social dependent personality are more vulnerable to
becoming seriously depressed when feed with a particular kind of life stressor,
namely, the failure of a close personal relationship or friendship.

Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder or manic depressive illness, sometimes referred to is a mood

disorder. It has two opposing conditions-At one end is the “up” part called mania.
This can last for months, if untreated. When the person is in this cycle, he feels
energetic, talkative, outgoing and optimistic feeling that he is more creative and a
sharp thinker.

On the other side when the opposite cycle begins after the ebbing out of the “up” part,
the person becomes depressive, miserable, tense and irritable. He hallucinates and
resorts to reckless behavior.

Bipolar disorder may lead to excessive sleep, overeating, and insomnia. It is likely
that this manic phase in bipolar depression result to emergency hospitalization and be
more dangerous. Bipolar disorder increases suicidal risks. It is difficult to diagnose.
For one, it can be covered up by alcoholism and drug abuse. Another worry is when
the person has actually other problems such as abuse, family conflict, and when
experiencing the normal ups and downs of growing up.

Medication don’t cure bipolar disorder but control the symptoms.