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Modeling of Mechanical Properties and Structural Design of Spider Web

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780 Biomacromolecules 2004, 5, 780-785

Modeling of Mechanical Properties and Structural Design of

Spider Web
Frank K. Ko* and Jovan Jovicic†
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Received December 7, 2003; Revised Manuscript Received March 1, 2004

With a unique combination of strength and toughness among materials, spider silk is the model for engineering
materials. This paper presents the stress-strain behavior of Nephila claVipes spider silk under tension,
transverse compression, and torsional deformation obtained by a battery of micro testing equipment. The
experimental results showed significantly higher toughness than the state-of-the-art fibers in tension and in
transverse compression. Higher shear modulus was also observed for the spider silk comparing to other
liquid crystalline fibers such as aramid fibers. On the basis of the experimental results finite element analysis
is used to simulate static and dynamic properties of spider web and to explore the role of both material
properties and architectural design in its structural integrity and mechanical performance.

Introduction dragline of A. aurentia was approximately 12 g/denier.1

Considering the remarkable mechano-chemical properties of
In the world of natural fibers, spider silk has long been
spider silk and fueled by the recent progress in biotechnology,
recognized as the wonder fiber for its unique combination
there is a revival of interest in using spider silk as a model
of high strength and rupture elongation. An earlier study
for the engineering of high energy absorption fibers.15 To
indicated spider silk has strength as high as 1.75 GPa at a
obtain realistic blueprints for the regenerated or synthetic
breaking elongation of over 26%.1,2 With toughness more
spider silk, there is a need for precise characterization of
than three times that of aramid and other industrial fibers,
the engineering properties of spider silk. However, because
spider silk continues to attract the attention of fiber scientists
of the fineness of spider silk, less than 4 µm, the character-
and hobbyists alike.3-12
ization of the mechanical properties of spider silks are
Apart from the remarkable material properties of spider
traditionally limited to tensile mode. Little is known about
silk, spider webs are natural example of a special class of
the response of spider silks to other modes of deformation
pre-stressed systems called tensegrity (tensional integrity)
in the transverse direction and in torsion. This article offers
structures.13-14 These structures represent a unique blend of
a summary of an initial attempt to characterize the stress-
geometry and mechanics, resulting in highly efficient struc-
strain behavior of from N. claVipes spiders under simple
tures due to the optimal distribution of structural mass. The
tension, transverse compression, and torsional deformation.
geometry plays a major role in defining the existence as well
This was made possible by using an ultra sensitive micro-
as the stiffness of a tensegrity structure. The pretension acts
measurement fiber testing system developed by Kawabata.16
little to change the stiffness. However, it plays an important
From these experimental data, the engineering propertiess
role in delaying the onset of slack strings and thus prevents
tensile modulus, transverse compressive modulus, and shear
the nonlinearities due to slackening of the strings. The
modulussof the spider silk were determined. These engi-
tensegrity systems can be considered as space structures.
neering properties of spider silk provided a basis for the
Their lightness places them in the same class as cable and
structural analysis of spider webs. To guide the analysis of
membrane systems. The self-stressing nature, which provides
experimental results and the assessment of the design of the
their rigidity, provides spider webs the mechanism for
spider web systems, a computational methodology was
efficient and economic means of balancing the stresses
developed using finite element analysis. It is hoped that this
induced. An understanding of the interaction of material
study will lead us to an improved understanding of the
properties and structural geometry may shed light on our
relative significance of the fiber material properties and the
ability to design the next generation of ultra-lightweight, large
structural parameter of a spider web.
area space structures (Figure 1).
Draglines of N. claVipes and A. aurentia spider silks are
among the strongest spider silks that we know. The strength Engineering Properties
of the dragline of N. claVipes obtained by forcible silking One of the outstanding characteristics of spider silk is its
was reported to be about 8 g/denier, and the strength of the fineness. For example the dragline is between 3 and 4
microns in diameter. The cribellate silk was found to be as
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: fko@ fine as 0.03 µm in diameter. The drag-line silks have a
coe.drexel.edu.
† Present address: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Widener circular fiber cross-section and a density of 1.25 g/cc. The
University, Chester, PA 19013. smallness of the spider silk makes it difficult to handle the
10.1021/bm0345099 CCC: $27.50 © 2004 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 04/08/2004
Modeling of Spider Web Properties and Design
Figure 1. Initial FE model and boundary conditions.
Figure 2. Tensile stress-strain curves of A. aurentia spider major
ampulate gland silk and other polyamide fibers.
fibers and thus challenging in preparing specimens for the
characterization of their engineering properties under various
modes of loading. In this paper, the engineering properties
of a single spider silk were characterized using a series of
micro-testers. Figure 2 shows the stress-strain curve of the
A. aurentia spider silk assuming a sigmoidal shape similar
to that of an elastomer. Comparing to other aramid fibers, it
demonstrates a superior balance of strength and elongation
at 1.75 GPa (15.8 g/den) and 36%, respectively. This “rubber-
like” stress-strain curve is characterized by three distinct
regions: region I (0-5%) is characterized by a high initial
modulus of 34 GPa; region II (5-21%) shows a pseudo yield
point at 5% before strain hardening to a maximum modulus
of 22 GPa at 22% elongation; and region III (21-36%)
exhibits a gradual reduction of modulus until reaching failure
strength of 1.75 GPa at 36% elongation. An examination of
the area under the stress-strain curves shows a toughness
level of 2.8 g/denier. This is much higher than the toughness
of the aramid fiber (0.26 g/denier) and nylon-6 fiber (0.9
g/denier).
Biomacromolecules, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2004 781
Figure 3. Tensile property of N. clavipes spider single fiber.
Tensile Properties. The silk from a N. claVipes spider
obtained from the US Army Natick RD&E Laboratories was
tested using the micro-tensile tester in Professor Kawabata’s
laboratory. The silks were collected at Natick according to
the procedure detailed by Cunniff et al.11 The spider silk
was tested by simple elongation at a strain rate of 100% per
minute using a gage length of 1.25 cm. Additionally,
transverse compression and torsional properties of the N.
claVipes spider silk were also evaluated.
Ten replications of the N. claVipes spider drag-line silk
were made to generate the average tensile stress-strain curve
shown in Figure 3 wherein a sigmoidal shape stress-strain
curve similar to that of the A. aurentia spider is shown. With
an average initial modulus of 12.71 GPa, the failure stress
of the fiber is 0.85 GPa at 20% breaking elongation. Similar
to that of the A. aurentia spider, a yield point is detected at
about 5% strain. These results show that the maximum pro-
perties of spider silk may differ from one species to the other
with the A. aurentia spider making stronger silk than the N.
claVipes spider. This could be affected by the silking process
as a result of the degree of drawing. However, the sigmoidal
“rubber-like” shape of the stress-strain curves appears to
be a common feature characterizing spider drag-line silk.
In comparison with other textile fibers (as shown in Figure
4), similar to that exhibited by the A. aurentia spider silk,
782 Biomacromolecules, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2004 Ko and Jovicic

Figure 6. Torsion tester for single fiber.

Figure 4. Tensile stress-strain behavior of N. clavipes spider major
ampulate gland silk compared to other textile fibers.

Figure 7. Torsional stress-strain behavior of N. clavipes spider silk.

Table 1. Engineering Properties of Polyamide Fibers

EL ET GL
material (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) EL/ET E L /GL
A. aurentia spider silk 34.00
N. clavipes spider silk 12.71 0.579 2.38 21.95 5.34
B. mori silk 9.90 3.81 4.93
merino wool 3.50 0.93 1.31 3.76 2.67
nylon 6 filament 2.71 1.01 0.52 2.68 5.21
Figure 5. Compressive stress-strain behavior of N. clavipes spider Kevlar 29 79.80 2.59 2.17 30.81 36.77
silk.

the N. claVipes silk exhibits the best balance of strength and
toughness.
Transverse Compression Properties. The compression
tests of the spider silks in the transverse direction were
carried out by placing a single fiber between a flat and
mirror-finished steel plate and a mirror finished 0.2 mm
square compression plane. Because of the fineness of the
spider fiber, a combination of sensitive instrumentation and
mechanistic analysis is required in order to ensure accurate
measurement of the compressive stress-stain properties. A
description of the compression tester has been detailed by
Kawabata.16
The N. claVipes spider silk fibers were subjected to
transverse cyclic loading at a compressive speed of 0.3 cm/s
under ambient and wet conditions. The compressive modulus
of the fiber tested in ambient condition was 0.58 GPa and
the fiber experienced a high degree of permanent deformation
(∼20%). As shown in Figure 5, the ability of spider silk to
deform transverse compression is higher than all of the other
textile fibers, indicating a high level of anisotropy and
transverse ductility, offering superior ability to absorb energy
under deformation in the transverse direction such as in the
crossover between silk fibers.
Torsional Properties. Through torsional testing, the shear
modulus of a fiber can be determined. The torsional behavior
of the N. claVipes spider silk was characterized with an ultra-
sensitive Kawabata torsional tester. As shown in Figure 6, a
single fiber having both ends reinforced by a paper backing
using ceramic adhesives is hung on a top hook connected to
a highly sensitive torque detector supported by two torque
wires made of 0.2 mm piano wire. The bottom end is
connected to a bar, and both ends of the bar are inserted
into slits of a servo-driven cylindrical tube. The full scale
of the torque meter is 0.0025 gf cm/10 V. A high level of
torsional resistance is observed for the spider silk. The shear
rigidity, as determined from the torque-deformation diagram
shown in Figure 7, is 2.38 GPa, which is higher than all of
the other textile fibers including Kevlar 29. This appears to
be consistent with the intended use of the drag-line as a
lifeline for the spider (as in a mountain climbing rope) which
requires a high level of torsional stability.
Modeling of Spider Web Properties and Design Biomacromolecules, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2004 783

Figure 8. Stress-strain curve using the ductile mode.

Figure 10. Stress-strain properties of a web segment under the
Table 2. Engineering Properties of the Compared Materials
impact for various fibers.
tensile
density modulus Poisson’s strength strain
material [kg/m3] EL (GPa) ratio ν σ (GPa) %
spider silk 1098 0.003 0.49 0.58 150
viscid dragline 34 1.75 26
Kevlar 29 1450 45 0.34 2.8 3.6
spectra 970 101 0.4 3.0 3.4
PBO 1540 270 0.35 5.8 3.5

Figure 11. Strain energy as a function of impact time for different

web materials in the elastic domain.

Simulation of the impact of a bug on a web with 5 N pre-

Figure 9. Strain energy as a function of web density.
Numerical Modeling of a Spider Web
With the engineering properties experimentally character-
ized, one can carry out structural analysis of the spider web
and examine the unique combination of engineering proper-
ties of spider silk in comparison with other manmade fibers.
Table 1 provides a summary of the engineering properties
of the spider silks in comparison with other natural and
synthetic polyamide fibers.
To address the influence of different design parameters
on spider’s web structural integrity and complement ex-
perimental efforts, a finite element method (FEM) is
employed. More specifically the ABAQUS-EXPLICIT finite
element code (Hibbitt Inc., Rhode Island, 2001) is used
to simulate the static and dynamic properties of the spider
web and to explore the role of material properties and
architectural design in its structural integrity and mechanical
performance.
As a first approximation, as shown in Figure 1, the spider
web is modeled as an elasto-plastic 3D truss structure (3,-
865 elements and 2,031 nodes), with a fiber diameter of 3.57
µm and fully constrained foundation lines.
tension is performed using the initial velocity of 1 m/s. The
bug-impactor is modeled as a spherical rigid body with a
mass of 0.5 g. In these numerical models, radial web
components are made of dragline silk, whereas web con-
centric circles (a capture silk) are assumed to be made of
viscid silk material.
The material properties used in simulations are listed in
Table 2. The mechanical properties of the spider silk obtained
from tensile tests are compared to those of the man-made
fibers. Initially, the isotropic elastic-plastic constitutive
model for manmade fibers is assumed. The fibers were
modeled using damage-Von Mises plasticity with a specific
plastic strain failure.
The ductile failure model is based on a damage-Von Mises
plasticity theory with isotropic hardening. The damage
manifests itself in two forms: degradation of the yield stress
with damage and damaged elasticity. Figure 8 illustrates the
deviatoric stress/strain behavior of the material model. The
solid curve represents the actual stress, whereas the dashed
curve represents undamaged behavior, that is, when only
elasto-plasticity is considered.
Until the initial yield stress, σ0, is reached, the fiber
behaves as an elastic material. Plastic strain than occurs
according to the conventional Von Mises plasticity theory.
If the strain continues to increase, damage will increase
from zero, when the plastic strain is less than or equal to
the offset plastic strain, pl
0 , to a value of one when the
784 Biomacromolecules, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2004
Figure 12. Strain energy as a function of impact time for different
web materials in the plastic range of deformation.
plastic strain reaches the plastic failure strain, pl
f . At that
time, the corresponding total strain is f. The damage (D) is
calculated from the plastic strain as
pl - pl
D) (1)
pl - pl
where pl is the current plastic strain experienced by the fiber.
The material’s elastic response is based on damaged
elasticity. The damaged elastic modulus is given as
ED ) (1 - D)E (2)
When the plastic strain at a material point reaches the plastic
failure strain, pl
f , the material point has failed. If all of the
Figure 13. Principal stress distribution during simulated impact on spider silk web.
Figure 14. Principal stress distribution during simulated impact on PBO web.
Ko and Jovicic
material points in the element fail, the element loses its ability
to resist any further load, and hence, it is removed from the
mesh.
Accordingly, a parametric study is performed using the
FE modeling design tool developed herein by considering
(1) different materials (Spider silk, Kevlar, PBO, Spectra)
and (2) various densities of the web as characterized by the
aspect ratio of its circular constituents (ranging from low to
medium to high).
Modeling Results
For an impact velocity of 1 m/s and a duration of 0.01s,
the elastic response of the web structure is observed. The
total strain energy is evaluated as a function of time for
different web geometry (density of the web) as shown in
Figure 9 and for different web materials listed in Table 2
(Figure 10).
Because of its relatively high stiffness, compared those
of to the other fibers, PBO has the highest elastic strain
energy absorption as shown in Figure 11. On the other hand,
as shown in Figure 12, the spider silk has the highest strain
energy in the plastic region compared to those of the other
fibers listed in Table 2.
These preliminary results show that the excellent combina-
tion of strength and toughness of a spider silk offers great
potential and superior dynamic characteristics compared to
other materials that have higher tensile strength than that of
 Modeling of Spider Web Properties and Design
the spider silk. The superior strain energy is especially
prominent in the plastic region. This effect is illustrated using
spider silk and PBO fiber webs as examples by subjecting
them to impact loading involving deformations up to the
plastic range for duration of 0.1 s by a 2 g bug impacting
the web at a velocity of 1 m/s (Figure 12).
The finite element analysis predicted that the spider web
would be able to stop the impacting bug without failure
(Figure 13).
In the same time, for the same boundary and loading
condition, simulations showed that the web made of PBO
material would be perforated (Figure 14).
Conclusions
In summary, with the engineering properties characterized
and the engineering design tool created, we have established
the basis for asking further questions on the structural design
of spider webs. Preliminary finite element simulations of
impact properties of spider webs showed that the unique
combination of both high toughness and stiffness proved to
be superior compared to other current state-of-the-art man-
made materials.
Strategic tailoring of the material properties for the frame
(E ) 10 GPa; f ) 17.4-35%) and viscid silk (E ) 3 MPa;
f ) 150%) should be further explored. Apart from structural
applications, the weblike structures could be employed to
predict mechanical behavior and accurately detect and locate
damage by transmitting and sensing propagating plastic
waves.
The numerical model developed herein offers a possibility
to evaluate the effect of fiber material properties, fiber
diameter, as well as the effect of web geometry (e.g.,
concentric circular vs spiral web architecture) on the
structural performance of the web and the sensing capabilities
of the tensegrity structures.
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Biomacromolecules, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2004 785
References and Notes
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U. S. Army Natick Technical Report 69-29-CM, 1968.
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Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 1977.
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BM0345099