Ic Engine Performance Characteristic

Internal Combustion Engine Performance Characteristics,
Combustion Chamber Design, and Gas Exchange Process
Thermofluids and Turbomachinery

Assignment 2015-16
James Goddings
Student Number: 3131147
05/03/2016
Module Coordinator: Dr. Mark Ellis

ENG_6_452
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Calculations............................................................................................................................................................... 2
Power Correction Factor ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Energy Balance Diagram Calculations......................................................................................................... 6
3. Data Tables .................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Engine Data................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Other Data...................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Perfomance Testing Data ...................................................................................................................................... 9
4. Graphs ........................................................................................................................................................................10
5. Energy Balance Diagram................................................................................................................................15
Discussion .....................................................................................................................................................................16
6. Ignition and Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines.....................................................................17
7. Intake Valve Flow Investigation................................................................................................................19
Mach Number ................................................................................................................................................................21
Flow Coefficient.........................................................................................................................................................21
Calculation of Suitable Intake Valve Port Diameter .........................................................................23
8. Harmful Pollutants .................................................................................................................................................25
References..........................................................................................................................................................................27
James Goddings - 3131147
1. INTRODUCTION
Internal Combustion Engines are evaluated based on a number of performance
characteristics; these give a benchmark for comparing engines and a means of assessing
an engines capabilities and suitable applications.
During this investigation a test bed comprising of a TQ Education and Training TD115
Hydraulic Dynamometer and TD114 Instrumentation Unit was used to test a Tecumseh
TD110 172cc 4 Stroke Engine (TQ Education and Training Ltd., 2004).
The TD115 Dynamometer is a Hydraulic Dynamometer which measures the torque

produced by an engine. A paddle wheel within a sealed vaned casing acts as a rotor and
stator, separated by a volume of water. The engines crankshaft is connected to the
paddle wheel via an extension shaft with a rubber coupling bush to isolate the engines
vibrations from the dynamometer. The engine rotates the paddle wheel, churning the
water within the vaned casing, which resists the waters motion. The casing rotates as
the torque is transferred from the rotor to the stator, however it is constrained by a
strap with a pair of springs attached and connected via a chain to a rotary
potentiometer. Having been calibrated, the dynamometer reports a Torque value
proportional to its angular displacement. An optical encoder is attached to the extremity
of the dynamometer shaft to measure rotational engine speed.
The TD114 Instrumentation Unit consists of a number of instruments to enable other

engine characteristics to be measured, including an air volumetric flow rate of the
engine intake, a volumetric fuel flow meter measuring the flow rate of fuel passing
through the carburettor into the combustion chamber and a thermocouple measuring
exhaust temperature.
The Tecumseh TD110 172cc 4 Stroke engine is a small capacity, single cylinder, air -
cooled, carburettor fed, L-Head side valve engine (see Figures 7.1-7.3). An L-Head side
valve configuration was a design widespread in the automotive industry between the
1920s and 1950s. It places the valve ports in the cylinder block of the engine next to the
cylinder, actuated by tappets driven by a camshaft mounted adjacent to the crankshaft,
geared to a 2:1 ratio. This ensures the valves are timed to open and close twice for every
rotation of the camshaft (Tecumseh, 1995).
Placing all the moving parts in the cylinder block makes packaging the engine less
complex. Driving the camshaft directly off the crankshaft without the use of belts or
chains means oil can be pulled up from the sump to lubricate the moving parts without
the need for a pump, or integrated seals within the cylinder head. Over all the design is
inexpensive to manufacture, easy to maintain, and relatively lightweight. This makes it
ideal for use in applications such as lawnmowers and snow blowers, which this engine is
designed for.
Due to difficulties encountered on the day of testing a series of data performed by a

previous group of students at LSBU was used for the investigation and calculations.
1
2. CALCULATIONS
The following calculations show a fully worked example of the calculations undertaken
to produce Table 3.2, specifically the column for Test 3 at 3300rpm, highlighted grey:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑇orque
2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 𝑁[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 𝜏[𝑵𝒎]

𝑃 [𝒌𝑾] =
60[𝒔⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏]
2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 3300[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 10.9[𝑵𝒎]

𝑃 [𝒌𝑾] = = 3.77[𝒌𝑾]
60[𝒔⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏] × 1000[𝑾⁄𝒌𝑾]
Calculation 2.1
𝜋 × 𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
4
𝜋 × (𝑏[𝒎𝒎])2 × 𝑠[𝒎𝒎]
𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 [𝒎𝒎𝟑] =
4
𝜋 × (66.69 [𝒎𝒎])2 × 49.23[𝒎𝒎]

𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 [𝒎𝒎𝟑 ] = = 1.72 × 105 [𝒎𝒎𝟑 ]
4
Calculation 2.2
𝑃 τ
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = =
𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 × 𝑁 𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡
2[𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔] × 2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 𝜏[𝑵𝒎] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄ 𝒎𝟑 ]

𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 [𝒌𝑷𝒂] =
𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 [𝒎𝒎𝟑] × 103 [𝑷𝒂⁄𝒌𝑷𝒂]
2[𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 ] × 2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 10.9[𝑵𝒎] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄𝒎𝟑 ]

𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 [𝒌𝑷𝒂] = = 796.5[𝒌𝑷𝒂]
1.72 × 105 [𝒎𝒎𝟑] × 103 [𝑷𝒂⁄𝒌𝑷𝒂 ]
Calculation 2.3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒎𝒍] × 3600[𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙[𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] =
𝑡[𝒔 ] × 106 [𝒎𝒍⁄𝒎𝟑]
8 [𝒎𝒍] × 3600[𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙[𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒉𝒓] = = 2.54 × 10 −3 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓]
11.35[𝒔 ] × 106 [𝒎𝒍⁄𝒎𝟑 ]
Calculation 2.4
2
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

̇ × 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
̇
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 𝑆𝐺 [𝒈⁄𝒎𝒍] × 106 [ 𝒎𝒍⁄𝒎𝟑]
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = 𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 =
103 [𝒈⁄𝒌𝒈]
2.54 × 10−3 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 0.74[𝒈⁄𝒎𝒍 ] × 106 [ 𝒎𝒍⁄𝒎𝟑]

𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = = 1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
103 [𝒈⁄𝒌𝒈]
Calculation 2.5
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑃
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 103 [𝒈⁄𝒌𝒈]
𝑆𝐹𝐶[ 𝒈⁄𝒌𝑾𝒉] =
𝑃[𝒌𝑾]
1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 103 [𝒈⁄𝒌𝒈]

𝑆𝐹𝐶 [𝒈⁄𝒌𝑾𝒉] = = 498.5[𝒈⁄𝒌𝑾𝒉]
3.77[𝒌𝑾]
Calculation 2.6
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 2.8
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑁𝑇𝑃 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = (1.0223 × 𝑝𝑣𝑓 [𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐 𝑶]) + 1.0466
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑁𝑇𝑃 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = (1.0223 × 14[𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐𝑶]) + 1.0466 = 15.37 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
Calculation 2.7
Figure 2.8 TD114 Instrumentation unit viscous flow meter calibration chart, converting
pressure drop across laminar viscous flow element to air mass flow.(TQ Education and
Training Ltd., 2004)
(This Chart has been transposed from the Test Bed and Instrumentation Manual and a
best fit curve calculated for the data in Excel.)
3
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑇𝑃 → 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑇𝑃
This formula is derived from the combination of Poiseuille’s Equation, Sutherland’s

Formula for the viscosity of air and a calibration value for air pressure and temperature:
(𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 114)
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = 3564 × 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒃𝒂𝒓] × 𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑁𝑇𝑃 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] [ ] [𝑲 ]
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 2.5
(293.15 + 114)
𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = 3564 × 1.020[𝒃𝒂𝒓] × 15.37 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] [ ][𝑲 ] = 15.46[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
293.152.5
Calculation 2.9 (TQ Education and Training Ltd., 2004)

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝑷𝒂] × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 [𝑷𝒂⁄𝒌𝑷𝒂]

𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑] =
𝑅 𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝑱/𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝑲 ]
102[𝒌𝑷𝒂] × 103 [𝑷𝒂⁄𝒌𝑷𝒂 ]

𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑] = = 1.21235 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ]
287 [𝑱/𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 293.15[𝑲 ]
Calculation 2.10
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒉𝒓] = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑]
𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] = 15.46[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 1.21235 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ] = 18.75 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓]
Calculation 2.11
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝐴𝐹𝑅 =
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
15.46[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝐴𝐹𝑅 = = 8.24: 1
1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
Calculation 2.12
𝐴𝐹𝑅
𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑑𝑎 =
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐴𝐹𝑅
𝜆=
𝑆𝐴𝐹𝑅
8.24
𝜆= = 0.50
14.7
Calculation 2.13
4
𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
2 × 𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 × 𝑁
𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄𝒎𝟑 ]

𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
2[𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔] × 𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 [𝒎𝒎𝟑] × 𝑁[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 60[𝒎𝒊𝒏⁄𝒉𝒓]
18.75[ 𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄𝒎𝟑]

𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = = 0.275 = 27.5%
2[𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔] × 1.72 × 105 [𝒎𝒎𝟑 ] × 3300[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 60[𝒎𝒊 𝒏⁄𝒉𝒓]
Calculation 2.14
𝑃
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃 [𝒌𝑾] × 3600[𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝜂𝐵𝑇𝐸 =
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 𝐹𝐶𝑉 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈]
3.77 [𝒌𝑾] × 3600[𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓 ]

𝜂𝐵𝑇𝐸 = = 0.172 = 17.2%
1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓 ] × 42000 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈]
Calculation 2.15
2×𝑁×𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡
2 × 𝑁[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 𝑠[𝒎𝒎]
̅̅̅
𝑆𝑝 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 [𝒎⁄𝒔] =
60[𝒔] × 103 [𝒎𝒎⁄𝒎]
2 × 3300[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 49.23[𝒎𝒎]
̅̅̅
𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 [𝒎⁄𝒔 ] = = 5.42[𝒎⁄𝒔 ]
60[𝒔] × 103 [𝒎𝒎⁄𝒎]
Calculation 2.16
POWER CORRECTION FACTOR

‘”The performance of SI and CI engines is affected by the density of the inlet combustion
air as well as by the characteristics of the test fuel. Whenever possible, tests should be
run at the standard conditions with reference fuels. When this is not possi ble, in order
to provide a common basis of comparison, correction factors should be applied to the
observed net power and torque to account for differences between reference air and fuel
conditions and those at which the test data were acquired” (SAE J1349 JUN90).
This standard document has been produced by the Society of Automotive Engineers to
provide a standard method of obtaining repeatable measurements that accurately reflect
real world engine performance, in order that engines may be compared by their relative
performance in a fair and unbiased manner. SAE J1349 JUN90 lists the correction
factor formula for power from observed conditions to standard conditions to be:
99 𝑇 [°𝑪] + 273.15
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑[𝒌𝑾] = 𝑃𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 [𝒌𝑾] [1.18 ( ) ({ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 } [𝑲] − 0.18)]
𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝑷𝒂] 298.15
5
This formula was revised in the August 2004 revision assuming an 85% mechanical
efficiency to:
99 𝑇 [°𝑪] + 273.15
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑[𝒌𝑾] = 𝑃𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑[𝒌𝑾] [1.176 ( ) ({ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 } [𝑲] − 0.176)]
𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝑷𝒂] 298.15
99 20[°𝑪] + 273.15
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 [𝒌𝑾] = 3.77[𝒌𝑾] [1.176 ( ) ({ } [𝑲] − 0.176)] = 4.26[𝒌𝑾]
102[𝒌𝑷𝒂] 298.15
Calculation 2.17
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 =
𝑁
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑[𝒌𝑾] × 60[𝒔⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏]
𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 [𝑵𝒎] =
2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 𝑁[𝒓𝒑𝒎]
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 [𝒌𝑾] × 60[𝒔⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏]

𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 [𝑵𝒎] = = 3.77[𝑵𝒎]
2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 𝑁[𝒓𝒑𝒎]
Calculation 2.18
ENERGY BALANCE DIAGRAM CALCULATIONS
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐹𝐶𝑉
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈] × 𝐹𝐶𝑉 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]

𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] =
3600[𝒔/𝒉𝒓]
1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 42000 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈 ]

𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] = = 21.07[𝒌𝑱]
3600 [𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓]
Calculation 2.19
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = (1 − 𝜆)𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐹𝐶𝑉
(1 − 𝜆) × 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 𝐹𝐶𝑉[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓 ]

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱] =
3600[𝒔/𝒉𝒓]
(1 − 0.56) × 1.88 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 42000 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈]

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱] = = 9.27[𝒌𝑱]
3600 [𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓 ]
Calculation 2.20
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑐𝑝 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡[𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓][× (𝑇𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )[𝑲]

𝑄𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱] =
3600[𝒔/𝒉𝒓]
1[𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 15.46[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓][× (723.15 − 293.15)[𝑲]

𝑄𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱] = = 1.85[𝒌𝑱]
3600 [𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓 ]
6
Calculation 2.21
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑈𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙

= (1 − 𝜆)𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
× {[𝑺𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 × (𝑇𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )]
+ [𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]}
(1 − 𝜆)𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝑄𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡[𝒌𝑱] = {[𝑐𝑝 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲] × (𝑇𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )[𝑲]]
3600[𝒔/𝒉𝒓]
+ [∆ℎ 𝑣 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈]]}
(1 − 0.56) 1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]
𝑄𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡[𝒌𝑱] = {[2.35[𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲] × (723.15 − 293.15) [𝑲]]
3600[𝒔/𝒉𝒓]
+ [41.5[𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈]]} = 0.42[𝒌𝑱]
Calculation 2.22
An estimated value for characteristic total heat losses to the engine coolant for an air
cooled spark ignition combustion engine from of 30% (Pulkrabek W.,2004) has been
assumed:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0.30 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 )
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡[𝒌𝑱] = 0.30 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙[𝒌𝑱] − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱])
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡[𝒌𝑱] = 0.30 × (21.07[𝒌𝑱] − 9.27[𝒌𝑱]) = 3.50[𝒌𝑱]
Calculation 2.23
An estimated value for characteristic mechanical losses for a spark ignition combustion
engine from (SAE J1349 AUG04) of 15% has been assumed:
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 0.15 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 )
𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] = 0.15 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱])
𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] = 0.15 × (21.07 [𝒌𝑱] − 9.27[𝒌𝑱]) = 1.77[𝒌𝑱]
Calculation 2.24
7
3. DATA TABLES
ENGINE DATA OTHER DATA

Fuel Specific
Manufacturer(1) Tecumseh [g/cm3] 0.74
Gravity(3)
Fuel Calorific
Capacity(1) [cm3] 171.9 [kJ/kg] 42000
Value (4)
Specific Heat
Stroke (1) [mm] 49.23 Capacity of [kJ/kgK] 1
Exhaust Gases(5)
Specific Heat
Bore (1) [mm] 66.69 Capacity of [kJ/kgK] 2.35(300
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
− 700 [𝑲])
Octane (5)
Enthalpy of
Compression
6 Vaporisation of [kJ/kg] 41.5
Ratio (1)
Octane (6)
Fuel
Swept Volume(2) [mm3] 1.719E+05 Stoichiometric 14.7
Fuel Ratio (7)
Table 3.1 Manufacturers Engine Data Table 3.2 Other Data used in Calculations
(1 – Tecumseh, 1995) , (2-Calculation 2.2) (3–Paul S. 1995), (4-Ganesan V. 2012), (5-Rodgers, G. and
Mayhew, Y. 2013), (6-Majer, V. and Svoboda, V. 1985) (7-
Crolla, D. 2009)
8
PERFOMANCE TESTING
DATA
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Engine Speed [rpm] 3750 3600 3300 3000 2700 2000 1500 1400
Torque [Nm] 6.4 7.5 10.9 10.9 11.1 10.7 9 9
Fuel Flow Measurement Time
[s] 13 13.5 11.35 11.8 13.6 19.9 20.6 21.87
for 8ml
Air Flow Measurement [mmH2O] 10.5 12 14 13 11 7 5 5
Exhaust Gas Temperature [°C] 450 460 450 440 430 400 350 300
Barometric Pressure [kPa] 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102
Ambient Temperature [°C] 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Power [kW] 2.51 2.83 3.77 3.42 3.14 2.24 1.41 1.32
Brake Mean Effective
[kPa] 467.7 548.1 796.5 796.5 811.1 781.9 657.7 657.7
Pressure
Fuel Volumetric Flow Rate [m3/hr] 2.22E-03 2.13E-03 2.54E-03 2.44E-03 2.12E-03 1.45E-03 1.40E-03 1.32E-03
Fuel Mass Flow Rate [kg/hr] 1.64 1.58 1.88 1.81 1.57 1.07 1.03 0.97
Specific Fuel Consumption [g/kWh] 652.3 558.3 498.5 527.4 499.3 477.9 731.8 738.5
Air Volumetric Flow Rate [m3/hr] 14.38 16.25 18.75 17.50 15.00 10.01 7.52 7.52
Air Mass Flow Rate [kg/hr] 11.86 13.41 15.46 14.43 12.38 8.26 6.20 6.20
Lambda 0.49 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.54 0.52 0.41 0.43
Air Fuel Ratio 7.24 8.49 8.24 7.99 7.90 7.71 5.99 6.36
Volumetric Efficiency [%] 18.6 21.9 27.5 28.3 26.9 24.3 24.3 26.0
Brake Thermal Effeciency [%] 13.1 15.4 17.2 16.3 17.2 17.9 11.7 11.6
Mean Piston Speed [m/s] 6.15 5.91 5.42 4.92 4.43 3.28 2.46 2.30
Corrected Power [kW] 2.84 3.20 4.26 3.88 3.55 2.54 1.60 1.49
Corrected Torque [Nm] 7.24 8.49 12.34 12.34 12.56 12.11 10.19 10.19
Table 3.3 Performance Characteristics for Tecumseh TD110 Engine from a Series of Tests Performed at LSBU
9
4. GRAPHS
Figure 4.1 Characteristic Torque response for the Tecumseh TD110 single
cylinder 4-stroke spark ignition engine obtained by experiment at LSBU.
Figure 4.1 shows a characteristic curve for a normally aspirated spark ignition small
engine. Torque rises with engine speed to the middle range of engine speeds, where it
forms a broad peak; in this series of tests between 2000-3300[rpm]. As engine speed
increases beyond this into the upper range of engine speeds the engine becomes less
volumetrically efficient and the torque drops off.
Figure 4.2 Characteristic Power response for the Tecumseh TD110 single
Figure 4.2 shows a typical response for a normally aspirated spark ignition small
engine. Power rises with engine speed, until the upper range of engine speeds, where it
comes to a sharp peak; in this series of tests at 3300[rpm]. As engine speed increases
beyond this the engine becomes less volumetrically efficient and generates less torque,
therefore the power drops off.
10
Figure 4.3 Characteristic BMEP response for the Tecumseh TD110 single
Due to the proportionality between BMEP and Torque produced at a specific engine
speed, Figure 4.3 closely resembles Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.4 Characteristic Mean Piston Speed for the Tecumseh TD110 single
Due to the stroke of the engine being a fixed dimension, the mean piston speed is
directly proportional to the engine speed; hence the relationship shown by Figure 4.4 of
a straight line, which if regressed would pass through the origin.
11
Figure 4.5 Characteristic Specific Fuel Consumption for the Tecumseh TD110
single cylinder 4-stroke spark ignition engine obtained by experiment at LSBU.
The specific fuel consumption curve illustrated by Figure 4.5 resembles an inverse of the
torque curve, with a flattened trough between 2000-3300[rpm]. As engine speed
increases beyond this the engine becomes less volumetrically efficient and therefore less
thermally efficient. Below 2000rpm the air fuel ratio is too rich and a lot of fuel is
wasted by being unburnt.
Figure 4.6 Characteristic Air Fuel Ratio and resulting Lambda for the Tecumseh
TD110 single cylinder 4-stroke spark ignition engine obtained by experiment at
LSBU.
There is a direct correlation between the two sets of data plotted in Figure 4.6, with
lambda representing the air fuel ratios proportion to the stoichiometric air fuel ratio for
the specific fuel. The resulting graph shows the engine to be running very rich with a
low air fuel ratio throughout the entire range of engine speeds.
12
Figure 4.7 Characteristic Brake Thermal Efficiency for the Tecumseh TD110
single cylinder 4-stroke spark ignition engine obtained by experiment at LSBU.
Figure 4.7 illustrates the brake thermal efficiency for this engine over this series of tests
to be very low. This is an inexpensive, low specification, small capacity single cylinder
engine. It is tuned to operate most efficiently between 2000-3300[rpm] indicated by the
broad flat peak; due to the very rich AFR much of the energy input is wasted as unburnt
fuel. Typical passenger car spark ignition engines achieve efficiencies greater than 20%
and even approaching 30% with forced induction.
Figure 4.8 Characteristic Volumetric Efficiency for the Tecumseh TD110 single
Volumetric efficiency describes how the engine performs when exchanging gases within
the cylinder. This is a critical performance characteristic for an engine, as it can only
burn fuel in the presence of oxygen in the air. In Figure 4.8 it is evident the volumetric
efficiency is fairly constant rising steadily until 3000-3300[rpm]. Beyond this, as piston
speed becomes greater and gas velocities increase the engine becomes less efficient at
exchanging gases within the cylinder.
13
Figure 4.9 Characteristic Exhaust Gas Temperature for the Tecumseh TD110
single cylinder 4-stroke spark ignition engine obtained by exp eriment at LSBU.
As described by Figure 4.9, this engine shows a typical relationship between engine
speed and exhaust temperature. The ability of this air cooled engine to dissipate the
heat energy produced as more fuel is burnt per minute is fixed; therefore the exhaust
gases must carry more heat away from the combustion chamber. The drop in
temperature at 3750[rpm] may be due to the increased proportion of unburnt fuel in the
exhaust; which due to its high specific heat capacity would dissipate more heat energy.
Figure 4.10 Comparison of Indicated Power and Torque with Power and Torque
corrected for Barometric Pressure .
As barometric pressure increases, the density of air, and therefore amount of oxygen
available for combustion increases. This means the engine can burn more fuel per cycle
and therefore produce more torque per cycle. This increases the power output of the
engine. Figure 4.10 shows this increase can be significant for a relatively small increase
in barometric pressure.
14
5. ENERGY BALANCE DIAGRAM
9.27[kJ] = Uncombusted
Fuel
0.42[kJ] = Heat Loss to

Uncombusted Fuel
Qin = 21.07[kJ] 1.85[kJ] = Heat Loss to
Exhaust Gases
3.5[kJ] = Heat Loss to

Coolant
1.77[kJ] = Mechanical
Loses
4.26[kJ] = Power Output
15
DISCUSSION
The Tecumseh TD110 172cc 4 Stroke engine is a small capacity, single cylinder, air-
cooled, L-Head side valve engine. It is designed for use in machinery such as snow
blowers and lawnmowers (Tecumseh, 1995). This places design emphasis on the engine
being inexpensive and capable of running on poor quality fuel. It is therefore poorly
tuned, and very inefficient.
It runs on a very rich air fuel ratio which allows it to run on poor quality or slightly
contaminated fuel without causing premature combustion or knocking, and enables the
engine to run cooler. This improves the longevity of the engine, however much of the
inducted fuel passes through the cylinder uncombusted and the chemical energy is lost
to the environment.
Due to the design and application of this engine this makes the Energy Balance
Diagram atypical of most data in published literature, such as (Pulkrabek W., 2004)
which states that a modern passenger car spark ignition engine will combust 95-98% of
the inducted fuel, many engine designs will run at AFRs above the stoichiometric ratio
in their low and mid-range to ensure complete combustion. At full load typical AFR data
would be 13-14 to 1, slightly below the stoichiometric ratio to prevent knocking and
overheating (Heywood, 1998).
The air cooled nature of the engine also makes it atypical of most engines for which
published data is available. Most published data applies to water -cooled multi-cylinder
engines, whereby as an estimated 35-40% of Q in does work resulting in 20-30% being
converted to useful power, with mechanical and pumping losses accounting for the
remainder, 30-35% is lost as heat to the engine coolant, and 25-30% is lost as heat in the
exhaust gases (Pulkrabek W., 2004 and Crolla D., 2009).
16
6. IGNITION AND COMBUSTION IN SPARK IGNITION

ENGINES
Figure 6.1 Typical pressure versus crank angle diagram showing the main 4-stroke
processes, indicating the range of crank angle over which combustion occurs.
Figure 6.2 Detailed view of pressure versus crank angle diagram showing the sequence
of combustion processes relative to crank position.
In a typical spark ignition engine the fuel and air are mixed during induction into the
cylinder with the inlet valve open. The inlet valve is closed and the mixture is
compressed, during which time the mixture heats enabling complete vaporisation of the
fuel; consequently a homogenous evenly distributed mixture is formed within the
cylinder. Through inlet port design and piston face design, motion is created during
induction within the fuel mixture, creating swirl and tumble turbulence on a macro
scale this aids the combustion process.
17
The spark plug is fired at between 10-30° (30° in Figure 6.1 and 6.2) before TDC (Heisler
H., 1995), this causes a high temperature plasma flame nucleus to develop at the spark.
There is an ignition delay period as much of this heat energy is absorbed by heating the
surrounding air fuel mixture and spark plug electrodes. The flame nucleus develops into
a flame embryo as the surrounding air fuel mixture heats and ignites.
Once formed, the flame embryo increases in size and the flame front increases in area.
The pressure of the heated combustion products behind the flame front increases very
rapidly as their temperature increases. This causes rapid expansion of the flame front
outward from the ignition point towards the edge of the cylinder, creating turbulence on
a micro eddy scale within the flame front. These micro eddies further accelerate the
process as the effective surface area of the flame front is increased (Heisler H., 1995).
As the flame front approaches the edge of the cylinder, the piston reaches the top of its
stroke, squishing the air fuel mixture from the edges into the centre of the piston. This
creates yet more turbulence, spreading the flame front chaotically within the mixture
again accelerating combustion.
Maximum cylinder pressure is reached 5-15° after TDC as 70-80% (Pulkrabek W., 2004)
of the air fuel mixture completes combustion. Beyond 80% combustion the piston is
accelerating in its downward stroke and the remaining uncombusted air fuel mixture at
the edges of the piston is drawn away and diluted with combustion products by slowing
turbulence eddies. This along with the increasing surface area of the relatively cool
cylinder walls slows combustion ensuring the edges of the piston and the cylinder walls
are protected from excessively high temperatures. It also ensures a smooth delivery and
fall-off of torque as the expansion phase progresses, this reduces fatigue of the engine
parts.
Poor engine design, tuning or poor quality fuel can all cause spontaneous combustion
during the expansion phase called detonation or knocking, where shockwaves and high
temperatures are experienced by the engine parts having detrimental effects on engine
longevity.
18
7. INTAKE VALVE FLOW INVESTIGATION

Figures 7.1 and 7.2 show a model developed in SolidWorks by superposition of diagrams
and using the manufacturer’s dimension data from the Tecumseh engine manual. This
model illustrates the arrangement of the L-shaped head, and the position of the valves
in relation to the cylinder.
The main drawback of the L-shaped head design is the longer, contorted pathway that
the gases must travel during the 4-stroke exchange process (see Figure 7.8). This creates
greater molecular frictional pumping losses, sapping the finite pressure differential
available on induction, and needed for good volumetric efficiency. This can be seen in the
results of the dynamometer testing data in Table 3.3, where the engine only achieves a
volumetric efficiency of approximately 25%, which rapidly drops off above 3300 psi. This
design is therefore only suitable for lower engine speeds, which in its intended
application this would not be a concern as it would most likely r un at a constant low
speed.
Given the test results, it would be best to make some assumptions for estimating the
inlet valve diameter that correspond to this engine’s characteristics and application.
19
Figure7.1 Model of Tecumseh TD110 Cylinder Block at Bottom Dead Centre showing inlet valve open
19
Figure7.2 Model of Tecumseh TD110 at Top Dead Centre, showing inlet valve closed
20
MACH NUMBER
Volumetric efficiency is heavily dependent on the flow pathways the gases must travel
to and from the cylinder. This includes the valve ports, which form one of the main
choke points of the system. Engines rotate at high cyclic speeds drawing and expelling
gases at high velocities into the cylinder. There is a physical speed limit to these speeds
governed by the Mach number. The Mach number is a ratio related to the speed of
sound, a physical constant inherent to system and its local conditions; whereby a Mach
number of 1 is equal to the local speed of sound under the local conditions.
Sound propagates as a longitudinal compression wave, creating cyclical wave fronts as it

travels formed by the molecules of the medium in which it is travelling. Each medium
has an inherent, condition dependent speed at which sound waves travel naturally,
similar to the way a coil spring will transmit pulses along its length. The local speed of
sound in air is determined by Equation 7.1
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = √(𝛾 × 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 × 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒎⁄𝒔] = √(𝛾 × 𝑅 [𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑻[𝑲 ])
Equation 7.1
This natural speed also forms a speed limit in certain circumstances. One example is the
movement of air in a duct, like an engine air intake. The moving air creates a pressure
wave in front of it; this pressure wave is a high concentration zone of air molecules.
These concentrated air molecules are closer together and therefore experience more
collisions between themselves and the walls of the duct, creating increased dynamic
friction. As the velocity of the air approaches the local speed of sound in the duct the
molecules are forced so close together and they collide so frequently it is analogous to
them rubbing; the friction of which causes a very rapid increase in heating. The heating
dissipates the kinetic energy of the moving air as conducted heat and electromagnetic
radiation, resulting in a loss of velocity.
When an air flow passes through a choke point or nozzle, such as a valve port, the Mach
number relationship is compounded by pressure changes. In engines this sets the
practical limit for an inlet valve port to a Mach number of 0.6 (Taylor C. 1985), however
for this analysis of an engine that has already been established as volumetrically
challenged Taylor’s preferred value of Mach number 𝑍 = 0.4 shall be assumed as a
practical limit.
FLOW COEFFICIENT
The valve has two critical aspects; its seat diameter (d) and the amount it lifts (l) from
its seat to its fully open position. As the valve lift approaches ¼ of the valve seat
𝜋𝑑2
diameter, the valve curtain area (𝜋𝑑𝑙) equals the valve seat diameter ( ) , when
4
adjusted for the effects of the valve stem and the shape of the ports separation effects,
this leads to a practical limit for l/d of 0.4. This is demonstrated by Figure 7.3. which
21
shows the relationship of 𝐶𝑓 𝑣𝑠 𝑙⁄𝑑 for a typical valve port. Beyond 0.4 the limiting
factor becomes the valve seat diameter.
Figure 7.3 Characteristic flow coefficient curves for inlet and exhaust valves. (Ferguson
C., Kirkpatrick A., 2013)
The valve flow coefficient (𝐶𝑓 ) is a ratio of the valves effective area (𝐴 𝑒 ) in a given open
position relative to an open unobstructed port equal to the valve seat area. (𝐴 𝑣 ) in terms
of their capacity to convey air through flow.
𝐴𝑒
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐴𝑣
𝐴 𝑒 [𝒎𝒎]
𝐶𝑓 =
𝐴 𝑣 [𝒎𝒎]
(Ferguson C., Kirkpatrick A., 2013) Equation 7.3
The inlet valve opening, the induction of air into the cylinder and the closing of the inlet
valve are 3 synchronous intervals of the process of inducting the air into the cylinder.
They have a finite duration dictated by the speed of the cam shaft which is proportional
to the speed of the engine when operating within its practical working range. A mean
flow coefficient is therefore formed by these three processes as, which could be
calculated by integrating the area under an 𝐶𝑓 𝑣𝑠 𝑙⁄𝑑 plot for the process. For this
investigation a value of 𝐶𝑓 = 0.35 has been assumed to agree with Ferguson and
Kirkpatrick .
22
CALCULATION OF SUITABLE INTAKE VALVE PORT DIAMETER

Using Equation 7.1 the local speed of sound can be calculated:
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟 = √(𝐺𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 × 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎⁄𝒔] = √(𝛾 × 𝑅 [𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑇[𝑲 ])
𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒎⁄𝒔 ] = √(1.40 × 287.1[𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 293.15[𝑲 ]) = 343.3[𝒎⁄𝒔 ]
It is assumed that the presence of the fuel droplets in the air has a negligible effect on
the local speed of sound.
The maximum speed achieved in the testing before the volumetric efficiency, torque and
power drop off was 3300rpm. Assuming this is the maximum engine speed by design the
volumetric rate of change within the cylinder can be calculated.
𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑆𝑝
̅̅̅ 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 × 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋𝑏 2 𝟐
̇
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 ̅̅̅𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 [𝒎⁄𝒔] × A𝑝 [𝒎𝟐] = 𝑆𝑝
[𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔 ] = 𝑆𝑝 ̅̅̅𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 [𝒎⁄𝒔 ] × [𝒎 ]
4
𝜋0.066692
𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔] = 5.42[𝒎⁄𝒔 ] × ( ) [𝒎𝟐 ] = 18.93 × 10 −3 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔 ]
4
Calculation 7.3
The Tecumseh engine is Carburettor fed prior to the inlet valve port, therefore the
volumetric rate of change through the valve port can be assumed to be equal to the
volumetric rate of change within the cylinder. A calculation can be performed to design a
minimum effective inlet valve port area based on the assumed values for Mach number
and mean flow coefficient discussed.
𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑣𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 × 𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔 ] = 𝐴 𝑒 [𝒎𝟐 ] × 𝑍 × 𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎⁄𝒔 ] = ̅̅̅

𝐶𝑓𝐴 𝑣 [𝒎𝟐] × 𝑍 × 𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎⁄𝒔]
̇
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒔]
𝐴 𝑣 [𝒎𝟐] = ̅̅̅
𝐶𝑓 × 𝑍 × 𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎⁄𝒔]
18.93 × 10−3 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔 ]

𝐴 𝑣 [𝒎𝟐] = = 3.93 × 10−4 [𝒎𝟐]
0.4 × 343.3 [𝒎⁄𝒔 ]
Calculation 7.4
From this the inlet valve port diameter can be calculated:
𝜋 × (𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) 2

= 𝐴𝑣
4
23
𝜋(𝑑𝑖 [𝒎])2
= 𝐴 𝑣 [𝒎𝟐]
4
4𝐴 𝑣[𝒎𝟐]
𝑑𝑖 [𝒎] = √( )
𝜋
4 × 3.93 × 10−4 [𝒎𝟐 ]

𝑑𝑖 [𝒎] = √( ) = 0.02239 [𝒎] = 22.39[𝒎𝒎]
𝜋
Calculation 7.5
This gives a piston bore to inlet valve port diameter ratio:
𝑑𝑖 [𝒎𝒎] 22.39[𝒎𝒎]
= = 0.336: 1
𝑏 [𝒎𝒎] 66.69[𝒎𝒎]
Calculation 7.6
According to Taylor’s table (Taylor C., 1985) this is a low ratio, and should be closer to
0.5:1 for a small 4-stroke engine. From Figure7.8, the detailed view of the model
developed in SolidWorks, a measurement of 29.34mm for valve port diameter can be
inferred, this would give a piston bore to inlet valve port diameter ratio:
𝑑𝑖 [𝒎𝒎] 29.34[𝒎𝒎]
= = 0.440: 1
𝑏 [𝒎𝒎] 66.69[𝒎𝒎]
Calculation 7.7
This is more in agreement with Taylor’s data, and would account for losses that have not
been included in the above calculations; these would include intermolecular friction
losses and choked flow pressure drops discussed previously.
24
d
b
Figure 7.8 Detailed Views from Figure 7.1 illustrating the contorted flow path the
inducted air must follow (Section A-A), and the measurements used in Calculation 7.7
(Section C-C)
8. HARMFUL POLLUTANTS
Below is a summary of five harmful pollutants found in the exhaust gas of internal
combustion engines, their origin and their effects on humans.
𝐶8 𝐻18 + 12.5𝑂2 + 47𝑁2 → 8𝐶𝑂2 + 9𝐻2 𝑂 + 47𝑁2
Formula 8.1 Complete combustion of Octane in Air
During complete combustion of Octane in Air, only one pollutant is produced, Carbon
Dioxide, 𝐶𝑂2 . Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring component gas of the atmosphere;
however it is only present at approximately 0.03% by volume. Concentrations above 4%
are toxic to humans, causing hypercapnia and acidemia, which can lead to involuntary
muscle twitching, delirium, hallucinations, nerve damage, heart damage, and eventually
death. Carbon dioxide is also a Greenhouse gas which contributes to global warming.
In a real engine complete combustion is never truly achieved due to fuel impurities and
tuning aspects and compromises to prolong longevity of the engine.
25
Gasoline + Impurities + Oxygen + Nitrogen

= Unburned or Partially Burned Hydrocarbons (VOCs)
+ Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) + Carbon Monoxide(CO) + Oxides of Impurities
+ Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) + Water (𝐻2 O)
Formula 8.2 Incomplete combustion of Gasoline in Air
Most pollutants occur during incomplete combustion of fuels, these can include:
Unburned or Partially Burned Hydro Carbons, termed Volatile Organic Compounds,

these include Octane, Benzene, which is added to fuel to prolong valve seat life, and
other shorter chain hydrocarbons that result from incomplete combustion. Many of these
chemicals are harmful or toxic to humans and the environment, causing mutations that
lead to cancers, respiratory diseases and deformity in foetuses.
Carbon Monoxide, 𝐶𝑂 – A more toxic oxide of carbon, formed as an intermediary product

during combustion, which remains when combustion is incomplete . Carbon monoxide
has a higher affinity for the Iron reaction sites in blood haemoglobin that ordinarily
attach to and transport oxygen around the body. Once attached to the reaction sites, the
carbon monoxide cannot be removed by the normal chemical processes in the body, and
the haemoglobin molecules become redundant.
Oxides of Nitrogen, 𝑁𝑂𝑥 include 𝑁𝑂 and 𝑁𝑂2 . 𝑁𝑂 Nitric Oxide is formed during
combustion at high temperature. 𝑁𝑂 readily combines with more oxygen to form 𝑁𝑂2
Nitrogen Dioxide. Both gases are acidic and cause irritation of the respiratory tract in
humans, leading to long term respiratory diseases. They are soluble in water and
contribute to the creation of Acid Rain which can cause leaf damage to plants and poison
lakes and waterways.
Oxides of Sulphur, 𝑆𝑂𝑥 include 𝑆𝑂2 Sulphur Dioxide and 𝑆𝑂3 Sulphur Trioxide. They are
formed by the combustion of sulphurous impurities in fuels. Both gases are acidic and
cause irritation of the respiratory tract and eyes in humans, leading to long term
respiratory diseases and contributing to eye diseases. They are also soluble in water and
contribute to the creation of Acid Rain which can cause leaf damage to plants and poison
lakes and waterways.
26
REFERENCES
Boretti, A.A. and Nebuloni .P. (1993), Turbulence effects in reciprocating engines -
Engineering Turbulence Modeling andExperiments . Elsevier Science
Crolla, D. (2009), Automotive Engineering - Powertrain, Chassis System and Vehicle

Body, Oxford, Elsevier
Ferguson, C. Kirkpatrick, A. (2013), Internal Combustion Engines – Applied

Thermosciences, Third Edition, Chichester, Wiley
Ganesan, V. (2012), IC Engines, 4th Edition, New Delhi, Tata Mcgraw-Hill
Heisler H. (1995), Advanced Engine Technology, London, SAE International
Heywood, J. (1988), Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, London, Mcgraw-Hill
Majer, V. and Svoboda, V. (1985), Enthalpies of Vaporization of Organic Compounds ,

Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications
Paul, S. (1998), An optimized alternative motor fuel formulation: natural gas liquids,
ethanol, and a biomass-derived ether, New Jersey, Princeton University
Pulkrabek, W. (2004), Operating Characteristics - Engineering Fundamentals of the

Internal Combustion Engine , 2nd Edition, .Prentice Hall
Rathakrishnan E. (2010), Applied gas dynamics, Singapore, Wiley
Rodgers, G. and Mayhew, Y. (2013), Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids ,

5th Edition, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications
SAE International, (2004), J1349AUG2008 Revised 2004-08, SURFACE VEHICLE

STANDARD - Engine Power Test Code—Spark Ignition andCompression Ignition—Net
Power Rating, SAE International.
Taylor, C. (1985), The internal-combustion engine in theory and practice , Second

Edition, Cambridge, Mass. : M.I.T. Press,
Tecumseh, (1995), Tecumseh Technicians Handbook, 3 to 11HP 4-Cycle L-Head

Engines, Tecumseh
TQ Education and Training Ltd., (2004), TD110-TD115 Test Bed and Instrumentation
for Small Engines, TQ Education and Training Ltd.
27

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Internal Combustion Engine Performance Characteristics,

Combustion Chamber Design, and Gas Exchange Process

Thermofluids and Turbomachinery

Student Number: 3131147

Module Coordinator: Dr. Mark Ellis

The TD115 Dynamometer is a Hydraulic Dynamometer which measures the torque

The TD114 Instrumentation Unit consists of a number of instruments to enable other

Due to difficulties encountered on the day of testing a series of data performed by a

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑇orque

2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 𝑁[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 𝜏[𝑵𝒎]

2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 3300[𝒓𝒑𝒎] × 10.9[𝑵𝒎]

𝜋 × 𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒

𝜋 × (66.69 [𝒎𝒎])2 × 49.23[𝒎𝒎]

2[𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔] × 2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 𝜏[𝑵𝒎] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄ 𝒎𝟑 ]

2[𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 ] × 2𝜋[𝒓𝒂𝒅] × 10.9[𝑵𝒎] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄𝒎𝟑 ]

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

2.54 × 10−3 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 0.74[𝒈⁄𝒎𝒍 ] × 106 [ 𝒎𝒍⁄𝒎𝟑]

1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 103 [𝒈⁄𝒌𝒈]

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 2.8

𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑁𝑇𝑃 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = (1.0223 × 𝑝𝑣𝑓 [𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐 𝑶]) + 1.0466

𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑁𝑇𝑃 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] = (1.0223 × 14[𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐𝑶]) + 1.0466 = 15.37 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]

This formula is derived from the combination of Poiseuille’s Equation, Sutherland’s

Calculation 2.9 (TQ Education and Training Ltd., 2004)

𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝑷𝒂] × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 [𝑷𝒂⁄𝒌𝑷𝒂]

102[𝒌𝑷𝒂] × 103 [𝑷𝒂⁄𝒌𝑷𝒂 ]

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒉𝒓] = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑]

𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] = 15.46[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 1.21235 [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ] = 18.75 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓]

𝑉̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄𝒎𝟑 ]

18.75[ 𝒎𝟑⁄𝒉𝒓] × 109 [𝒎𝒎𝟑⁄𝒎𝟑]

3.77 [𝒌𝑾] × 3600[𝒔⁄𝒉𝒓 ]

POWER CORRECTION FACTOR

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 [𝒌𝑾] × 60[𝒔⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏]

ENERGY BALANCE DIAGRAM CALCULATIONS

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐹𝐶𝑉

𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈] × 𝐹𝐶𝑉 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓]

1.88[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 42000 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈 ]

(1 − 𝜆) × 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 𝐹𝐶𝑉[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓 ]

(1 − 0.56) × 1.88 [𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓] × 42000 [𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈]

𝑐𝑝 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡[𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑚̇ 𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓][× (𝑇𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )[𝑲]

1[𝒌𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 15.46[𝒌𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓][× (723.15 − 293.15)[𝑲]

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑈𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0.30 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 )

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡[𝒌𝑱] = 0.30 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙[𝒌𝑱] − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱])

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡[𝒌𝑱] = 0.30 × (21.07[𝒌𝑱] − 9.27[𝒌𝑱]) = 3.50[𝒌𝑱]

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 0.15 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 )

𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] = 0.15 × (𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝒌𝑱])

𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 [𝒌𝑱] = 0.15 × (21.07 [𝒌𝑱] − 9.27[𝒌𝑱]) = 1.77[𝒌𝑱]

ENGINE DATA OTHER DATA

5. ENERGY BALANCE DIAGRAM

0.42[kJ] = Heat Loss to

3.5[kJ] = Heat Loss to

4.26[kJ] = Power Output

6. IGNITION AND COMBUSTION IN SPARK IGNITION

7. INTAKE VALVE FLOW INVESTIGATION

Sound propagates as a longitudinal compression wave, creating cyclical wave fronts as it

𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = √(𝛾 × 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 × 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)

𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒎⁄𝒔] = √(𝛾 × 𝑅 [𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑻[𝑲 ])

(Ferguson C., Kirkpatrick A., 2013) Equation 7.3

CALCULATION OF SUITABLE INTAKE VALVE PORT DIAMETER

𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟 [𝒎⁄𝒔] = √(𝛾 × 𝑅 [𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 𝑇[𝑲 ])

𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟[𝒎⁄𝒔 ] = √(1.40 × 287.1[𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲 ] × 293.15[𝑲 ]) = 343.3[𝒎⁄𝒔 ]

𝑉̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑣𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 × 𝑢𝑎𝑖𝑟