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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ........ v
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ ix
Conversion Factors
List of Contributors ................................................................

Chapter 8 . lMooring Systems ....................................................................................... 663

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 663


8.2 Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 665
8.3 Fundamentals ..................................................................................................................... 665
8.3.1 Catenary Lines ............................ 665
8.3.2 Synthetic Lines .............................................................. 669
8.3.3 Single Catenary Line Performance Characteristics ................................................. 670
8.4 Loading Mechanisms .......................................................................................................... 671
8.5 Mooring System Design 675
8.5.1 Static Design ............................................................................................................ 675
8.5.2 Quasi-Static Design ................................................ 676
8.5.3 Dynamic Design ................................................................ 677
8.5.4 Synthetic Lines ......................................................................................................... 680
8.5.5 Effective Water Depth ............................................................................................. 680
8.5.6 Mooring Spreads ................................................ 680
8.5.7 Uncertainty in Line Hydrodynamic Coefficients ......... 681
8.5.8 Uncertainty in Line Damping and Tension Prediction ........................................... 684
8.6 Mooring Hardware Components ........................................................................................ 687
8.6.1 Chain ....................................................................................................................... 687
8.6.2 Wire Rope ............................................................................................................... 688
8.6.3 Properties of Chain and Wire Rope .............................................................. 689
8.6.4 Moorings ............................................................................................ 689
8.6.5 Connectors ............................................................................................................... 689
8.6.6 Shipboard Equipment .............................................................................................. 693
8.6.7 Anchors ................................................ 693
8.6.8 Turrets .......................................................................... 694
8.7 Industry Standards and Classification Rules ...................................................................... 696
8.7.1 Certification ............................................................................................................. 697
8.7.2 Environmental Conditions and Loads .................................................................... 697
8.7.3 Mooring System Analysis .............................................. 699
8.7.4 Thruster-Assisted Mooring ................................................. 704
8.7.5 Mooring Equipment ................................................................................................ 705
8.7.6 Tests ......................................................................................................................... 706
XVI

Chapter 9 . Drilling and Production Risers ................................................................... 709

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 709


9.2 Drilling Risers ...................... .................................................. 714
9.2.1 Design Background ............................................................... 715
9.2.2 Influence of Metocean Conditions .......................................................................... 715
9.2.3 Pipe Cross-Sect ................................................................ 715
9.2.4 Configuration ( .............. ........ 718
9.2.5 Vortex-Induced ............................................................................. 726
9.2.6 Disconnected Riser .................................................................................................. 730
9.2.7 Connected Riser ............ .................... 744
9.2.8 Emergency Disconnect Sequence (EDS)!Drift-Off An 757
9.2.9 Riser Recoil after EDS .................................................................................... 166
9.3 Production Risers ............................................................................................................... 768
9.3.1 Design Philosophy and Background ....................................................................... 769
9.3.2 Top Tension Risers .................................................................................................. 779
9.3.3 Steel Catenary Risers (Portions contributed by Thanos Moros &
Howard Cook, BP America, Houston, TX) ................................................... 802
9.3.4 Diameter and Wall Thickness ................................................................................. 817
9.3.5 SCR Maturity and Feasibility ............................... 824
9.3.6 In-Service Load Combinations ................................................................................ 826
9.3.7 Accidental and Temporary Design Cases ................................................................ 828
9.4 Vortex Induced Vibration of Risers ............. 828
9.4.1 VIV Parameters ............................................................................................... 828
9.4.2 Simplified VIV Analysis .......................................................................................... 829
9.4.3 Examples of VIV Analysis ....................................................................................... 832
9.4.4 Available Codes ............ 832
9.5 VIV Suppression Devices ............................................................................................ 832
9.6 Riser Clashing .......................... 836
9.6.1 Clearance, Interference and Layout Considerations ....................................... 836
9.7 Fatigue Analysis ................................................................................................................. 838
9.7.1 First and Second Order Fatigue .............................................................................. 842
9.7.2 Fatigue Due to Riser VIV .... 845
9.7.3 Fatigue Acceptance Criteria ............................................................................ 848
9.8 Fracture Mechanics Assessment ......................................................................................... 849
9.8.1 Engineering Critical Assessment .............................................................................. 850
9.8.2 Paris Law Fatigue Analysis ........ ................................................. 851
9.8.3 Acceptance Criteria ..... .......... 851
9.8.4 Other Factors to Consi ......................................... 851
9.9 Reliability-Based Design ..................................................................................................... 851
9.10 Design Verification ........ ........................................................................................... 853
9.11 Design Codes ................... ................................................. 854

Chapter 10. Topside Facilities Layout Development .................................................... 861

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 861


10.2 General Layout Considerations .......................................................................................... 862
xvii

10.2.1 General Requirements ........................................................................................... 864


10.2.2 Deepwater Facility Considerations ........................................................................ 865
10.2.3 Prevailing Wind Direction ......................................... 866
10.2.4 Fuel and Ignition Sources ...................................................................................... 867
10.2.5 Control and Safety Systems ................................................................................... 869
10.2.6 Firewalls, Barrier Walls and Blast Walls ............................................................... 869
10.2.7 Fire Fighting Equipment ......................................... 869
10.2.8 Process Flow ........................................................................................... 869
10.2.9 Maintenance of Equipment ................................................................................... 870
10.2.10 Safe Work Areas and Operations ............................ 870
10.2.11 Storage .......................................... 870
10.2.12 Ventilation ............................................................................................................. 871
10.2.13 Escape Routes ....................................................................................................... 872
10.3 Areas and Equipment .................................................................. 872
10.3.1 Wellhead Areas ................................................. 872
10.3.2 Unfired Process Areas ............................................................... 872
10.3.3 Hydrocarbon Storage Tanks ................................................................................. 873
10.3.4 Fired Process Equipment ....................................................................................... 873
10.3.5 Machinery Areas ...................................................... 873
10.3.6 Quarters and Utility Buildings ............................................................... ...... 874
10.3.7 Pipelines ................................................................................................................. 874
10.3.8 Flares and Vents ......... ............................ 874
10.4 Deck Impact Loads ............................................................................................. 875
10.5 Deck Placement and Configuration ................................................................................... 876
10.5.1 Horizontal Placement of Equipment on Deck ...................................................... 876
10.5.2 Vertical Placement of Equipment .............................................. 876
10.5.3 Installation Considerations .................................................................................... 877
10.5.4 Deck Installation Schemes ..................................................................................... 877
10.6 Floatover Deck Installation ............................................................................................... 879
10.7 Helideck ........... ............................................................................................ 881
10.8 Platform Crane ............................................................................................ 883
10.9 Practical Limit 883
10.10 Analysis of Two Example Layouts .................................................................................... 883
10.11 Example North Sea Britannia Topside Facility ................................................................. 887

Chapter 11. Design and Construction of Offshore Pipelines ........................................ 891

11.1 Introduction 89 1
11.2 Design Basis......................................... 892
11.3 Route Selection and Marine Survey ................................................................................... 893
11.4 Diameter Selection .............................................................................................................. 893
11.4.1 Sizing Gas Lines ................................................................................................... 893
11.4.2 Sizing Oil Lines ............... 895
11.5 Wall Thickness and Grade ................................................................................................. 895
11.5.1 Internal Pressure Containment (Burst ) ................................................................. 896
11.5.2 Collapse Due to External Pressure ........................................................................ 897
xviii

11.5.3 Local Buckling Due to Bending and External Pressure ....................................... 899
11.5.4 Rational Model for Collapse of Deepwater Pipelines .......................................... 900
11.6 Buckle Propagation 905
11.7 Design Example ............................................................................. 907
11.7.1 Preliminary Wall Thickness for Internal Pressure
Containment (Burst) .............................................................................................. 908
11.7.2 Collapse Due to External Pressure ...................................... 910
11.7.3 Local Buckling Due to Bending and External Pressure ....................................... 911
11.7.4 Buckle Propagation ................................................................................................ 911
11.8 On-Bottom Stability ......................................................... 912
11.8.1 Soil Friction Factor .................................... 913
11.8.2 Hydrodynamic Coefficient Selection .................................................................... 913
11.8.3 Hydrodynamic Force Calculation ......................................................................... 914
11.8.4 Stability Criteria .................................................................................................... 914
11.9 Bottom Roughness Analysis ........................ 914
11.9.1 Allowable Span Length on Current-Dominated Oscillations 916
11.9.2 Design Example ..................................................................................................... 917
11.IO External Corrosion Protection .......................................................................................... 917
11.10.1 Current Demand Calculations ............................................................................. 918
11.10.2 Selection of Anode Type and Dimensions ............................................................ 919
11.10.3 Anode Mass Calculations ...................................................................................... 919
11.10.4 Calculation of Number of Anodes 920
11.10.5 Design Example ................................................................................................... 920
11.11 Pipeline Crossing Design .................................................................................................... 921
11.12 Construction Feasibility ...................... 927
11.12.1 J -lay Installatio .......................................................... 929
11.12.2 S-lay ....................................................................................................................... 932
11.12.3 Reel-lay ............... 933
11.12.4 Towed Pipelines ..................................................................................................... 933

Chapter 12. Design for Reliability: Human and Organisational


Factors ..................................................................................................... 939

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 939


12.2 Recent Experiences of Designs Gone Bad ....... 939
12.2.1 Operator Malfunctions .......................................................................................... 942
12.2.2 Organisational Malfunctions ................................................................................. 944
12.2.3 Structure, Hardware, Equipment Malfunctions .................................................... 946
12.2.4 Procedure and Software Malfunctions ................................................ 947
12.2.5 Environmental Influences ........................... 948
12.3 Design Objectives: Life Cycle Quality, Reliability a ........................... 948
12.3.1 Quality ................................................................................................................... 948
12.3.2 Reliability ............................................................................................................... 949
12.3.3 Minimum Costs ..................................................................................................... 952
12.4 Approaches to Achieve Successful Designs 957
12.4.1 Proactive Approaches ..................................................................... 958
XIX

12.4.2 Reactive Approaches ..................... ...................... ........ 965


12.4.3 Interactive Approaches .......................................................................................... 968
12.5 Instruments to Help Achieve Design Success....... 973
12.5.1 Quality Management Assessment System 973
12.5.2 System Risk Assessment System ............................................................................ 919
12.6 Example Applications ........................................................................................................ 984
12.6.1 Minimum Structures . .. .. . . 984
12.6.2 Deepwater Structure roject .................................. ..................... . 990
12.7 Summary and Conclusions .........._.....,,,,,,,,,......_...................._.._._ _...... . ............................... 992

Chapter 13. Physical Modelling of Offshore Structures ............................................. 1001

13.1 Introduction.. ......,.,,,............... .................... ............ ...........


13.1.1 History of Model Testing ........
13.1.2 Purpose of Physical Modelling
13.2 Modelling and Similarity Laws ..................
13.2.1 Geometric Similitude ............................................................................................. 1005
13.2.2 Kinematic Similitude .......
13.2.3 Hydrodynamic Similitude ..............
13.2.4 Froude Model ........................................................................................................ 1007
13.2.5 Reynolds Model ..................................................................................................... 1007
13.2.6 Cauchy Model ................. ....................................................................... 1014
13.3 Model Test Facilities ........................ ..... 1015
13.3.1 Physical Dimensions ............................................................................................... 1016
13.3.2 Generation of Waves, Wind and Current ............................................................. 1019
13.4 Modelling of Environment ........... .......................................... 1019
13.4.1 Modelling of Waves .........
13.4.2 Unidirectional Random Waves
13.4.3 Multi-directional Random Waves ..................................... ........................ 1020
13.4.4 White Noise Seas .................................................................................................. 1021
13.4.5 Wave Grouping ...................................................................................................... 1022
13.4.6 Modelling of Wind .......
13.4.7 Modelling of Current ......................................................... ...................... 1023
13.5 Model Calibration .............................................................................................................. 1026
13.5.1 Measurement of Mass Properties ........._._..................................................,,,,.,..,,,. 1027
13.6 Field and Laboratory Instrumentation ......
13.6.1 Type of Measurements ...................................................... .._._.............1030
13.6.2 Calibration of Instruments ............
13.7 Pre-Tests with Model ..................................................................................................... 1033
13.7.1 Static Draft. Trim and Heel
13.7.2 Inclining Test ....................... ........................................................................ 1033
13.7.3 Mooring Stiffness Test ... ..,,,,,,,,,,,,,..................,,,,.........,..,,,................................,,,. 1034
13.7.4 Free Oscillation Test .............................................................................................. 1034
13.7.5 Towing Resistance Test ....................................................................................... 1035
13.8 Moored Model Tests in Waves and Current ..................................................................... 1035
13.8.1 Regular Wave Tests ...... ...................... . 1035
13.8.2 White Noise Test ............................................................... ................ 1036
xx

13.8.3 Irregular Wave Tests ................ .......................................................... 1036


13.8.4 Second-Order Slow Drift Tests.............................. ..................... 1036
13.9 Distorted Model Testing ...............................................................................................
13.9.1 Density Effects ........ .......................................................... 1037
13.9.2 Cable Modelling ........................................ ........................................ 1037
13.9.3 Modelling of Mooring Lines, Risers and
Tendons ............................................................................................ 1038
13.10 Ultra-deepwater Model Testing ... ........................................................... 1042
13.10.1 Ultra Small-scale Testing ........................................................... 1043
13.10.2 Field Testing ................................................ ....................................... 1044
13.10.3 Truncated Model Testing ...............................................
13.10.4 Hybrid Testi .................................................................................... 1046
13.11 Data Acquisition and ........................................ 1050
13.11.1 Data Acquisi em .............................................. .................... 1050
13.11.2 Quality Ass
13.11.3 Data Analysis ................... ........................................................... 1051

Chapter 14. Offshore Installation ................................................................................ 1055

14.1 Introduction .................................... ........................................................... 1055


14.2 Fixed Platform Substructures .................................................. ..................... 1056
14.2.1 Types of Fixed Platform Substructures ................................................................. 1056
14.2.2 Jackets ................... ............................................................................. 1056
14.2.3 Compliant Towers ............................................................................. 1059
14.2.4 Gravity Base Struc ............................................................................. 1061
14.3 Floating Structures ................................................. ........................................ 1063
14.3.1 Types of Floating Structures ......................................... ..................... 1063
14.3.2 Installation of FPSOs .......................................................................

14.3.5 Spar Installation ............................................................ ...................... 1070


14.4
14.4.1 Types ....................... ................................................................... 1072
14.4.2 Driven Piles ................................. ............................................... 1073
14.4.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles ............................ .............................. 1074
14.4.4 Suction Embedded Anchors .............................................................
14.4.5 Drag Embedded Anchors ...................................................................................... 1078
14.5 Subsea Templates ......................................... ....................................... 1079
14.5.1 Template Installation ........................................................................ 1079
14.5.2 Positioning and Monitoring..................................................................... 1080
14.5.3 Rigging Requirements ....................................................................... 1081
14.5.4 Existing Subsea Facilities ....................................................................................... 1082
14.5.5 Seabed Preparation ............................................................................. 1082
14.6 Loadout .................................................... ........................................... 1082
14.6.1 Loadout Methods .......................................................... .................... 1082
14.6.2 Constraints ........................................................................... ... 1085
14.6.3 Structural Analysis .................................................................................... 1086
xx1

14.7 Transportation ........... ............................


14.7.1 Configuration ............................................................................
14.7.2 Barges and H
14.7.3 Design Criteria and Meteorological Data ............................. 1090
14.7.4 Transport Route .......................................................................
14.7.5 Motions and
14.7.6 SeafasteningdTie downs ........................................................................................ 1095
14.7.7 Structural Analysis ......................................................... 1095
14.7.8 Inundation, Slamming ........ .................................................. 1096
14.8 Platform Installation Methods .................................. ............................. 1097

14.8.2 Launch ..................................................................................... 1098


14.8.3 Mating ...................................... .................................................. 1099
14.8.4 Hook-up to Pre-Installed Mooring Lines .................................

14.9.2 Heavy Lift.. ..................................................................................... 1106


14.9.3 Launching .......................... ......................................................... 1110
14.9.4 Unpiled Stability ..................................................

14.9.7 Tension Leg Platforms .............................................................................. 1 13


14.9.8 Spar ............... ................................................................ 1 14
14.9.9 FPSO .................... ................................................................ 1 14
16
16
14.10.2 Methods of Pipeline Installation ........................................................................... 1 16
14.10.3 Types of Risers .................. .................................................. 1119
14.10.4 Methods of Ris
14.10.5 Vessel and Equ
14.10.6 Analyses Required .............................................................................. 1121

Chapter 15. Materials for Offshore Applications ........................................................ 1127

15.1 Introduction ............................. ......................................................... 1127


15.1.1 Factors Affecting Mat ......................................................... 1127
15.1.2 Classification of Materials .............. ............................. 1128
15.2 Structural Steel ............................................................................................. 1128
15.3 Topside Materials ............................................................................................................... 1130
15.3.1 Materials Applications .............................................................................. 1131
15.3.2 Materials for Seawater ........................................... 1132
15.3.3 Materials for Process Piping and Equipment ........................... 1132
15.4 Material for HPHT Applications ....................................................................................... 1133
15.4.1 Limitations of Materials for HPHT Application .................................................. 1133
15.5 Advanced Composite Materials .......................................................................................... 1 134
15.6 Elastomers ........................ ................................................................ 1135
xxii

15.7 Corrosion Control ................................................................ 1137


15.8 Material Reliability and Monitoring .................................................................................. 1138
15.9 Fracture Control ................................................................................................................. 1138

Chapter 16. Geophysical and Geotechnical Design ...................................................... 1145


16.1 Preface ............................................................................................ 1145
16.2 Introdu ............................................................................................ 1146
16.2.1 Regulations, Standards and Permits ................................................ 1147
16.2.2 Desk Studies and Planning .................................... 1148
16.2.3 Specifications ......................................................................................................... 1148
16.2.4 Applications ........................................................................................................... 1149
16.3 Geophysical Techniques . .............................................................................. 1152
16.3.1 General ............... ............................................................................................ 1152
16.3.2 High-Resolution Reflection Systems ...... 1154
16.3.3 Sounders .............................................................................. 1156
16.3.4 Side-Scan Sonar ..................................................................................................... 1158
16.3.5 Sub-Bottom Profilers ............................................................................................. 1160
16.3.6 Marine Magnetometer ..................................................................... 1163
16.3.7 Use of D a t a . .................................... 1164
16.4 Remote Geophysical Platforms .................................... 1165
16.4.1 Remotely Operated Ve .................................................. 1165
16.4.2 Autonomous Underwa .................................... 1165
16.5 Seabed Classification Systems ............................................................................................ 1166
16.6 Seismic Refraction Systems ............................................................
16.7 Electrical Resistivity Systems
16.8 Underwater Cameras ............
16.9 Geotechnical Techniques .................................................................................................... 1172
16.9.1 General .......... 1172
16.9.2 Vessels and Rigs .............................................................................. 1173
16.9.3 Methods of Drilling and Sampling ........................................................................ 1179
16.9.4 Shallow Soil Sampling and Rock Coring Systems ..........................
16.9.5 Basic Gravity Corer ........ .........................................................
16.9.6 Kullenberg Device ................................................................................................. 1192
16.9.7 Piston Corer ........................................................................................................... 1193
16.9.8 Abrams Corer ........................................................................................................ 1195
16.9.9 Vibrocorer ......................................................
16.9.10 High Performance CorerTM..........................
16.9.11 Box Corers ............................................................................................................ 1199
16.9.12 Push-In Samplers ................................................................................................... 1200
16.9.13 Grab Samplers ....................................................................................................... 1201
16.10 In situ Testing Systems .........................................
16.10.1 Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) Systems
16.10.2 Minicones ............................................................................................ 1209
16.10.3 The ROV ............................................................................................ 1210
16.10.4 Vane Test .............................................................
16.10.5 T-Bar Test .....................................
xxiii

16.10.6 Piezoprobe Test .............................................................. 1216


16.10.7 Other In Situ Tests .............................................................................................. 1217
16.11 Operational Considerations ................................................................................................ 1218
16.11.1 Horizontal Control or Positioning ............................. 1218
16.11.2 Water Depth Measuring Procedures ............................... 1219
16.11.3 Borehole Stability ................................................................................................. 1221
16.11.4 Blowout Prevention ............................................................................................. 1221
16.12 Industry Legislation. Regulations and Guidelines ............................................................. 1221
16.13 Laboratory Testing ................................................ ..... 1223
16.13.1 General ................................................................................................................. 1223
16.13.2 Conventional Laboratory Testing ........................................................................ 1224
16.13.3 Advanced Laboratory Testing ............................................................................. 1229
16.14 Offshore Foundation Design ........................................................ 1237
16.14.1 Pile Design ........................................................................................................... 1237
16.14.2 Axial Pile Capacity ............................................ 1238
16.14.3 Axial Pile Response ................................................. ............. 1248

16.14.5 Other Considerations ............................................................................ 1254


16.14.6 Pile Drivability Analyses and Monitoring .......
16.14.7 Supplementary Pile Installation Procedures ...........................................

16.15.3 Shallow Foundation Settlement Analyses ........................................................... 1262


16.16 Spudcan Penetration Predictions ......
16.17 ASTM Standards .................................... ..................... 1264

Index. ...................................................................................................

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