ATENEO DE NAGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

2ND SEMESTER S/Y 2016-2017

SMPS
(SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY)

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements in

Industrial Electronics

ECEM514LEC GE41

By:

ARGAYOSO, Kim S.

4 BS ECE

MARCH 11, 2017

I. INTRODUCTION

What is a Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)?

D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters belong to the category of Switched

Mode Power Supplies (SMPS). The various types of voltage regulators, used in Linear Power

Supplies (LPS), fall in the category of dissipative regulator, as they have a voltage control

element usually transistor or zener diode which dissipates power equal to the voltage

difference between an unregulated input voltage and

a fixed supply voltage multiplied by the current

flowing through it. The switching regulator acts as a

continuously variable power converter and hence its

efficiency is negligibly affected by the voltage

difference. Hence the switching regulator is also

known as ‘non-dissipative regulator’. In a SMPS, the active device that provides regulation is

always operated in cut-off or in saturation mode.

The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher frequency around 15 to 50 kHz using an

active device like the BJT, power MOSFET or SCR and the converter transformer. Here the

size of the ferrite core reduces inversely with the frequency. The lower limit is around 5 kHz

for silent operation and an upper limit of 50 kHz to limit the losses in the choke and in active

switching elements. The transformed wave form is rectified and filtered. A sample of the

output voltage is used as the feedback signal for the drive circuit for the switching transistor

to achieve regulation.
 The oscillator in above figure

allows the control element to be

switched ON and OFF. The control

element usually consists of a

transistor switch, an inductor, and a

diode. For each switch ON, energy is

pumped into the magnetic field

associated with the inductor which is a transformer winding in practice. This energy is then

released to the load at the desired voltage level.

By varying the duty cycle or frequency of switching, we can vary the stored energy in

each cycle and thus control the output voltage. Higher efficiency is obtained since only the energy

required is pumped to maintain the load current hence no power dissipation.

Brief History of Switch Mode Power Supply

1836 – Induction coils use switches to generate high voltages.

1910 – An inductive discharge ignition system invented by Charles F. Kettering and his

company Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (Delco) goes into production for

Cadillac. The Kettering ignition system is a mechanically-switched version of a flyback boost

converter; the transformer is the ignition coil. Variations of this ignition system were used in all

non-diesel internal combustion engines until the 1960s when it was displaced with capacitive

discharge ignition systems.

1926 – On 23 June, British inventor Philip Ray Coursey applies for a patent in his country and

United States, for his "Electrical Condenser". The patent mentions high frequency welding and

furnaces, among other uses.

ca 1936 – Car radios used electromechanical vibrators to transform the 6 V battery supply to a

suitable B+ voltage for the vacuum tubes.

1959 – Transistor oscillation and rectifying converter power supply system U.S. Patent

3,040,271 is filed by Joseph E. Murphy and Francis J. Starzec, from General Motors Company

1970 – Tektronix starts using High-Efficiency Power Supply in its 7000-series oscilloscopes

produced from about 1970 to 1995.

1972 – HP-35, Hewlett-Packard's first pocket calculator, is introduced with transistor switching

power supply for light-emitting diodes, clocks, timing, ROM, and registers.

1973 – Xerox uses switching power supplies in the Alto minicomputer

1977 – Apple II is designed with a switching mode power supply. "Rod Holt was brought in as

product engineer and there were several flaws in Apple II that were never publicized. One thing
Holt has to his credit is that he created the switching power supply that allowed us to do a very

lightweight computer".

1980 – The HP8662A 10 kHz – 1.28 GHz synthesized signal generator went with a switched mode

power supply.

APPLICATION

Switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic products such as personal

computers often have universal inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains

supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage range switch may be required. Switch-

mode power supplies can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies and voltages.

Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have always been particularly cost

sensitive. The first chargers were linear power supplies but they quickly moved to the cost

effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology, when new levels of efficiency were

required. Recently, the demand for even lower no-load power requirements in the application has

meant that flyback topology is being used more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers

are also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing secondary-side sensing

components such as optocouplers.

Switched-mode power supplies are used for DC to DC conversion as well. In automobiles

where heavy vehicles use a nominal 24 VDC ranking supply, 12V for accessories may be furnished

through a DC/DC switch-mode supply. This has the advantage over tapping the battery at the

12V position (using half the cells) that all the 12V load is evenly divided over all cells of the 24V

battery. In industrial settings such as telecommunications racks, bulk power may be distributed

at a low DC voltage (from a battery backup system, for example) and individual equipment items

will have DC/DC switched-mode converters to supply whatever voltages are needed.
II. TYPES OF POWER SUPPLY

A. Zener

Zener Diodes can be used to

produce a stabilised voltage output

with low ripple under varying load

current conditions. By passing a

small current through the diode from

a voltage source, via a suitable

current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain

a voltage drop of Vout.

We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the

half or full-wave rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that

as the load value changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a

simple zener stabiliser circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more

stable output voltage can be produced.

The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current

flow through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the

combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.

The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail

of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown

condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the

circuit.
 With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero,

( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn

dissipates its maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will

result in a greater diode current when the load resistance RL is connected and

large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care

must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that

the zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-

impedance condition.

The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage

across RL is always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a

minimum zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and

the zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its

breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependant

upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater

than VZ.

One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can

sometimes generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise

the voltage. Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition

of a large value decoupling capacitor across the zener’s output may be required to

give additional smoothing.

Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse

biased condition. A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode

to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in

 the input voltage or changes in the load current. The zener voltage regulator

consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the input

voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this

reverse biased condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the

same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode

B. LINEAR POWER SUPPLIES

A work bench power supply is a DC power supply unit which can provide

different regulated DC voltages which is used for the purpose of testing or trouble

shooting. A simple circuit of regulated power supply with battery backup has been

designed which can be used as a work bench power supply. It gives 12 volts, 9 volts

and 5 volts regulated DC to power prototypes while testing or trouble shooting. It also

has a battery back up to continue the work if power fails. Low battery indication is

also provided to confirm the battery status.

It Consists of Three Major Sections:

A rectifier and a filter unit which converts the AC signal to regulated DC signal

using the combination of transformer, diodes and capacitors.

A Battery used as an alternative, which can be recharged during the main

power supply and used as a source of power in case of absence of main supply.

A battery charge indicator which gives an indication of the battery charge and

discharge.

A 14-0-14, 500 mA transformer, rectifier diodes D1, D2 and smoothing

capacitor C1 form the power supply section. When the mains power is available, D3
forward biases and provides more than 14 volts DC to IC1 which then gives regulated

12 volts that can be tapped from its output. At the same time, IC2 gives regulated 9

volts and IC3 regulated 5 volts from their outputs.

A 12 volt 7.5 Ah rechargeable battery is used as backup. When mains power

is available, it charges via D3 and R1. R1 limits the current for charging. To prevent

overcharging, if the power supply is switched for long time and the battery is not

using, Trickle charge mode is safe. The charging current will be around 100-150 mA.

When the mains power fails, D3 reverse biases and D4 forward biases and battery

takes the load. A UPS battery is an ideal choice.

C. SMPS

The industry drive to more diminutive, lighter and more productive electronics

systems has prompted the advancement of the SMPS, nothing but Switch Mode Power

Supply. There are some topologies normally used to actualize SMPS. A switched-mode

power supply is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator

to convert electrical power efficiently. In this by employing high switching frequencies,

the sizes of the power transformer and associated filtering components in the SMPS

are dramatically reduced in comparison to the linear. DC to DC converters and DC to

AC converters belong to the category of SMPS.

In a linear regulator circuit the excess voltage from the unregulated dc input

supply drops across a series element and hence there is power loss in proportion to

this voltage drop, whereas in switched mode circuit the unregulated portion of the

voltage is removed by modulating the switch duty ratio. The switching losses in
modern switches (like: MOSFETs) are much less compared to the loss in the linear

element.

The majority of electronic DC loads are supplied from standard power sources.

Unfortunately, standard source voltages may not match the levels required by

microprocessors, motors, LEDs, or other loads, especially when the source voltage is

not regulated like battery sources and other DC as well AC sources.

The main idea behind a switch mode power supply (SMPS) can be easily

understood from the concept of conceptual explanation of a DC-DC converter. If the

system input is AC then the 1st stage is to convert to DC. This is called rectification.

The SMPS with a DC input does not require the rectification stage. Many newer SMPS

will use a special Power factor correction (PFC) circuit. By following the sinusoidal

wave of the AC input, we can make the input current. And rectified signal is filtered

by the input reservoir capacitor to produce the unregulated DC input supply. The

unregulated DC supply is given to high frequency switch. For higher frequencies,

components with more level capacitance and inductance are required. In this

MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers, these have even lower conducting

stage voltage drops. The high switching frequency, switches the input voltage across

the primary of the power transformer. The drive pulses are normally fixed frequency

and variable duty cycle. The output of the secondary transformer is rectified and

filtered. Then it is sent to output of the power supply. Regulation of the output to

provide a stabilized Dc supply is carried out by the control or feedback block.

Most SMPS. Systems operate on a fixed frequency pulse width modulation

basis, where the duration of the on time of the drive to the power switch is varied on
 a cycle by cycle basis. The pulse width signal given to the switch is inversely

proportional to the output of the output voltage. The oscillator is controlled by the

voltage feedback from a closed loop regulator. This is usually achieved by using a

small pulse transformer or an opto-isolator, hence adding to the component count. In

an SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage

elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used to drive the

switching elements. By using LC filters the output waveforms are filtered.

III. CATEGORIES OF SMPS TOPOLOGY

A. Non-isolated Topology

Non-isolated converters are simplest, with the three basic types using a single

inductor for energy storage. In the voltage relation column, D is the duty cycle of the

converter, and can vary from 0 to 1. The input voltage (V1) is assumed to be greater

than zero; if it is negative, for consistency, negate the output voltae (V2).

When equipment is human-accessible, voltage and power limits of <=42.4

V peak/60 V dc and 250 VA apply for Safety Certification (UL, CSA, VDE approval).
 The buck, boost, and buck-boost topologies are all strongly related. Input,

output and ground come together at one point. One of the three passes through

an inductor on the way, while the other two pass through switches. One of the

two switches must be active (e.g., a transistor), while the other can be a diode.

Sometimes, the topology can be changed simply by re-labeling the connections. A

12 V input, 5 V output buck converter can be converted to a 7 V input, −5 V output

buck-boost by grounding the output and taking the output from the ground pin.

Likewise, SEPIC and Zeta converters are both minor rearrangements of the

Ćuk converter.

The Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) topology is used in power supplies and

active filters and is mentioned here for completeness.

Switchers become less efficient as duty cycles become extremely short. For

large voltage changes, a transformer (isolated) topology may be better.

B. Isolated Topologies

All isolated topologies include a transformer, and thus can produce an

output of higher or lower voltage than the input by adjusting the turns ratio. For

some topologies, multiple windings can be placed on the transformer to produce

multiple output voltages. Some converters use the transformer for energy storage,

while others use a separate inductor.

 IV. BUCK CONVERTER

The Buck Converter is used in SMPS circuits

where the DC output voltage needs to be lower than

the DC input voltage. The DC input can be derived

from rectified AC or from any DC supply. It is useful

where electrical isolation is not needed between the

switching circuit and the output, but where the input

is from a rectified AC source, isolation between the AC source and the rectifier could be provided

by a mains isolating transformer.

The switching transistor between the input and output of the Buck Converter continually

switches on and off at high frequency. To maintain a continuous output, the circuit uses the

energy stored in the inductor L, during the on periods of the switching transistor, to continue

supplying the load during the off periods. The circuit operation depends on what is sometimes

also called a Flywheel Circuit. This is because the circuit acts rather like a mechanical flywheel

that, given regularly spaced pulses of energy keeps spinning smoothly (outputting energy) at a

steady rate.
AC or DC Input

The buck converter is a form of DC to DC converter that can take an input directly from a

DC source, such as a battery. The input could also be DC derived from the AC mains (line) as

shown in Fig. 3.1.1 via a rectifier/reservoir capacitor circuit. The AC input to the rectifier circuit

could be AC at high voltage directly from the AC mains supply, or alternatively at a lower voltage

via a step down transformer. However the DC applied to the Buck Converter is obtained, it is then

converted to a high frequency AC, using a switching or ‘chopper’ transistor, driven by a (usually

pulse width modulated) square wave. This results in a high frequency AC wave, which can then

be re-converted to DC in a much more efficient manner than would be possible in the circuits

described in Power Supplies Module 1.

Buck Converter Operation

As shown in Fig. 3.1.1 the buck Converter circuit consists of the switching transistor,

together with the flywheel circuit (Dl, L1 and C1). While the transistor is on, current is flowing

through the load via the inductor L1. The action of any inductor opposes changes in current flow

and also acts as a store of energy. In this case the switching transistor output is prevented from

increasing immediately to its peak value as the inductor stores energy taken from the increasing

output; this stored energy is later released back into the circuit as a back e.m.f. as current from

the switching transistor is rapidly switched off.

 V. BOOST CONVERTER

Switched mode supplies can be used for many purposes including DC to DC

converters. Often, although a DC supply, such as a battery may be available, its available voltage

is not suitable for the system being supplied. For example, the motors used in driving electric

automobiles require much higher voltages, in the region of 500V, than could be supplied by a

battery alone. Even if banks of batteries were used, the extra weight and space taken up would

be too great to be practical. The answer to this problem is to use fewer batteries and to boost

the available DC voltage to the required level by using a boost converter. Another problem with

batteries, large or small, is that their output voltage varies as the available charge is used up,

and at some point the battery voltage becomes too low to power the circuit being supplied.

However, if this low output level can be boosted back up to a useful level again, by using a boost

converter, the life of the battery can be extended.

The DC input to a boost converter can be from many sources as well as batteries, such

as rectified AC from the mains supply, or DC from solar panels, fuel cells, dynamos and DC

generators. The boost converter is different to the Buck Converter in that its output voltage is

equal to, or greater than its input voltage. However it is important to remember that, as power

(P) = voltage (V) x current (I), if the output voltage is increased, the available output current

must decrease.

Fig. 3.2.1 illustrates the basic

circuit of a Boost converter. However, in

this example the switching transistor is

a power MOSFET, both Bipolar power

transistors and MOSFETs are used in

power switching, the choice being determined by the current, voltage, switching speed and cost

considerations. The rest of the components are the same as those used in the buck converter

illustrated in Fig. 3.1.2, except that their positions have been rearranged.

VI. BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

A Buck-Boost converter is a type of switched mode power supply that combines the

principles of the Buck Converter and the Boost converter in a single circuit. Like other SMPS

designs, it provides a regulated DC output voltage from either an AC or a DC input.

The Buck converter described in Power Supplies Module 3.1 produces a DC output in

a range from 0V to just less than the input voltage. The boost converter will produce an output

voltage ranging from the same voltage as the input, to a level much higher than the input.

There are many applications however, such as battery-powered systems, where the

input voltage can vary widely, starting at full charge and gradually decreasing as the battery

charge is used up. At full charge, where the battery voltage may be higher than actually needed

by the circuit being powered, a buck regulator would be ideal to keep the supply voltage steady.

However as the charge diminishes the input voltage falls below the level required by the circuit,

and either the battery must be discarded or re-charged; at this point the ideal alternative would

be the boost regulator described in Power Supplies Module 3.2.

By combining these two regulator designs it is possible to have a regulator circuit that can

cope with a wide range of input voltages either higher or lower than that needed by the circuit.

Fortunately both buck and boost converters use very similar components; they just need to be

re-arranged, depending on the level of the input voltage.

 In Fig. 3.3.1 the common components of

the buck and boost circuits are combined. A

control unit is added, which senses the level of

input voltage, then selects the appropriate

circuit action. (Note that in the examples in

this section the transistors are shown as MOSFETs, commonly used in high frequency power

converters, and the diodes shown as Schottky types. These diodes have a low forward junction

voltage when conducting, and are able to switch at high speeds).

VII. FORWARD SMPS

The forward converter is a DC/DC converter that uses a transformer to increase or

decrease the output voltage (depending on the transformer ratio) and provide galvanic

isolation for the load. With multiple output windings, it is possible to provide both higher and

lower voltage outputs simultaneously.

While it looks superficially like a flyback converter, it operates in a fundamentally different way,

and is generally more energy efficient. A flyback converter stores energy in the magnetic field in

the inductor air gap during the time the converter switching element (transistor) is conducting.

When the switch turns off, the stored magnetic field collapses and the energy is transferred to

the output of the flyback converter as electric current. The flyback converter can be viewed as

two inductors sharing a common core with opposite polarity windings.

In contrast, the forward converter (which is based on a transformer with same-polarity windings,

higher magnetizing inductance, and no air gap) does not store energy during the conduction time

of the switching element — transformers cannot store a significant amount of energy, unlike
inductors. Instead, energy is passed directly to the output of the forward converter by transformer

action during the switch conduction phase.

VIII. FLYBACK SMPS

The flyback converter is based on the buck-boost converter. Its derivation is illustrated

in Fig. 1. Figure 1(a) depicts the basic buck-boost converter, with the switch realized using a

MOSFET and diode. In Fig. 1(b), the inductor winding is constructed using two wires, with a 1:1

turns ratio. The basic function of the inductor is unchanged, and the parallel windings are

equivalent to a single winding constructed of larger wire. In Fig. 1(c), the connections between

the two windings are broken. One winding is used while the transistor Q1 conducts, while the

other winding is used when diode D1 conducts. The total current in the two windings is unchanged

from the circuit of Fig. 1(b); however, the current is now distributed between the windings

differently. The magnetic fields inside the inductor in both cases are identical. Although the two-

winding magnetic device is represented using the same symbol as the transformer, a more
descriptive name is “two winding inductor”. This device is sometimes also called a “flyback

transformer”. Unlike the ideal transformer, current does not flow simultaneously in both windings

of the flyback transformer. Figure 1(d) illustrates the usual configuration of the flyback converter.

The MOSFET source is connected to the primary-side ground, simplifying the gate drive circuit.

The transformer polarity marks are reversed, to obtain a positive output voltage. A 1:n turns ratio

is introduced; this allows better converter optimization.

IX. SELF-OSCILLATING SMPS

When designing mixed signal circuits, the need arises for a clean Analog power supply.

Often, the only power available is the noisy switching power that powers the 5 volt logic. When

you choose an analog power supply, it is always advisable to use clean regulated power. The

switching power supply for the logic circuits typically injects unwanted noise into the analog

circuits. The self-oscillating circuit shown above is constructed on less than 2 square inches of

board space and uses only dollars of parts. This simple circuit is a self-oscillating DC to DC

converter. We have successfully used it to provide isolated and regulated power of +/-5V, +/-

12V, and +/- 15V for powering of analog circuits. The DC to DC converter circuits derives its

power from the +5 volt logic supply.

Specifications:

Vin = 4.75-5.25 volts Short circuit protection (current limit)

Efficiency > 50% Input to Output isolation > 10 meg ohm

Output ripple < 30 mv p-p Vout = +/- 15vdc at 250ma

Our circuit uses a miniature toroid transformer. The transformer is packaged in an 10 pin DIP at

.400 or .600 spacing, depending on the VA rating. We have used this design for ratings up to

5VA. Also shown below is a variation of the circuit for a single isolated output voltage of +8vdc.

X. CONTROL OF SMPS

Voltage Control

The voltage feedback arrangement is known as voltage-mode control when applied

to dc-dc converters. Voltage-mode control (VMC) is widely used because it is easy to design and

implement, and has good community to disturbances at the references input. VMC only contains

single feedback loop from the output voltage [8]. A single loop voltage mode control is used to

compare the output voltage with reference voltage. The error between the two controls the

switching duty ratio by comparing the control voltage with a fixed frequency sawtooth waveform.

Applied switching duty ratio adjusts the voltage across the inductor and hence the inductor

current and eventually brings the output voltage to its reference value. Voltage-mode control of

dc-dc converters has several disadvantages including,

1. Poor reliability of the main switch,

2. Degraded reliability, stability, or performance when several converters in parallel supply one

load,

3. Complex and often inefficient methods of keeping the main transformer of a push-pull

converter operating in the center of its linear region, and

4. A slow system response time, this may be several tens of switching cycles.

Current Mode Control

By current control method we can control both output voltage and output current of

the switch mode power supply. It is typically preferred for boost mode converter. Here the voltage

error signal is used to control the peak current within the magnetic elements during each power

switch on-time. Current mode control has a very rapid input and output response time, and has

a inherent over-current protection. It is commonly used for forward mode converters. Compared

with voltage-mode control, current-mode control provides an additional inner control loop control.

The inductor current is sensed and used to control the duty cycle, as shown in Fig. An error signal

is generated by comparing output voltage Vo with reference voltage Vref.

Hysteretic Mode Control

Hysteretic control power converters are inherently fast response and robust with simple

design and implementation. They response to disturbances and load change right after the

transient take place, so they give excellent transient performance. Also, they do not require

components for the closed loop compensation network. This reduces the component count and

solution size in implementation, and eliminates the design effort in adjusting component values

for the network upon parameters (like input voltage, inductor, bulk capacitors) change. The above

advantages make hysteretic control power converters a good solution for power supply. In spite

of the advantages, one major concern of using hysteretic control power converters is the stability
issue. Although the design and analysis of fixed frequency PWM power converters have been well

developed using the averaging and linearization approach , analytical analysis of hysteretic control

power converters is rare, and focus on the large signal dynamic response. Such method cannot

reflect the steady state high frequency oscillations. Also, the commonly used bode plot in the

frequency domain will be inaccurate above half of the operating frequency. Unlike PWM

converters with fixed operating frequency, the operating frequency can be very low during some

loading condition or transient. For a same converter, the operating frequency can be a few

hundred kHz for full load, but lower than around 10 kHz at very light load. The use of linear

system tools may not be appropriate for variable operating frequency converters. Hysteretic

control, also known as bang-bang control or ripple regulator control, maintains the converter

output voltage within the hysteretic band centered about the reference voltage. The hysteretic-

controlled regulator is popular because of its inexpensive, simple and easy -to- use architecture.

The advantage of hysteretic control is fast transient response and eliminates the feedback loop

compensation. The varying frequency is the well-known characteristics of hysteretic control.

However, the regulation inaccuracy issue of the hysteretic-controlled converter is almost unknown

to engineers. In hysteretic regulator, research mainly focused on transient modeling and transient

analysis.
 XI. REFERENCES

https://www.elprocus.com/types-power-supplies/

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_7.html

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/power/switch-mode-power-supply.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply#Non-isolated_topologies

https://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/smps-switched-mode-power-supply

https://www.ijareeie.com/upload/2014/january/18R_Different.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_converter

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/PSU/psu33.php

http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen4517/materials/flyback.pdf

http://www.brannonelectronics.com/images/Self%20Oscillating%20DC%20to%20DC%20Conve

rter.pdf