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Topic I

Session Plan I - Fenestration

Fenestration - Definition:

Any opening in a buildings envelope including windows, doors, curtain walls and skylights designed to
permit the passage of air, light, vehicles or people is known as Fenestration.

Fenestration systems:

The five types of fenestration systems are Glazing, Windows, Curtain Walls, Sloped Glazing and Exterior
Doors.

1. Glazing: Glass which serves the purpose of allowing natural light into a building has been in use.
This has led to glazing of majority of the new windows and curtain walls for commercial building
construction.

2. Windows: We use wood frame, with some metal windows in institutional construction. Later,
steel windows and aluminum windows were introduced.

3. Curtain Walls: A curtain wall is any exterior wall that is attached to the building structure.

4. Sloped Glazing: Skylights have been used to provide interior delighting.

5. Exterior Doors: These include entrance and exit doors, as well as industrial loading dock doors.

Main Components of Fenestration system

The Main components of fenestration system are Glazing, Framing and Shading devices.

1. Glazing

It is the main part of fenestration that lets the light through and it is usually glass. Occasionally plastic. A
layer is called a glaze or a pane or a lite.

2. Framing

It is the material that holds the glazing in place and attaches it to the rest of the enclosure and it is
usually wood, metal, and plastic or fiberglass.

3. Shading devices and/or screens

A unit may or may not have shading. Either from other building components that may or may not be an
integral part of the overall assembly.

Heat transfer through Fenestrations

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Energy flows through fenestration via:

1. Conductive and convective heat transfer caused by I / O temperature difference

2. Net long-wave radiation exchange between fenestration and its surroundings.

3. Short-wave solar radiation incident on the fenestration product.

4. Part of the incident solar energy is transmitted and eventually absorbed by the room surfaces.

5. Part of the incident solar energy is absorbed by the fenestration and reradiated as thermal
energy towards inside.

Total heat transfer

The heat gain through fenestration consists of two main components:

• Q thermal = Heat transfer between indoor and outdoor air. This is positive or negative
depending on temperature.

• Q solar = Heat transfer from solar radiation. This is always a positive number.

• Q total = Q thermal + Q solar

Heat Transfer in Buildings

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It is the reduction of heat transfer between objects in thermal contact. The insulating capability
of a material is measured in terms of thermal conductivity. This is achieved with specially
engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.

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PH 8201/ PHYSICS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING


QUESTION BANK FOR IAE II
Common to Civil Engineering
Unit – III – Lighting Design
PART –A

1. Define Photometry.
2. What is visual field glare?
3. Define photobic, mesopic and scotopic vision.
4. Define Candela.
5. What is meant by Radiometry?
6. Write a short note on day light factor.
7. What are the two forms of artificial sky?
8. Mention few artificial light sources.
9. What is day light?
10. Define intensity of illumination

PART – B

1. Derive Cosines law and inverse square law in photometry.(16 marks)

2. Describe the principles of artificial lighting and supplementary artificial lighting (16 marks)

3. Explain day light design of windows in detail with neat diagrams (16 marks)

4. Write a note on models and artificial skies (8 marks)

5. Write a short notes on (i) Visual field glare, (ii) Day light Calculation (8 marks)

PH8201/Physics for CIVIL Engineering


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UNIT III
Lighting Design

Topic 9– Principles of Artificial Lighting


Session 9– Principles of Artificial Lighting

PRINCIPLES OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

Light can be produced by nature or by humans. “Artificial” light is typically produced by

lighting systems that transform electrical energy into light. Nearly all lighting systems do

so either by passing an electrical current through an element that heats until it glows, or

through gases until they become excited and produce light energy.

Incandescent light sources are an example of the first method, called incandescence.

Current is passed through a filament, which heats until it glows. Because this method is

considered wasteful (most of the energy entering the lamp leaves it as heat instead of

visible light, other light sources were pioneered that relay on the gaseous discharge

method, including fluorescent, high-intensity discharge (HID) and low-pressure sodium

light sources.

A typical lighting system is comprised of one or more of these light sources, called the

lamps. Fluorescent, HID and low-pressure sodium lamps operate with a ballast, a device

that starts the lamp and regulates its operation. Lamps and ballasts in turn are part of the

luminaire, or light fixture, which houses the system and includes other components that

distribute the light in a controlled pattern.

Artificial lighting is the lighting which is man-made such as flourescent, tungsten,

sodium and mercury vapour lamp etc., It may be used as a supplement to natural light as

natural light is not available.

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It is considered to be best form of light because quantity, quality and intensity of light can

be controlled easily.Light serves as a support for life activities during day and night. In

general, there are 3 main types of artificial lighting.

Artificial lighting

Artificial light sources are other sources of light which developed to compensate for or

assist the natural light. It will have different frequencies and wavelengths that determine

the light color.

Artificial light sources

Artificial light sources are categorized by the technology used to produce the light. There’s
dozens of sources, with a few common in household applications and others more suitable
for industrial uses. The five most common light sources are as follows:

1. Incandescent lamp

2. Compact fluorescent lamp

3. Fluorescent tube

4. Discharge lamps

5. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

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UNIT III
Lighting Design

Topic 8– Day light Calculation


Session 8– Day light Calculation

DAYLIGHT CALCULATIONS

Daylight, on the light of day, is the combination of all direct and indirect sunlight
during the day time. This includes direct sunlight, diffuse sky radiation, and (often) both of
these reflected by the earth and terrestrial objects, like landforms and buildings.

Sunlight scattered or reflected by objects in outer space (that is, beyond the earth’s
atmosphere) is generally not considered daylight. Thus, daylight excludes moonlight,
despite it being indirect sunlight.

Daytime is the period of time each day when daylight occurs. Day lighting is
lighting an indoor space with openings such as windows and skylights that allow daylight
into the building.

The amount of daylight received into an indoor space or room is defined as a


daylight factor. It is the ratio between the measured internal and external light levels.

Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by simply installing fewer electric
lights because daylight is present. This process is known as daylight harvesting.

In recent years, work has taken place to recreate the effects of daylight artificially.
This is however expensive in terms of both equipment and energy consumption. It is
applied in specialist areas such as film making, where light of such intensity is required.

Daylight factor

The daylight factor is defined as: DF = Ei/Eo *100

There are three possible paths along which light can reach a point inside a room through
glazed windows. They are:

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1. light from the patch of sky visible at the point considered,


expressed as the sky component (SC),

2. light reflected from opposing exterior surfaces and then reached


the point, expressed as the externally reflected component (ERC),

3. light entering through the window but reaching the point only
after reflection from internal surfaces, expressed as the internally
reflected component (IRC).

The sum of the three components gives the illuminance level (Lux) at
the point considered as

LUX  SC  ERC  IRC

Fig. Components of the Daylight Factor

Daylight factor used in building design in order to assess the natural


lighting level as received n the working plane.

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UNIT III
Lighting Design

Topic 7– Use of Models and Artificial skies


Session 7– Use of Models and Artificial skies
Model studies can be used to predict daylight penetration into any building.

This is the only reliable prediction method in the case of unusual situations, complex

geometries or heavily obstructed windows. Model studies can be carried out under outdoor

conditions, but the limitations imposed by weather variations can be quite severe. The

artificial sky simulates the standard overcast sky conditions, giving uniform luminance.

Forms of aritificial sky

There are two basic forms of artificial sky:

1. Hemispherical and

2. Rectangular

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UNIT III
Lighting Design

Topic 6– Colour and visual field glare


Session 6– Colour and visual field glare

Colour is the characteristic of human visual perception described through colour


categories such as red, blue, yellow, green, orange and purple.
The science of colour is called chromatics, calorimetry or simply colour science. It includes the
perception of colour by the human eye and brain, the origin of colour in materials, color theory
in art and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range.A color space is a specific
organization of colours. By defining a colour space, colours can be identified numerically by
coordinates.

An RGB colour space is any additive colour space based on the RGB colour medal. A particular
RGB colour space is defined by the three characteristics of the red, green and blue additive
primaries and can produce any chromaticity that is the triangle defined by those primary colours.
The RGB colour space for instance is a colour space corresponding to human trichromacy and to
the three cone cell types that respond to three bands of light; long wavelengths peak near (564 -
580 nm) red, medium wavelengths peaking near (534 - 545 nm) green and short wavelength
light near (420 - 440 nm) blue.
VISUAL FIELD GLARE
Glare is difficulty seeing in the presence of bright light such as sunlight or artificial light (car
head/lamps at night). Because of this, some cars include mirrors with automatic anti-glare
functions.
Glare is caused by a significant ratio of luminance between the task and the glare source. Factors
such as the angle between the task and glare source and eye adaptation have significant impacts
on the experience of glare.
Types of Glare
Glare is generally divided into two types;
Discomfort glare and
Disability glare.

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UNIT III

Lighting Design
Topic 5– Vision and its types
Session 5– Vision and its types

VISION-PHOTOPIC, MESOPIC, SCOTOPIC

The terms photopic, mesopic and scotopic refer to the primary use of the

cones, rods and other light-sensitive cells on the retina of the human eye. Fovea is

responsible for sharp central vision. It is necessary in human for activities where

visual detail is of primary importance such as reading and driving.

Fovea consists parafovea belt and perifovea outer region. Parafovea is the

intermediate belt. In this the garglian cell layer is composed of more than five rows of cells

as well as highest density of cones. Cones cover most of the retina and their greatest

concentration (50 cones per 100 micron) is at the fovea at the centre back of the eye.

The central fovea consists of very compact cones, thinner and more rod like

appearance than comes. These comes are densely packed. There are three kinds of cones,

designated the long-wavelength, medium-wavelength and short-wavelength cones.

Formerly they are red, green and blue cones.

In combination these cones are responsible for giving us color vision. Cones are the

most active in medium and high light levels. As the general environmental brightness

drops, the cones becomes less effective and it becomes difficult for us to discern fine

details and colours.

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UNIT III

Lighting Design
Topic 4– photometry – cosines law and inverse square law
Session 4– photometry – cosines law and inverse square law

PHOTOMETRY

Light is a form of energy which can be measured.


It is regarded as a flow or flux of radiant energy.

The branch of optics which deals with the


measurements of the intensity of light emitted
by a source, its illuminating power or intensity of
illumination of a surface is called photometry
(Photo means light, metry means measurement).

COSINES LAW

In optics, Lambert’s cosine law states that the


radiant intensity or luminous intensity observed
from an ideal diffusely reflecting surface is directly
proportional to the cosine of the angle  between the
direction of the incident light and the surface
normal.

The law is also known as cosine emission law or


Lambert’s emission law.

A surface which obeys Lambert’s law is said


to be Lambertian and exhibits Lambertian reflectance.
Such a surface has the same radiance when viewed from
any angle.

Illuminanation
:

It is amount of light flux that is incident upon unit


area of the given surface. Illuminance is also called as
illumination.

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Fig. 3.6

If dF is the elemental light flux incident on an


elementary area dA then Illuminance E is defined as
dF
E 
dA

Its units are Lumens per sq metre. Consider an


elementary surface AB of area dA illuminated by the
source S [fig 3.7] and which subtends solid angle ‘’ at
the point source S.

Suppose Light Flux ‘F’ Lumens falls on the area AB


then
Intensity of illumination:

F (1)
E 
dA

If L is the illuminating power or Luminous


intensity of the source, it is defined as Luminous Flux per
unit Solid angle.

F
So L 


or F  L 


Substituting for F in equation (1) we have

L  (2)
Intensity of illumination E
dA


If ‘r’ is the distance of surface ‘dA’ from source then


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dA cos 
 
2
r

Substituting for  in equation (2), we obtain

Intensity of illumination (Illuminance)

LdA cos  L cos  (3)


E  2 2
 r
dA r

Equation (3) known as Lambert’s cosine Law. It states


that Intensity of Illumination (Illuminance) is
) directly proportional to cosine of the angle
of incidence of light radiation on the
surface and
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and source.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

The inverse square law defines the


relationship between the irradiance from a point
source and distance. It states that the intensity per
unit area is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance.

Consider a point source ‘S’ of light. It is radiating


equally in all directions. Draw two concentric spheres (fig.
3.8) of radii r1 and r2 around of source. Let the energy
radiating from the source per sec be Q.
This energy will fall normally on the surface of
spher(1e). Energy incident per sec on unit area of sphere
having radius
Q
‘r1’ is I1   2
4 r1

(Since light is falling normally, here   0


and cos   1).
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Similarly for sphere of radius r2 and incident


energy on unit area

Q (2)
I2  2
4 r2
2 (3)
I1 r 2
From (1) and 
I2 r 2
(2) 1

Fig. 3.7

It states that amount of light energy falling on a


given surface is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance of the Surface from Source.

If we consider two surfaces AB  dA1 and CD 


dA2 on the two spheres then energy incident, per sec over
them is

Q dA1
E1   2
4 r1
and E2 

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Q dA2 4 r2
2

The total energy incident on each surface is same.

Hence E1  E 2

Q dA1 Q dA2
or 2 2
 4 r2
4 r1

2
dA1 r1 (4)
or 2
dA2 r2

From equations (3) and (4) we have,

I1 dA2 (5)

I2 dA1

According to the inverse square law, illuminance


on a surface decreases inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the light source and
illuminated surface.
Inverse square law applied to obtain luminous intensity
and thus establish the luminous intensity distribution of a
luminaire.

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UNIT III

Lighting Design
Topic 3– Hemispherical Reflectance and Transmittance
Session 3– Hemispherical Reflectance and Transmittance

Reflectance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in reflecting radiant


energy. It is the fraction of incident light power that is reflected at an interface. The
reflectance spectrum or spectral reflectance curve is the plot of the reflectance as a
function of wavelength.

Hemispherical reflectance

Radiant flux reflected by a surface divided by that received by that surface. It


is given by the symbol R.

Spectral hemispherical reflectance

Spectral flux reflected by a surface, divided by that received by that surface. It


is given by the symbol R or Rr

Directional reflectance

Radiance reflected by a surface divided by that received by that surface. It is


given by the symbol R.

Spectral directional reflectance

Spectral radiance reflected by a surface divided by that received by that


surface. It is given by the symbol R, .

Transmittance
Transmittance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in transmitting
radiant energy. It is the function of incident electromagnetic power that is
transmitted through a sample.

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Internal transmittance refers to energy loss by absorption


whereas total transmittance is due to absorption, scattering, reflection.

Hemispherical transmittance

Radiant flux transmitted by a surface divided by that received


by that surface. It is denoted by the symbol T.

Spectral hemispherical transmittance

Spectral flux transmitted by a surface, divided by that received


by that surface. It is given by the symbol Tr or T.

Directional transmittance

Radiance transmitted by a surface, divided by that received by


that surface. It is given by the symbol T.

Spectral directional transmittance


Spectral radiance transmitted by a surface, divided by that
received by that surface.

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UNIT III

Lighting Design
Topic 2– RELATION BETWEEN LUMINESCENCE AND RADIANT
QUANTITY
Session 2– RELATION BETWEEN LUMINESCENCE AND RADIANT
QUANTITY

Radiant power or radiant flux e


Radiant power e is defined by the total
power or radiation emitted by a source (lamp, light
emitting diode, etc.), transmitted through a surface or
impinging upon a surface. Radiant power is measured
in watts W.

The definitions of all other radiometric quantities are


based on radiant power. If a light source emits
uniformly in all directions, it is called an isotropic light
surface. (Fig 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 The radiant power of e of a light source is given by


its total emitted radiation.

Radiant power characterizes the output of a source of


electromagnetic radiation only by a single number and
does not
contain any information on the spectral distribution or
the directional distribution of the lamp output.

Radiant intensity Ie
Radiant intensity Ie describes the radiant power of a
source emitted in a certain direction. The source’s
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the (differential) solid angle


element d  is given by

d e  Ie d 


and 
thus 
e   Ie d 
4

In general, radiant intensity depends on spatial
direction. The unit of radiant intensity is W/sr.

Fig. 3.3 Typical directional distribution of radiant intensity


for an incandescent bulb

Radiance Le

Radiance Le describes the intensity of optical radiation


emitted or reflected from a certain location on an emitting
or reflecting surface in a particular direction. The radiant
power de emitted
by a surface element dA in the direction of the solid
angle element d  is given by

de  Le cos  dA d


In this relation,  is the angle between the
direction of the solid angle element d and the normal of
the emitting or reflecting surface element dA.

From the definition of radiant intensity Ie it follows


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that the radiant intensity emitted by the area element dA in


a certain direction is given by

dIe  Le cos 
dA

Thus,

Ie   Le cos  dA
emitting
surface

2
The unit of radiance is W/m  sr


Irradiance Ee
Irradiance Ee describes the amount of radiant
power impinging upon a surface per unit area. In
detail, the (differential) radiant power de upon the
(differential) surface element dA is given by

de  Ee dA

Generally, the surface element can be oriented at any


angle towards the direction of the beam. However,
irradiance is maximised when the surface element is
perpendicular to the beam:

de  Ee, normal dAnormal

Fig. 3.4 Irradiance is defined as incident radiant power d e


per surface area element dA .
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Note that the corresponding area element dAnormal,


which is oriented perpendicular to the incident beam, is
given by

dAnormal  cos 
dA

with  denoting the angle between the beam and the


normal of dA, we get

Ee  Ee, normal cos




2
The unit of irradiance is W/m .

Radiant exitance Me
Radiant exitance Me quantifies the radiant power
per unit area, emitted or reflected from a certain
location on a surface. In detail, the (differential) radiant
power de emitted or reflected by the surface element dA
is given by
de  Me dA

From the definition of radiance follows that


the (differential) amount radiant exitance dMe emitted or
reflected by a certain location on a surface in the
direction of the (differential) solid angle element d  is
given by
dMe  Le cos  d


and consequently

Me   Le cos  d 
2 sr

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The integration is performed over the solid angle of 2
steradian corresponding to the directions on one side of the
surface and  denotes the angle between the respective direction
and the surface’s normal.
2
The unit of radiant exitance is W/m . In some particular
cases, Me  Ee.

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UNIT III

Lighting Design
Topic 1 – Radiation quantity and spectral quantity
Session 1– Radiation quantity and spectral quantity
Introduction

The whole discipline of optical measurement techniques can


be subdivided into two areas of photometry and radiometry.
The central problem of photometry is the determination of optical
quantities closely related to the sensitivity of the human eye.
The Radiometry deals with the measurement of energy per unit
time ( power, given in watts) emitted by light sources imping
on a particular surface. Thus, the units of all radiometric
quantities are based on watts W.

According to CIE regulations, symbols for radiometric


quantities are denoted with the subscript ‘e’ for energy.
Similarly, radiometric quantities given as a function of
wavelength are labeled with the prefix “spectral” and the
subscript “” (for example spectral (radiant power ).

The definitions of radiometric quantities cannot be


understood without a basic comprehension of differential
quantities. The differential quantities d , dA and d  can be
regarded as tiny intervals or elements  ,  A and   of the
respective quantity.
RADIATION QUANTITIES

Definition of solid angle


The geometric quantity of a solid angle  quantifies a
part of an observer’s visual field.
If we imagine an observer located at point P, his full visual
field can be described by a sphere of arbitrary radius r Fig.
3.1. Then, a certain part of this full visual field defines an area
A on the sphere’s surface and the solid angle  is defined by

A
  2
r

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2
As the area A is proportional to r , this fraction is
independent of the actual choice of r.
If we want to calculate the solid angle determined by a
cone, as shown in Fig. 3.1. area A is the area of a spherical
calotte.

However, as the solid angle is not only defined for conical


parts of the full visual field, area A can be any arbitrary shape
on the sphere’s surface.

Although  is dimensionless, it is common to use the unit


steradian (sr).

SPECTRAL QUANTITIES

Spectral radiant power is defined as a source’s radiant


power per wavelength interval as a function of wavelength. In
detail, the source’s (differential) radiant power de emitted in
the (differential) wavelength interval between  and   d  is
given by

de    d 

This equation can be visualised geometrically (see Fig. 3.5).
As d  is infinitesimally small, spectral radiant power   is
approximately constant in the interval between  and   d .

Thus, the product   d  equals the area under the


graph of   in the interval between   d .

Thus area describes the contribution of this wavelength


interval to the total value of radiant power e, which is
graphically represented by the total area under the graph of
spectral radiant power  .

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UNIT II
ACOUSTICS
Topic 10 – Questions Discussion
Session 10– Questions Discussion

1. Define sound insulation.


The art of preventing the transmission of noise inside or outside the hall or rooms of a
building is known as sound insulation. The basic principle of sound insulation is to suppress
the noise.
2. Write a short note on noise.
Unwanted sound is called noise. Noises produce a disturbing and displeasing effect on the ear.
Hence, noise should be avoided and controlled.

3. Classify the methods of sound insulation.

The methods of sound insulation can thus be classified into three main categories.
 When the source of noise is in the room itself.
 When noise is air-borne.
 When noise is structure-borne.
4. What are the factors to be followed for good acoustics of building.
 The reverberation time should have an optimum level.
 There should not be any echoes, echelon effects and resonance inside the buildings.
 The sound must be evenly distributed to each and every part of the building.
 There should not be any focussing of sound to any particular area.
5. Calculate the intensity level in decibel of a sound of intensity 10-9 Wm-2 and
standard intensity of sound is 10-12 Wm-2 .
Given data:
9  2
Intensity of sound I  10 Wm
 12  2
Standard intensity Io  10 Wm
Solution:

Sound intensity level = 10 log10 (I/I0) = 10 log10 (10-9/10-12)

Sound intensity level = 30 dB

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PART – B
1. Explain the factors affecting acoustics of buildings. Give remedies. (16 marks)
FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS AND THEIR REMEDIES

The factors affecting the acoustics of a building are:

1. Optimum reverberation time


2. Loudness
3. Focussing
4. Echoes
5. Echelon effect
6. Resonance
7. Noises
1. Optimum reverberation time
If reverberation time in a hall is too large, there is an overlapping of successive sounds
which results in a loss of clarity and echo. On the other hand, if reverberation time is
very small, loudness is not sufficient. The speaker may find no response from the
audience. Such a hall is considered as dead by the speaker.Thus, it is very important that
reverberation time in a hall should not be too long or short.
A satisfactory or preferred value of the reverberation time is called optimum reverberation time.

The satisfactory reverberation times required are:

Speeches – 0.5 second


Music – 1 to 2 second
Theatres – 1.1 to 1.5 second

Remedy
Optimum reverberation time is obtained by the following ways:
 Providing many windows and ventilators
 Covering a part of the ceiling, walls and even the back of chairs with suitable
sound absorbing materials.
 Using curtains with folds
 Covering the floor with carpets and having graded ceiling tops.

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 Having a good-size of audience


 Decorating the walls with pictures and maps.

2. Loudness
Loudness is the degree of sensation produced on the ear. If the intensity
of sound is weak, loudness may go below the level of audibility. Sufficient
loudness in every part of the hall is important for satisfactory hearing.

Remedy
The loudness of sound is increased by the following ways:

 To achieve good loudness, maximum reflection of sound from the stage is


desirable so that there is no loss of sound energy.
 Large polished wooden reflecting surfaces above the speakers are
helpful.

 Use of good quality loudspeakers is essential.


 Low ceilings are helpful for better reflection of sound.
 The wall at speaker’s end should be given a parabolic shape as shown in
fig. This ensures uniform sound intensity in every part of the hall.

Loudness - remedy

3. Focussing
Sound waves that reflect from the concave surfaces of a building get
focussed to a point. The intensity of sound will be maximum at such
points and zero at other places. This is called focussing effect.

As a result, sound cannot be heard with equal intensity through the entire
area of the building. In fig. the listener at point O receives sound waves from

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the speaker S along the direct path SO.

Focussing effect

It may sometimes happen that direct and reflected waves are in opposite
phase. This causes an uneven distribution of sound intensity.
Remedy
Uniform distribution of sound in the hall is achieved by the following ways.

 There should not be any curved surfaces in the hall. If such surfaces are
present, they should be covered with suitable sound absorbing materials.

 Ceiling should be as low as possible.

4. Echoes
Sometimes, when a sound wave falls on a reflecting surface, it is reflected as
a distinct repetition of direct sound. This reflected sound is called an echo.

Echoes occur due to the reflected sound waves. They reach the listener a little
later than the direct sound, which causes confusion. This defect is comman
particularly when the reflecting surface is curved.

Remedy
 Providing low ceiling.
 Echoes can be avoided by covering walls and ceiling with suitable sound
absorbing materials.

5. Echelon effect

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Fig. Echelon Effect


Sound produced in front of regular structures like a set of railing or staircase or
any regular spacing of reflecting surfaces, may produce sound note due to
regular repetition of echoes of the original sound to the observer as shown in
fig. 2.12. This effect is called as echlelon effect.

Remedy
 Regular structure like a stair cases or a set of railings in the hall should be
avoided
 The stair cases may be covered with carpets to avoid reflection

6. Resonance
Sometimes window-panes, sections of wooden portions, and walls lacking rigidity
(loosely fitted) are thrown into vibrations and they create other sounds.
For some note of audio frequency, the frequencies of new created sounds may be
the same thus resulting in the resonance. Such vibrations are called resonant
vibrations.
Due to the interference between original sound and the created sound, the
original sound is distorted. Hence, it leads to unpleasant effect. Such resonant
vibrations should be suitably damped.

Remedy
Resonance is rectified by hanging large number of curtains in the hall.

7. Noise
Unwanted sound is called noise. There are three types of noises.
They are
(i) Inside noise
(ii) Air - borne noise
(iii) Structure - borne noise
Noises produce a disturbing and displeasing effect on the ear. Hence, noise
should be avoided and controlled.

Remedy

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 Noises from water pipe can be controlled by using rubber couplings at
junctions.
 Using double walls with an air space between them.
 Covering the floors and ceilings with suitable sound absorbing materials
and anti-vibration mounts.

2. Explain the impact of noise in multi – storeyed buildings. (16 marks)


Noise
Unwanted sound is called noise. There are three types of noises.
They are
(i) Inside noise
(ii) Air - borne noise
(iii) Structure - borne noise
Noises produce a disturbing and displeasing effect on the ear. Hence, noise
should be avoided and controlled.

(i) Inside noise


Noise produced inside the room is known as inside noise.

Example of inside noise


 The sound created by moving of people, crying babies, movement of
furniture.
 The sound produced from machines, typewriters, etc.
(ii) Air-borne noises
Noises coming through open windows, doors and ventilators are
known as air-borne noises.

These types of noises are common in a densely populated area.

(iii) Structure borne noise


Noises conveyed through the structures of a building are called

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structure-borne noises.
Example
The machinery operation, movement of furniture, foot steps etc. produce structural
vibration giving rise to structure-borne noise.
IMPACT OF NOISE IN MULTI-STOREYED BUILDINGS
It is defined as the structure whose usage levels are regular in distribution and
which correspond roughly to the arequired for human habitation. There are four
main actions which causes impact of noise in multistoreyed buildings.

Impact of noise in multi-storeyed buidling

 Speech privacy (will not be there)

 Background noise (e.g fan, a.c, generator, printer)

 Sound masking

 Orientation of buildings

(i) Speech privacy: It is an issue witerin office building, including


individual work space, inside conference halls and between offices. It mainly
affects the quality of work in the adjacent office.

(ii) Back ground noise: It can adversely impact the work space too little
background noise and speech privacy is reduced letting you to hear what is
going on not only on work space but also away from that.

(iii) Sound masking: It can blend the building systems noise levels and
exterior noise levels within electronic noise systems in the middle. Traditional
sound masking systems are located in loud speakers above the ceiling.

(iv) Orientation of building: The noise impact may also be great for rooms
perpendicular to road ways because

(a) a noise pattern can be more annoying in perpendicular rooms.


(b) windows on perpendicular walls dont reduce noise as effectively as those on
parallel walls became at the angle of sound.
Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially
when the building is not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal
building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners and fans can be

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audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the
sound of amplified music, voices, and noisy activities from neighbouring units.
External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection and other city
noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open
or insufficiently glazed.

Concluding Remark Unless we study the basic concepts of the above topics, the
we cannot understand how a good auditorium or a cinema hall may be
designed. Even our classrooms or halls for indoor games are based on the
principles stated above. The reverberation time is a key factor in designing a
good acoustical structure. This knowledge is the backbone of civil engineering,
structural and architectural engineering.

3. Describe sound insulation and its measurement. (8 marks)


SOUND INSULATION AND ITS MEASUREMENT
The art of preventing the transmission of noise inside or outside
the hall or rooms of a building is known as sound insulation.It is also
called sound proofing and it is a measure used to reduce the level of
sound when it passes through the insulating building component. The
basic principle of sound insulation is to suppress the noise.

Methods of sound insulation


The method of sound insulation will depend on the type of noise to be
treated and the degree of sound insulation required. The methods of sound
insulation can thus be classified into three main categories.

1. When the source of noise is in the room itself.

2. When noise is air-borne.

3. When noise is structure-borne.

1. When source of noise is in the room itself


Following are the methods of sound insulation which are commonly used when
the source of noise is situated in the room to be treated for sound insulation.

(i) Improvement in working methods


(a) A working method creating less noise may be adopted.
For instance, welding may be preferred to riveting.

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(b) The machinery like type writers etc. should be placed on absorbent pads.
(c) The engine should be fitted on the floor with a layer of wood or felt
between them.

(ii) Acoustical treatment


(a) The walls floors and ceilings should be provided with sound absorbing
materials.
(b) The sound absorbing materials should be mounted on the surfaces near the
source of noise.
(c) The acoustical treatment of the room considerably reduces the noise
level in the room.
2. When noise is air-borne
Sound insulation for the reduction of air-borne noise can be achieved by the
following methods.

1. By avoiding opening of pipes and ventilators.


2. By allotting proper places for doors and windows.
3. Using double doors and windows with separate frames and having insulating
material in them.
4. Using heavy glass in doors, windows and ventilators.
5. By making arrangements for perfectly shutting the doors and windows.

3. When noise is structure-borne


Sound insulation for the reduction of structure-borne noise is done by the
following ways.

1. Treatment of floors and ceilings with suitable sound absorbing material


and antivibrations mounts.
(i) By using floating floors and suspended ceilings. (ii) Soft floor finish

(carpet, cork, vinyl, rubber, etc.)

(iii) Resilient (anti vibrations) mounts help considerably in reducing structure-


borne sound.

2. Using double walls with air space between them.


3. Insulation of machinery.

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UNIT II
ACOUSTICS
Topic 9 – Problems
Session 9– Problems

1. Calculate the increase in the acoustic intensity level when the

sound intensity is doubled.

Sound intensity level   10 log10 2  3.01 dB

Hence, increase in sound intensity level  3.01 dB

2. A cinema hall has a volume of 7500 m . The total

absorption in the hall is 825 O.W.U. m2. What should

be the reverberation time?

Reverberation time T= 0.167 V/as

T = 0.167 * 7500/825

T = 1.52 Sec

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UNIT II
ACOUSTICS
Topic 8– IMPACT OF NOISE IN MULTI-STOREYED BUILDINGS

Session 8– IMPACT OF NOISE IN MULTI-STOREYED BUILDINGS

It is defined as the structure whose usage levels are regular


in distribution and which correspond roughly to the arequired
for human habitation. There are four main actions which causes
impact of noise in multistoreyed buildings.

Impact of noise in multi-storeyed buidling

1. Speech privacy (will not be there)

2. Background noise (e.g fan, a.c, generator, printer)

3. Sound masking

4. Orientation of buildings

(i) Speech privacy: It is an issue witerin office building,


including individual work space, inside conference halls and
between offices. It mainly affects the quality of work in the
adjacent office.

(ii) Back ground noise: It can adversely impact the work


space too little background noise and speech privacy is reduced
letting you to hear what is going on not only on work space
but also away from that.

(iii) Sound masking: It can blend the building systems noise


levels and exterior noise levels within electronic noise systems
in the middle. Traditional sound masking systems are located
in loud speakers above the ceiling.

(iv) Orientation of building: The noise impact may also be


great for rooms perpendicular to road ways because

(a) a noise pattern can be more annoying in perpendicular


rooms.

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(b) windows on perpendicular walls dont reduce noise as
effectively as those on parallel walls became at the
angle of sound.
Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their
homes, especially when the building is not well designed and
constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing,
boilers, generators, air conditioners and fans can be audible and
annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the
sound of amplified music, voices, and noisy activities from
neighbouring units. External noise from emergency vehicles,
traffic, refuse collection and other city noises can be a problem
for urban residents, especially when windows are open or
insufficiently glazed.

Concluding Remark Unless we study the basic concepts of the


above topics, the we cannot understand how a good auditorium
or a cinema hall may be designed. Even our classrooms or halls
for indoor games are based on the principles stated above. The
reverberation time is a key factor in designing a good acoustical
structure. This knowledge is the backbone of civil engineering,
structural and architectural engineering.

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UNIT II
ACOUSTICS
Topic 7– Sound insulation and its measurements
Session 7– Sound insulation and its measurements
SOUND INSULATION AND ITS MEASUREMENT

The art of preventing the transmission of noise


inside or outside the hall or rooms of a building is known
as sound insulation. It is also called sound proofing and
it is a measure used to reduce the level of sound when it
passes through
the insulating building component. The basic principle
of sound insulation is to suppress the noise.

Methods of sound insulation


The method of sound insulation will depend on the type
of noise to be treated and the degree of sound insulation
required. The methods of sound insulation can thus be classified
into three main categories.

1. When the source of noise is in the room itself.

2. When noise is air-borne.

3. When noise is structure-borne.

1. When source of noise is in the room itself


Following are the methods of sound insulation which are
commonly used when the source of noise is situated in the room
to be treated for sound insulation.

(i) Improvement in working methods


(a) A working method creating less noise may be adopted.
For instance, welding may be preferred to riveting.
(b) The machinery like type writers etc. should be placed
on absorbent pads.
(c) The engine should be fitted on the floor with a layer

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of wood or felt between them.

(ii) Acoustical treatment


(a) The walls floors and ceilings should be provided with
sound absorbing materials.
(b) The sound absorbing materials should be mounted on
the surfaces near the source of noise.
(c) The acoustical treatment of the room considerably
reduces the noise level in the room.
2. When noise is air-borne
Sound insulation for the reduction of air-borne noise can
be achieved by the following methods.

1. By avoiding opening of pipes and ventilators.


2. By allotting proper places for doors and windows.
3. Using double doors and windows with separate frames
and having insulating material in them.
4. Using heavy glass in doors, windows and ventilators.
5. By making arrangements for perfectly shutting the
doors and windows.

3. When noise is structure-borne


Sound insulation for the reduction of structure-borne noise
is done by the following ways.

1. Treatment of floors and ceilings with suitable sound


absorbing material and antivibrations mounts.
(i) By using floating floors and suspended ceilings.

(ii) Soft floor finish (carpet, cork, vinyl, rubber, etc.)

(iii) Resilient (anti vibrations) mounts help considerably


in reducing structure-borne sound.

2. Using double walls with air space between them.


3. Insulation of machinery.

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UNIT II
ACOUSTICS
Topic 6– Methods of sound absorption, absorbing materials, noise and its measurement
Session 6– Methods of sound absorption, absorbing materials, noise and its measurement
ABSORBING MATERIALS

The special materials used to increase the absorption of


sound waves or to reduce the reflection of sound waves in a
room or hall are known as sound absorbing materials. The
material should have the following requirements:

The important facts in connection with absorbing


materials are as follows:
 An ideal absorbing material should be economical in
construction and maintenance, water-proof, fire-proof,
sufficiently strong and good in appearance.

 In the hall treated with absorbing materials, the speech


can be heard clearly and music can be fully enjoyed.

 All the absorbing materials are found to be soft and


porous. They work on the principle that the sounds
waves penetrate into the pores and in this process, the
sound waves are converted into other form of energy by
friction.

 The absorbing capacity of the absorbing materials


depends on the thickness of the material, its density and
frequency of sound.

 The acoustic properties of the absorbing materials are


considerably changed by their modes of fixing.

 Great care should be exercised while prescribing the


covering for an absorbing material so as to improve its
appearance. The improper covering destroys the
absorbing properties of the material.

 It should be remembered that in a big hall, the audience


is a major absorbing factor.

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Types of Absorbent Materials
The various types of absorbing materials are available in
the market under different trade names. The value of coefficient
of absorption is supplied by the manufacturer.

The requirements of a good acoustical material are as


follows:
 It should be durable and should not be liable to the
attacked by insects, termites, etc.
 It should be easily available at a reasonable cost.
 It should be efficient over a wide range of frequencies.
 It should be fire resistant.
 It should give pleasing appearance after fixing.
 It should have high coefficient of absorption.
 It should have sufficient structural strength.

Classification of sound absorbing materials


The sound absorbing materials are broadly classified into
the following four categories:

(a) Porous absorbents

(b) Cavity resonators

(c) Resonant absorbing or panel absorbers

(d) Composite types of absorbents.

Have we shall discuss these materials one by one

(a) Porous absorbents. When sound waves strike the


porous material, a part of waves is reflected while the
other enters the porous material. The part that enters
the porous material is converted into heat energy while
the reflected part is reduced in energy.
The examples are: fibre boards, soft plasters, rock wool,
wood wool, mineral wools, glass silk, asbestos fibre
spray, etc.

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(b) Cavity resonators. A cavity resonator is a chamber
or container having a small opening. When sound
waves enter the resonator, due to multiple reflections.

The drawback of cavity resonator is that it is suitable


for a particular frequency (single frequency) such as
from individual machine, air conditioning plant, etc. for
which it is constructed.
(c) Resonant absorbents or Panel absorbers. In this
system, the absorbent materials is fixed on a framing
(usually timber) with an air space between the framing
and the wall. It acts as a panel absorber. When sound
waves strike the panel, then due to flexural vibration
of panel, a certain amount energy is absorbed.
The common examples are: gypsum boards, wood and
hard-board panels, suspended plaster ceilings, rigid
plastic boards, windows, doors, etc.
(d) Composite absorbers. When the functions of all the
three types described above is combined in a single
unit, then it is known as composite absorber. The
composite absorbers consist of a perforated panel fixed
over an air space containing porous absorbent.
When sound waves strike the panel, they pass through it
and dampled by resonance of the air in the cavity.

Following are some of the common types of absorbing


materials:

1. Hairfelt

The average value of coefficient of absorption of 25 mm


thick hairfelt is 0.60.

2. Acoustic plaster

This is also known as the fibrous plaster and it includes

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granulated insulation material mixed with cement. The acoustic
plaster boards are also available. They can be fixed on the wall
and their coefficient of absorption varies from 0.15 to 0.30.

3. Acoustical tiles
These are made in factory and sold under different trade
names. The absorption of sound is uniform from tile to tile and
they can be fixed easily.

4. Strawboard
This material can be also used as absorbent material.

5. Pulp boards
These are the soft boards which are prepared from the
compressed pulp. They are cheap and can be fixed by ordinary
panelling. The average value of coefficient of absorption is 0.17.

6. Compressed fiberboard
This material may be perforated or unperforated. The
average coefficient of absorption for the former is 0.30.

7. Compressed wood particle board


This material is provided with perforations and it can be
painted also. With a thickness of about 13 mm, the average
coefficient of absorption is 0.40.

8. Perforated plywood
This material can be used by forming composite panels
with mineral wool and cement asbestos or with mineral wool
and hardboard. It is generally suspended from the trusses.

9. Wood wool board


This material is generally used with a thickness of 25 mm
3
and it has a density of 4 kN/m . The average value of coefficient
of absorption is 0.20.

10. Quilts and mats


These are prepared from mineral wool or glass wool and
are fixed in the form of acoustic blankets. The absorption

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coefficients of such quilts and mats depend on the thickness,
density, perforations, mode of fixing, nature of backing and
frequency of sound.

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FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS

When sound waves are produced in a hall, it reaches the observer directly as well
as after reflections from walls, floors, ceilings, etc. Thus there is a possibility for causing
interference between these waves, which in turn affects the originality of the sound produced.

The factors affecting the acoustics (sound) of buildings are as follows:

1) Un optimized reverberation time

2) Very low or very high loudness

3) Improper focusing of sound to a particular area, which may cause interference.

4) Echoes or echelon effects produced inside the buildings

5) Resonance caused due to matching of sound waves

6) Unwanted sound from outside or inside the building, so called noise may also affect the
acoustics of buildings.
OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME AND ITS REMEDY

We know reverberation time is the time taken for the sound to fall one millionth of its
original sound intensity, when the source of sound is switched off.

This reverberation time plays a vital role in the auditorium for clear audibility of sound. If
the reverberation time is very high then it produces, echoes in the hall and if the reverberation
time is very low, the sound will not be clearly heard by the audience. Therefore for clear
audibility we should maintain optimum reverberation time.

The optimum reverberation time can be achieved by the following steps:

1. By having the full capacity of audience in the auditorium

2. By choosing absorbents like felt, fiber, board, glass etc. Inside the auditorium and
even at the back of the chairs.

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3. Reverberation time can be optimized by providing windows and ventilators at the
places wherever necessary and using curtains with folds for the windows.

4. The reverberation time can also be optimized by decorating the walls with pictures.

The optimum reverberation time will not be constant for all types of buildings; it varies from one
building to the other as follows.

I) For concert halls, the speech should have the optimum reverberation time of .5 seconds
and music should have the optimum values of 1 or 2 seconds.

II) For auditorium of theatres the optimum reverberation time should be between 1.1 to 3
seconds, for smaller area and between 1.5 to 3 seconds for larger area.

LOUDNESS AND ITS REMEDY

Loudness is the degree of sensation produced on the ear; it varies from observer to
observer. But it is found that for a single observer the loudness varies from one place to another
in the same auditorium. This defect is caused due to the bad acoustical construction of buildings.
he loudness will be very low in some area and will be very high in some
areas. It can be optimized by the following remedies.

REMEDIES

i) Loudspeakers should be placed at the places where we have low loudness

ii) The loudness can also be increased by making reflecting surfaces, wherever necessary

iii) Loudness can be increased by constructed low ceilings

iv) Absorbents are placed at the places where we have high loudness

Thus the loudness should be made even all over the auditorium, so that the observer can
hear the sound at a constant loudness at all the places

FOCUSSING AND INTERFERENCE EFFECTS

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In some places of a hall, the sound will not be heard properly and that place is said to be a
dead space, which is due to the presence of convex or concave surfaces in the hall. sometimes
the sound waves will have interference pattern because of ceiling surfaces which will create
maximum intensity of sound due to constructive interference in some places and minimum
intensity of sound due to destructive interference at some other places and hence causing uneven
distribution of sound intensity in the hall.

REMEDIES

I) By avoiding curved surfaces or covering the curved surfaces by suitable absorbents then
focusing can be avoided

II) By evenly polishing and decorating with absorbents the interference effects can be
avoided

ECHOES AND ECHELON EFFECT

In some halls, the wall of the halls will scatter the sound waves rather than reflecting it,
this may create nuisance effect due to echoes. The echoes are formed when the time interval
between the direct and reflected sound waves are about 1/15 th of a second. This effect occurs due
to the reason that the reflected sound waves reaches the observer later than the direct sound.

If there is a regular repetition of echoes of the original sound to the observer then the
effect is called as echelon effect. For ex, sound produced from equally spaced steps in a stair
case at regular intervals produces echelon effect.

REMEDY
The echo can be avoided by lining the surfaces with suitable sound absorbing materials
and by providing enough number of doors and windows.
FOCUSSING AND INTERFERENCE EFFECTS

In some places of a hall, the sound will not be heard properly and that place is said to be a
dead space, which is due to the presence of convex or concave surfaces in the hall. sometimes
the sound waves will have interference pattern because of ceiling surfaces which will create
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maximum intensity of sound due to constructive interference in some places and minimum
intensity of sound due to destructive interference at some other places and hence causing uneven
distribution of sound intensity in the hall.

REMEDIES

I) By avoiding curved surfaces or covering the curved surfaces by suitable absorbents then
focusing can be avoided

II) By evenly polishing and decorating with absorbents the interference effects can be
avoided

ECHOES AND ECHELON EFFECT

In some halls, the wall of the halls will scatter the sound waves rather than reflecting it,
this may create nuisance effect due to echoes. The echoes are formed when the time interval
between the direct and reflected sound waves are about 1/15 th of a second. This effect occurs due
to the reason that the reflected sound waves reaches the observer later than the direct sound.

If there is a regular repetition of echoes of the original sound to the observer then the
effect is called as echelon effect. For ex, sound produced from equally spaced steps in a stair
case at regular intervals produces echelon effect.

REMEDY

The echo can be avoided by lining the surfaces with suitable sound absorbing materials
and by providing enough number of doors and windows.
RESONANCE
Resonance occurs when a new sound note of frequency matches with standard audio
frequency. Sometimes the window –panel, sections of the wooden portion are thrown into
vibrations to produce new sounds, which results in interference between original sound and
created sound. This will create disturbance to the audience.

REMEDIES

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i) The resonance effect can be avoided by providing proper ventilation and by


adjusting the reverberation time to the optimum level.

ii) Now a days the resonance is completely eliminated by air conditioning the halls

NOISE
Noise is an unwanted sound produced due to heavy traffic outside the hall which leads to
displeasing effect to the ear.
TYPES OF NOISES
I)Airborne noise
II)Structure borne noise
III)Inside noise
All these three noises pollute the area at which it has been produced and create harmful
effects to the human beings. Fortunately human beings have the capability to reject the sound
within certain limits with conscious efforts and to carry on his normal work. But sometimes
the noises are strong which results in the following effects

EFFECTS PRODUCED DUE TO NOISE POLLUTION

i) It produces mental fatigue and irritation

ii) It diverts the concentration on work and hence reduces the efficiency of the work

ii) It sometimes affects the nervous system and lowers the restorative quality of
iii) iv) Some strong noises lead to damage the ear drum and make the worker
hearin impaired

v) The noises which are produced regularly will even retard the normal growth of
infants and young children
I)AIRBORNE NOISE

The noise which reaches the hall through open windows, doors and ventilations are called
as air borne noise. This type of noise is produced both in rural areas (natural sound of wind and
animals) and in urban areas (noise that arises from factories, aircrafts, automobiles, trains, flights
etc.,)

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REMEDIES

i) By making the hall air conditioned this noise may be eliminated

ii) By allotting proper places for doors and windows this noise can be reduced

iii) It can be further reduced by using double doors and windows with separate
frames and by placing the absorbents in between them.

II) STRUCTURE BORNE NOISE

The noise that reaches the hall through the structures of the building is termed as
structure borne noise. These types of noises are produced inside the building, which may be due
to the machinery operation, movement of furniture’s, footsteps etc. and these sound will produce
structural vibration giving rise to structure borne noise.

REMEDIES

i) By properly breaking the continuity of the interposing layers by some acoustical


insulators this type of noise can be avoided.

ii) By providing carpets, resilent, anti vibration mounts etc., this type of noise can be
reduced.

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III) INSIDE NOISE

The noise that is produced inside the halls is known as inside noise. For ex in
some offices the sound produced by machinery, type writers etc. produces this type of
noise.

REMEDIES

i) By placing the machineries and type writers over the absorbing materials
or pads this type of noise can be reduced.

ii) It can be reduced by covering the floors with the carpet

iii) By fitting the engine on the floor with a layer of wood or felt between
them this type of noise can be avoided

FACTORS TO BE FOLLOWED FOR GOOD ACOUSTICS OF BUIDING

To have a clear audibility of sound in the auditorium, the following factors are
to be followed.

i) The reverberation time should have an optimum level

ii) The sound must be evenly distributed to each and every part of the building

iii) There should not be any focusing of sound to any particular area

iv) Each and every syllable of sound must be heard clearly and distinctly,
without any interference

v) There should not be any echoes, echelon effects and resonance


inside the buildings

vi) The buildings should be made as sound proof building, so that external
noises may be avoided

vii) Generally to say the total quality of sound should be maintained all

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over the building to all the audience.

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SABINE'S FORMULA FOR REVERBERATION TIME - GROWTH AND DECAY METHOD

The relation connecting the reverberation time with the volume of the hall, the area and
absorption coefficient is known as Sabine's formula

Sabine's developed the formula to express the rise and fall of sound intensity by the
following assumptions.

Distribution of sound energy is uniform throughout the hall

There is Interference between sound wave

The Absorption Coefficient is independent of sound intensity

The rate of emission of sound energy from the source is constant

Let us consider a small element 'ds' on a plane wall AB. Assume that the element ds receives
the sound energy 'E'.

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Let us draw two concentric circles of radii 'r' and r+dr from the centre point of ds. Consider a
small shaded portion lying in between the two semi circles drawn at an angle θ and θ+dθ, wit h
the normal to ds as shown in figure.

Let 'dr' be the radial length and 'rdθ' be the arc length. Then

Area of shaded portion = rdθ.d r (1)

If the whole figure is rotated about the normal through an angle d φ ' as shown in
figure, then it is evident that the area of the shaded portion travels through a small distance say
'dx' .

dx = rsinθ . d φ (2)

Volume traced by the shaded portion is

dV = Area × distance

Substituting equations (1) and (2), we have

dV = rdθ.d r × rsinθ . d φ

i.e. dV = r2 dr sinθ dθ d φ

The sound energy present in this volume dV = E.dV

= E r2 dr sinθ dθ d φ

The sound energy will travel through the element in all the directions.

The sound energy present in this volume

dV per unit solid angle is = (E r2 dr sinθ dθ d φ) / 4π

In this case the solid angle subtended by the area 'ds' at this element of volume dV is

dω = (ds cosθ) / r2
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Hence, the sound energy travelling from the element (i.e. from d ) towards 'ds'

(E r2 dr sinθ dθ d φ) (ds cosθ) (3)

4π r2

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To find the total energy received by the element 'ds' per second, we
have to integrate eqn.(3) for the whole vollume lying within a distance 'v' of 'ds'. where 'v'
is the velocity of sound. It is obvious from the geometry of the figure that,

φ changes from 0 to 2π ,

θ changes from 0 to π/2 &

r changes from 0 to v.

Integrating eqn.(3) with respect to these limits we can write,

Energy received per second by 'ds'

Let 'a' be the absorption coefficient of the wall AB

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Energy absorbed by ds in unit time = 1/4 (E v a ds)

Total absorption at all the surfaces of the wall is = 1/4 (E v ∑ a. ds)

Total rate of energy absorption = 1/4 (E v A) (5)

Where ' E ' is the energy from sources and ' A ' is the total absorption on
all the surfaces on which the sound falls (i.e.) A = ∑ a. ds

Growth and Decay of the Sound Energy

If 'P' is the power output (i.e. the rate of sound energy from the source) then we can write
Rate of Emission of sound energy i.e. power output P = 1/4 (E mV A)

Here E m is maximum energy from the source (which has been emitted) that is
nothing but maximum energy which incidents on the wall and V is the volume of the hall.

E m = 4P / VA 6)

We know that the total energy at any instant 't' = EV

The Rate of growth (or) increase in energy = d/dt (EV) = V dE/dt (7)

At any instant
From eqn. (5) and (7), We can write

Therefore eqn. 8 becomes

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where E m is the maximum sound energy.

This expression gives the growth of sound energy density ' E' with t ime 't' . The growth is
along an exponential curve as shown in the figure.

This indicates that E increases until t =

at t = , E = E max

Growth of sound energy

(ii) Decay of sound energy

Let us first evaluate k for delay.

Here boundary conditions are at t = 0 and E = E m

Initially the sound increases from E to E m and now it is going to decay from
Em. Therefore time is considered as '0' for E = E m. (i.e.) At E = E m the sound
energy from the source is cut off. Therefore rate of emission of sound energy from the
source = 0 (i.e.) P = 0

Therefore from eqn. (8) , we can write, E m e0 = 0 + k

k = Em

Therefore substituting the value of k for decay in eqn. (8), we get

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E eαt=(4P/vA) eαt+ E m

since P = 0 (i.e.) Energy from source is cut off for decay of sound, so We can write,

E eαt = E m

E = E m e-αt (10)

Equation (10) gives the decay of sound energy density with time 't' even after the
source is cut off. It is an exponentially decreasing funtion from maximum
energy (E m) as shown in figure.

Decay of Sound Energy

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ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT

All the sound waves when pass through an open window, the open window behaves as a
perfect absorber of sound and hence the absorption coefficient can be defined as the rate of
sound energy absorbed by a certain area of the surface to that of an open window of same area.

DEFINITION: The absorption coefficient of a surface is defined as the reciprocal of its area
which absorbs the same amount of sound energy as absorbed by a unit area of an open window.

For ex, if 2m2 of a carpet absorbs the same amount of sound energy as absorbed by 1m2
of an open window, then the absorption coefficient of the carpet is ½=0.5. The absorption
coefficient is measured in open window unit sabines.

In general, the absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the ratio of the sound
energy absorbed by the surface to that of the total sound energy incident on the surface.

Absorption coefficient (a) = Sound energy absorbed by the surface/Total sound energy incident
on the surface

ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT

S. No Material Absorption Co.eff(a)

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1. Marble 0.01

2. Brick Wall (painted) 0.016

3. Glass 0.02

4. Brick Wall (30cm) thickness 0.03

5. Wooden Floor 0.06

6. Carpet 0.15-0.30

7. Ordinary Chair 0.17

8. Human Body 4.3-4.7

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Average Absorption coefficient

The average absorption coefficient is the defined as the ratio between the total
absorption in the hall to the total surface area of the hall.

i.e., ā = A/S = Σ as/Σs

DETERMINATION OF ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT

Let us consider a sample for which the absorption coefficient is to be measured.


Initially without this material the reverberation time in a room is measured and let it
be T1. Now the given sample is kept inside the room and again the reverberation time is
measured and let it be T2.

Then from sabine’s formula

For case (i) (i.e) without the sample

T1 = 0.167V/Σ as ………..(1)

Where Total absorption = Σ as = a1 s1+a2 s2+……….[for all the materials such as


doors, windows, etc.]

For case (ii) (i.e.) Including the sample material

T2 = 0.167V/ Σ as+a ms m ……….(2)

Where am = absorption coefficient of the material to be found

sm = surface area of the material.

Therefore from equ. (1) we have

Σ as = 0.167V/T 1 ………(3)

From equ. (2) we have Σ as+a ms m = 0.167V/T 2

Subtracting equ. (3) from equ. (4) we have

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ams m = 0.167V(1/T 2 -1/T1)

(or) am = 0.167V/s m[T1 -T 2/T1T2 ]

Hence, by knowing the terms on the right hand side the absorption coefficient
of the given sample can be determined.

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Topic XII
Session plan XII – SABINES FORMULA

The existence or prolongation or persistence of sound in a room (due to multiple


reflections from surfaces) even after the source of sound has stopped to emit the sound
is called reverberation.

This familiar phenomenon is experienced in vacant halls of a new building.

Reverberation Time
Definition

The time duration for which a sound persists even after the source of sound has
stopped to emit the sound is called reverberation time.

SABINE’S FORMULA FOR REVERBERATION TIME


Sabine derived a relation for the standard reverberation time.

0.167 V
It is given by T second

 as

0.167 V

T a s  a s 
1 1 2 2

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Topic XI
Session plan XI – CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND

The branch of physics which deals with generation, reception,


propagation and analysis of sound is called acoustics.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND
Sound waves are classified into three types based on their frequencies.

Infrasonics (Inaudible): Sound waves of frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonics.


They are inaudible.
Audible sound: Sound waves of frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz are called
audible sound. They are audible.
Ultrasonics (Inaudible): Sound waves of frequencies above 20,000 Hz or 20 kHz are
called ultrasonics. They are inaudible.
Musical Sound

Sound which produces a pleasing effect to our ears is called musical sound.

Example: Sounds produced by the musical instruments like sitar, violin and piano are
musical sounds.

Noise

Any unpleasant sound to our ears is called noise.

Noise causes irritation and strain to our ear. Noise of high intensity may cause permanent
or temporary deafness.

Example: Movement of furniture, road traffic, explosion of bombs.

WEBER – FECHNER LAW


(Relation between loudness and intensity of sound)

According to Weber - Fechner law, the loudness of sound varies with intensity of sound.

Statement

The law states that the loudness (L) produced is directly proportional to logarithm of
intensity.

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QUESTION BANK FOR IAE I

PH 8201/ PHYSICS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING

Part A – UNIT I

1. Define Fenestration.

2. Classify thermal insulating Materials.


3. List out the Benefits of thermal insulation.

4. Write the equation for solar heat loss estimation.

5. Write the equation for solar heat gain estimation.

6. List out the factors affecting thermal performance of a building.

7. What are thermal indices of comfort

8. Define central heating.


9. What is the Principle of Air-conditioning System?
10. What are the different Types of Air Conditioner Systems.

PART – B UNIT I

1. Explain the factors affecting thermal performance of buildings.

2. Explain window air conditioner system in detail with neat diagram. Mention its advantages and
disadvantages.

3. Explain fenestration in buildings to explain thermal performance.

4. Write a short note on central heating system and chilled water plant

5. Discuss the common causes of AC fires? What are the steps to be taken to prevent fires.

6. Explain about thermal indices of comfort.

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Topic IX
Session plan IX – PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE TO BE CAUSED BY
A.C. SYSTEMS

Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire.Fire safety measures
include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those that are used to limit
the development and effects of a fire after it starts.Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire
hazards. A fire hazard may include a situation that increases the likelihood of a fire or may impede escape
in the event a fire occurs.

Common Causes of AC Fires

When the air conditioner is not regularly maintained, it runs the risk of becoming faulty and catching fire.
This could be as a result of worn out filters that accumulate with dirt and dust particles resulting in the
malfunctioning of the system. The other factors include storing flammable materials near the system,
faulty parts and equipments. All these will damage the system and the result will be poor indoor.

1. Storing flammable materials near the A.C system

2. Failing to keep the not cleaned properly

3. Faulty parts and equipment

Regulated Fire Protection Systems

1. Alarm systems

2. Stand Pipe System

3.Fire detectors

4.Flame detector

5. Smoke detector

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Topic VIII
Session plan VIII – AC FOR DIFFERENT BUILDINGS
WATER PIPING
Water pipes are pipes or tubes frequently made of poly vinyl chloride, steel, cast, iron or
copper that carry pressurized and treated fresh water to buildings as well as inside the
buildings.
Types of Pipes

 Steel pipes

 Galvanised Steel or Iron Pipes

 Cast iron pipes

 Concrete Cement and Asbestos Cement Pipes

 Plasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipes

Advantages

1 Water can be transported using gravity.


2 The quality of the water is preserved
Disadvantages

1 High initial investment


2 Expensive operation and maintenance.
3 Risk of recontamination.
4 Risk of water loss through leakage.

COOLING LOAD
It is defined as the total heat required to be removed from the space in order to bring it to
the desired temperature by air conditioning.It is responsibility of Air-conditioning and
Refrigeration equipment capacity to maintain the desired inside conditions.The purpose of
a load estimation is to determine the size of the air conditioning and refrigeration
equipment that is required to maintain inside conditions during periods of maximum
outside temperatures.

Components of a cooling load

1. Sensible heat gain

2. Latent heat gain

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUILDINGS

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Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, or A/C) is the process of removing heat from the interior of an
occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and
commercial environments
Different Types of Air Conditioner Systems

1. Central Air Conditioning

2. Ductless, Mini-Split Air Conditioner


3.Window Air Conditioner
4.Portable Air Conditioner
5. Hybrid Air Conditioners

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Topic VII
Session plan VII – AC SYSTEM
Principle of Air-conditioning

An Air-conditioner continuously draws an air from an indoor space to be cooled and cools it by the
refrigeration principles and discharges it back into the same indoor space that needs to be cooled. Such
continuous cyclic processes of drawl, cooling and recirculation of the cooled air keeps the indoor space at
the required lower temperature for the desired purpose.

WINDOW AIR-CONDIGIONER (ROOM AIR-CONDITIONER)


Window air-conditioner is also known as room air-conditioner. It is designed to condition the air in a
single room or a large scale. It is called a window air-conditioner because it is usually installed in a
window
Construction
The main components of a window air-conditioner are:

1 Compressor
2 Condenser
3 Air filter
4 Evaporator
5 Motor
6 Fans
7 Thermostat
8 Capillary tube, etc.
9
The while unit is divided into two units as indoor unit and outdoor unit.The indoor unit consists of an
evaporator, air filter, motor driven fan, control panel, trays, etc.The outdoor unit consists of a compressor
unit, condenser, trays and motor driven fan. All the basic refrigeration components are enclosed in a
single unit.

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• The evaporator fan sucks the air from the room to be conditioned through air filter and it passes
the air over the evaporator coil.

• Thus it delivers cool and dehumidified air back to the room.

• This cool air brings down the temperature and humidity levels in the room and provides
comfortable conditions.

• The compressor compresses the low-pressure vapour refrigerant coming from the evaporator or
cooling coil and converts into high-pressure vapour refrigerant.

• The high-pressure vapour refrigerant is then passed into the condenser where it is cooled.

• Outside air is drawn in by the another fan (which also driven by same motor) and it cools the
refrigerant then becomes liquid.

• In the evaporator, the liquid refrigerant picks up heat and gets vaporized. This cycle repeats again
and again.

• The unit stops automatically when the required temperature is reached in the room.

• A thermostat is provided for controlling the operation of the compressor to maintain the desired
temperature in the room.

• A damper is used to regulate the fresh air supply. The conditioned chilled air is blown back into
the room through dampers.

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Advantages of the Window Air-Conditioner

For each unit, an individual temperature control device is provided.

For air distribution, ducts are not required.


Disadvantages of the Window Air-Conditioner

The unit is installed outside the wall.

This unit has a fixed air quantity.

PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONER


Packaged air conditioner is a self-contained unit primarily for floor mounting, designed to provide
conditioned air to the space to be conditioned. It includes prime sources of refrigeration for cooling and
dehumidification and means for circulation and cleaning of air, with or without external air distribution
ducting. It may also include means for heating, humidifying and ventilating air.The unit comprises a
compressor, condenser and evaporator, which are interconnected with copper refrigerant piping and
refrigerant controls. It also includes fan for circulation of air and filter. The unit is provided with
compressor and fan motor starter and factory-wired safety controls.

CHILLED WATER PLANT


Chilled water is extensively used as a secondary refrigerant in larger commercial, institutional and
industrial premises to make cooling available over a large area instead of having to use a large number of
compressors at different locations. The refrigeration machine that produces chilled water is generally
referred to as chiller (Figure) and consists of the compressor(s), evaporator and condenser packaged as a
single unit.

Compressors

The three common types of compressors used in commercial chillers are:

Reciprocating compressors
Helical rotary compressor
Centrifugal compressors
Evaporators

FAN COIL UNITS


As its name implies, a fan coil unit consists of a heat exchanger in which water is circulated and a fan
assembly, incorporating a filter and simple controls, designed for wall perimeter units, Figure 25.8, or
ceiling units mounted within ceiling voids. Ceiling units can be configured as a cassette, drawing air into
the centre and discharging at the periphery. Heating elements, electric, hot water or steam can be
included.

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The chilled water is fed to a number of air-handling units, each sized for a suitable zone, where the
conditions throughout the zone can be satisfied by the outlet air from the unit. This offers a wise range of
comfort conditions within the space, with units serving a single rooms, or part of a room. The coil is
normally operated with a fin temperature below room dew point, so that some latent heat is removed by
the coil, which requires a condensate drain. Multi-speed fans are usual, so that the noise level can be
reduced at times of light load.

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Topic VI
Session plan VI – NATURAL VENTILATION

Ventilation

The term ventilation is used to mean the free passage of clean air in a structure. If
the room is not properly ventilated, there will be excessive quantity of carbon
dioxide in the air. The more the amount of carbon dioxide, the more difficult is the
breathing. The ventilation is also required to suppress odours, smoke,
concentration of bacteria, etc. For removal of body heat liberated or generated by
the occupants, the ventilation is necessary.
In order to prevent the formation of conditions leading to suffocation in
conference rooms, committee halls, cinema halls, big rooms, etc., the proper
ventilation of such premises must be made.
Factors Affecting Ventilation

Following factors affect the ventilation from the view point of comfort to the persons and therefore
should be considered carefully: 1. air changes 2. Humidity 3. Quality of air 4. Temperature 5. Use of
building

Requirements of a Good ventilating System

Following are considered to be the desired requirements of a good ventilating system:

 It should be so designed that the required quantity of fresh air is admitted in the
premises and that the vitiated air is extracted from the premises.
 The value of desired relative humidity should be maintained.
 The effective temperature should be properly maintained with regard to the human
comfort.
 The air movements should be uniform and it should be seen that pockets of
stagnant air re not formed.
PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL VENTILATION
Natural ventilation: In this system of ventilation, the use is made of doors, windows, ventilators and
skylights to make the room properly ventilated. This system is useful for small buildings and it cannot be
adopted for big offices, theatres, auditoriums, etc. The only advantages of this system are that it is
economical in the sense that no special equipment is necessary for making the room adequately ventilated.

The windows, deflectors and radiators should be properly manipulated for achieving the desired
effects. The exhaust duct is provided near the ceiling of the opposite wall and it is taken out of the roof to
act more or less like a chimney. The windows open from bottom and the deflectors maybe of curved vanes.

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VENTILATION MEASUREMENTS

Natural or passive ventilation occurs because of wind and thermal forces which produce a flow of outdoor
air through the various openings in a building. The flow of outdoor air through operable windows, doors,
and other controllable openings can be effectively used for both temperature and contaminant control.
Temperature control by natural ventilation conserves energy and is particularly effective in mild climates.
The arrangement, location, and control of ventilating openings can be designed to take into consideration
the driving forces of wind and temperature.

The types of openings include:

Windows, doors, and skylights

Roof ventilators

Specially designed inlet or outlet openings

Determining and Designing of Ventilation

Natural Ventilation

This is difficult to measure as it varies from time to time. The amount of outside air through windows and
other openings depends on the direction and velocity of wind outside (wind action) and/or convection
effects arising from temperature or vapour pressure differences (or both) between inside and outside of
the building (stack effect)

Stack Effect

Ventilation due to convection effects arising from temperature difference between inside and outside.
Natural ventilation by stack effect occurs when air inside a building is at a different temperature than air
outside. Thus in heated buildings or in buildings wherein hot processes are carried on and in ordinary
buildings during summer nights and during pre-monsoon period, the inside temperatures higher than that
of outside, cool outside air will tend to enter through openings at low level and warm air will tend to leave
through openings at high level.

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Topic V
Session plan V - CLIMATE AND DESIGN OF SOLAR RADIATION

CLIMATE AND DESIGN OF SOLAR RADIATION


Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation emitted
by the sun. It is the intensity of sun rays falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in watts
per square metre W/m2. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as
heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies.
Basic Principles

Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation that
reaches any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies according to:

 Geographic location
 Time of day

 Season

 Local landscape

 Local weather.
Because the earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0 to 900.
When the sun’s rays are vertical, the earth’s surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the
sun’s rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse.The
earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere.

Diffuse and Direct solar Radiation

As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by:

 Air molecules
 Water vapor
 Clouds
 Dust
 Pollutants
 Forest fires
 Volcanoes.
This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface without being
diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called
global solar radiation.

Solar Radiation: Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays
falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in watts per square w/m2.

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The instruments used for measuring of solar radiation are the pyranometer and the pyrheliometer. The
duration of sunshine is measured using a sunshine recorder.

Distribution

The amount of power generated by any solar technology at a particular site depends on how much of the
sun’s energy reaches it.

Solar passive design

Solar passive buildings are designed to achieve thermal and visual comfort by using natural energy
sources and sinks e.g. solar radiation, wet surfaces, outside air, vegetation, etc.Architects and designers
can achieve energy efficiency in the buildings they design by studying the macro and micro climate of the
site, applying solar passive and bio climatic design features ad taking advantage of the natural resources
on site. Designer can achieve a solar passive building design by following the steps mentioned below:

 Modulating the micro climate of the site through landscaping


 Optimizing the orientation and building form.
 Optimizing the building envelope and windows
 Applying day light integration to reduce the artificial lighting demand.
 Adopting low energy passive cooling strategies.

SHADING DEVICES
Sun control and shading devices can also improve user visual comfort by controlling glare and reducing
contrast ratios. This often leads to increased satisfaction and productivity. Some shading devices can also
function as reflectors, called light shelves, which bounce natural light for day lighting deep into building
interiors.

Classification:

Shading devices is classified in to two types they are internal shading devices and external shading
devices.

Designing Shading Systems

It is difficult to make sweeping generalizations about the design of shading


devices. However, the following design recommendations generally hold true:

 Use fixed overhangs on south-facing glass to control direct beam solar radiation
 Limit the amount of east and west glass since it is harder to shade than south glass.
 A light shelf bounces natural light deeply into a room through high windows while
shading lower windows.

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 Solar gain has already been admitted into the work space
 These interior devices do offer glare control and can contribute to visual acuity and
visual comfort in the work place.
 Carefully consider the durability of shading device
 Shading devices can require a considerable amount of maintenance and repair.
 Be careful when applying shading ideas from one project to another.

central heating process


A central heating system provides warmth to the whole interior of a building or portion of a building
from one point to multiple rooms.In cold countries the temperature in winter falls to 0C and even goes to
below that value. The rooms of the building are kept warm by a central heating system based on the
principle of convection. It differs from local heating in that the heat generation occurs in one place, such
as a furnace room or basement in a house or a mechanical room in a large building.

The heat is distributed throughout the building, typically by forced-air through duckwork, by water
circulating through pipes, or by steam fed through pipes. The most common method of heat generation
involves the combustion of fossil fuel in a furnace or boiler.The circulating hot water can be used for
central heating.

Common components of a central heating system using water-circulation include:

 A gas supply lines, oil tanks and supply linear distinct heating supply lines.
 A Boiler which heats water in the system.
 Pump to circulate the water in the closed system.
 Radiators which are wall-mounted panels through which the heated
water passes in order to release heat into rooms
Hot water from the boiler rises up passes through the radiation of different rooms. Radiation get heated and
radiate heat to the room. Hot water also reaches the cold water tank at the top of the building. Convection
currents are set up and the building is kept warm continuously at a constant temperature. The circulating
water systems use a closed loop; the same water is heated and then reheated. A sealed system provides a
form of central heating in which the water used for heating circulates independently of the building’s
normal water supply.

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Session plan : 4
Topic: 4 Thermal measurement and comfort
THERMAL MEASUREMENTS
 Every material used in an envelope assembly has fundamental physical properties
that determine their energy performance like conductivity, resistance, and thermal
mass.
 Understanding these properties will help are chose the right materials to manage
heat flows
1. Thermal Conductivity k

A material’s ability to conduct heat is known as thermal conductivity.

2. Thermal Conductance C

Conductivity per unit area for a specified thickness is known as thermal conductance.
For such common materials, it is useful to know the rate of heat flow for that standard
thickness instead of the rate per inch.

 U - Factor U

U factor is the overall coefficient of thermal transmittance. Lower U-factors mean less
conduction, which means better insulation.

4. Thermal Resistance (R - value )

A material’s ability to resist heat flow is known as R value. Thermal resistance indicates how effective
any material is as an insulator.

5. Thermal Mass

Thermal mass is a material’s resistance to change in temperature as heat is added


or removed, and is a key factor in dynamic heat transfer interactions within a
building. The four factors to understand are density, specific heat and thermal
capacity.
 Density

Dense materials usually store more heat.Density is the mass of a material per unit volume.

 Specific Heat

High specific heat requires a lot of energy to change the temperature. Specific heat is a measure
of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of given mass of material by 1

 Thermal Capacity

Thermal capacity is an indicator of the ability of a material to store heat per unit volume.

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Other important devices for measuring temperature include:

 Thermocouples

 Thermistors

 Resistance temperature detector (RTD)


 Pyrometer

 Other thermometers

THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation. It is the occupant’s satisfaction
with the surrounding thermal conditions. The main factors that influence thermal comfort
are those that determine heat gain and loss, namely metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air
temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and relative humidity. Psychological
parameters, such as individual expectations, also affect thermal comfort.

Significance

Satisfaction with the thermal environment is important for its own sake and because it
influences health.
Influencing factors

There are six primary factors that directly affect thermal comfort that can be grouped in
two categories:

 Personal factors

Metabolic rate and clothing level are personal factors.

 Environmental factors

Air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and humidity are Environmental factors.

1. Metabolic rate

People have different metabolic rates that can fluctuate due to activity level and
environmental conditions. Food and drink habits may have an influence on metabolic rates,
which indirectly influences thermal preferences. These effects may change depending on
food and drink intake.Body shape is another factor that affects thermal comfort.Heat
dissipation depends on body surface area.

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Clothing insulation

Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and consequently the thermal balance.
Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or
lead to overheating.

3.Air temperature

The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the occupant, with
respect to location and time.

4. Mean radiant temperature

The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from a surface,
and it depends on the material’ ability to absorb or emit heat, or its emissivity. So the mean
radiant temperature experienced by a person in a room with the sunlight streaming in varies
based on how much of his/her body is in the sun.

5.Air speed

Air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction. It is
average speed of the air to which the body is exposed with respect to location and time.

6.Relative humidity

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapour in the air to the amount
of water vapor that the air could hold at the specific temperature and pressure.While the
human body has sensors within the skin that are fairly efficient at feeling heat and cold,
relative humidity is detected indirectly. Sweating is an effective heat loss mechanism that
relies on evaporation from the skin.

THERMAL INDICES OF COMFORT


Thermal comfort refers to the subjective feeling of temperature in an environment. A
single scale which combines the effects of various thermal comfort factors (such as air
temperature, humidity, air movement and radiation) is called a Thermal Index or Comfort
Scale.The measurement of thermal comfort levels are complex and many indices have been
proposed over the years. They are:

Air temperature
Initially the air temperature as measured from a dry bulb thermometer was taken as the
indicator of thermal comfort. But it was found to be unsatisfactory measure as comfort
levels depended on other factors too.

Air temperature and humidity


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Later, air temperature and humidity levels were considered to convey the thermal comfort
levels.This was also unsatisfactory.

Cooling power
This takes into consideration the following factors.
 Air temperature

 Humidity

 Air movements

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Sessio plan : 3
Topic : 3 Heat gain and Heat loss Estimation & Factors affecting thermal performance
HEAT GAIN ESTIMATION M
Q   A S 
Solar heat gain through transparent elements can be written as, s Si 1 i gi i

where, s  mean absorptivity of the space.


th 2
Ai  area of i transparent element m .
S
gi  daily average value of solar radiation (including
th
effect of shading) on the i transparent element
2
W/m .
th
i  transmissivity of i transparent element.

M  no of the transparent elements.

HEAT LOSS ESTIMATION


The heat loss is divided into two groups:

 Conductive heat loss


 The convective infiltration loss
Heat loss occurs from a building structure primarily due to conduction.

 Heat loss from building envelope (wall, roof, glass)


 Heat loss from floors or slab
A simplified calculation of the heat loss through the basement walls and floor is,

Q  A U T  T 
base ba se o

where A — area of basement wall or floor

U base — overall heat transfer coefficient of wall or floor

T base – Temperature at basement

To – Outside Temperature

THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS

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The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modeling the energy
transfer between building and its surroundings.

 For a conditioned building, it estimates the heating and cooling load.


 For a non-conditioned building, it calculates temperature variation inside the
building over a specified time and helps one to estimate the duration of
uncomfortable periods.
 Various heat exchange processes are possible between a building and the external
environment. These are shown in fig.

Fig. Various heat exchange processes

Heat exchange processes between a building and the external environment

 Heat flows by conduction through various building elements such as walls, roof,
ceiling, floor, etc.
 Heat transfer also takes place from different surfaces by convection and radiation.
 Besides, solar radiation is transmitted through transparent windows and is absorbed
by the internal surfaces of the building.
 There may be evaporation of water resulting in a cooling effect.
 Heat is also added to the space due to the presence of human occupants and the use
of lights and equipments.
 The interaction between a human body and the indoor environment is shown in fig.

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Factors affecting Thermal performance of Buildings

 Thermal performance of a building refers primarily to how well a building is


insulated from the external weather conditions in order to achieve a comfortable
temperature internally.
 The comfortable range of room temp is 19.22C.
 There are a number of factors that determine the thermal performance of building.
 The best known factor is the inculation value of the materials used in the fabric of
the building (ie. floors, walls roof). This value is known as the U - value of the
material.
 U - value are a true reflection of the thermal performance, only when the
insulation is fitted correctly.
 Heat flows from a high temperature point to a cold temp point, and will find the
path of least resistance.
 Air gap occurs between the insulation and the cold block surface. The heat is
pouring out at this point.
 The thermal performance of a building depends on a large number of factors. They
can be summarized as,

1. Design variables (geometrical dimensions of building elements


such as walls, roof and windows, orientation, shading devices)

2. Material properties (density, specific heat, thermal conducting,


transmissivity, etc.)

3. Weather data (solar radiation, ambient lamp, wind speed,


humidity, etc.) and

4. Building’s usage data (internal gains due to occupants lighting


and equipment, our exchange, etc.)

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A block diagram showing various factors affecting the heat balance of a building is
presented in Fig.

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Topic II

Session Plan II – Thermal insulation

Introduction to Thermal insulation

• Thermal insulation is to resist the flow of heat to and from a body or material.

• It is a material that reduces the rate of heat flow.

• The term thermal insulation is used to indicate the construction in which the transmission of
heat from the room is retarded.

• The aim of thermal insulation is to minimize the transfer of heat between inside and outside of
building.

General principles of thermal insulation

• The thermal resistance of an insulating material is directly proportional to its thickness.

• The provision of an air gap is a very important insulating agent.

• The thermal resistance of a building depends on its orientation also.

• Heat is energy that flows from one region to another because of a difference in temperature
between the two regions.

• The heat is transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation.

Thermal insulating Materials

The materials which are used to insulate thermally are known as thermal insulating materials.

Thermal insulating materials are classified as

(a) Organic insulating materials

Example: Sugar-cane fiber, Cardboard, Paper, Leather.

(b) Inorganic insulating materials

Example: Mineral wool, Slag-wool, Glass wool, Asbestos.

Methods of Thermal Insulation

• Use of materials with low conductivity

• Thickness of walls and roofs

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• Provision of air spaces

• Heat insulation by orientation

• Thermal insulation by shading

• Providing sufficient height of ceiling

Methods ofachieving thermal insulation

(a) Thermal insulation of roofs

• Thermal insulating materials may be laid over the roofs, but a waterproof course is essential
below them.

• Providing a 25 mm thick concrete mixed with coconut pith is one such method of thermal
insulation.

• Another method of external insulation is by providing AC sheets on bricks.

• A false ceiling of insulating material may be provided to leave an air gap between the roof and
ceiling.

• It is necessary to make the ceiling airtight to achieve it.

Figure: AC Sheets over Bricks for thermal insulation

(b) Thermal insulation of walls

Walls should not have thermal transmittance and should not have a thermal damping less than 60
percent. The following treatments also may be adopted.

• Fixing heat insulating materials on the inside and outside of the exposed walls.

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• Applying light coloured whitewash or distemper on the wall.

• Creating air space in partition walls.

• The suitable thickness of wall may be provided.

• The hollow wall or cavity wall construction may be adopted.

Figure: Thermal insulation of partition

(c) Insulating doors and windows

Heat transmittance through doors and windows may be reduced by:

• Providing sunshades

• Using shutters

• Using curtains with heavy folds

Benefits of thermal insulation

• The main advantages of using thermal insulation are the followings.

1. Energy Saving
2. Prevention of thermal stress on roofs
3. Non-Toxic and Environmental friendly solutions.
4. Reduced costs
5. Temperature drop depending on outside temperature

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