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Topic I
Fenestration - Definition:
Any opening in a buildings envelope including windows, doors, curtain walls and skylights designed to
permit the passage of air, light, vehicles or people is known as Fenestration.
Fenestration systems:
The five types of fenestration systems are Glazing, Windows, Curtain Walls, Sloped Glazing and Exterior
Doors.
1. Glazing: Glass which serves the purpose of allowing natural light into a building has been in use.
This has led to glazing of majority of the new windows and curtain walls for commercial building
construction.
2. Windows: We use wood frame, with some metal windows in institutional construction. Later,
steel windows and aluminum windows were introduced.
3. Curtain Walls: A curtain wall is any exterior wall that is attached to the building structure.
5. Exterior Doors: These include entrance and exit doors, as well as industrial loading dock doors.
The Main components of fenestration system are Glazing, Framing and Shading devices.
1. Glazing
It is the main part of fenestration that lets the light through and it is usually glass. Occasionally plastic. A
layer is called a glaze or a pane or a lite.
2. Framing
It is the material that holds the glazing in place and attaches it to the rest of the enclosure and it is
usually wood, metal, and plastic or fiberglass.
A unit may or may not have shading. Either from other building components that may or may not be an
integral part of the overall assembly.
4. Part of the incident solar energy is transmitted and eventually absorbed by the room surfaces.
5. Part of the incident solar energy is absorbed by the fenestration and reradiated as thermal
energy towards inside.
• Q thermal = Heat transfer between indoor and outdoor air. This is positive or negative
depending on temperature.
• Q solar = Heat transfer from solar radiation. This is always a positive number.
It is the reduction of heat transfer between objects in thermal contact. The insulating capability
of a material is measured in terms of thermal conductivity. This is achieved with specially
engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.
1. Define Photometry.
2. What is visual field glare?
3. Define photobic, mesopic and scotopic vision.
4. Define Candela.
5. What is meant by Radiometry?
6. Write a short note on day light factor.
7. What are the two forms of artificial sky?
8. Mention few artificial light sources.
9. What is day light?
10. Define intensity of illumination
PART – B
2. Describe the principles of artificial lighting and supplementary artificial lighting (16 marks)
3. Explain day light design of windows in detail with neat diagrams (16 marks)
5. Write a short notes on (i) Visual field glare, (ii) Day light Calculation (8 marks)
UNIT III
Lighting Design
lighting systems that transform electrical energy into light. Nearly all lighting systems do
so either by passing an electrical current through an element that heats until it glows, or
through gases until they become excited and produce light energy.
Incandescent light sources are an example of the first method, called incandescence.
Current is passed through a filament, which heats until it glows. Because this method is
considered wasteful (most of the energy entering the lamp leaves it as heat instead of
visible light, other light sources were pioneered that relay on the gaseous discharge
light sources.
A typical lighting system is comprised of one or more of these light sources, called the
lamps. Fluorescent, HID and low-pressure sodium lamps operate with a ballast, a device
that starts the lamp and regulates its operation. Lamps and ballasts in turn are part of the
luminaire, or light fixture, which houses the system and includes other components that
sodium and mercury vapour lamp etc., It may be used as a supplement to natural light as
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It is considered to be best form of light because quantity, quality and intensity of light can
be controlled easily.Light serves as a support for life activities during day and night. In
Artificial lighting
Artificial light sources are other sources of light which developed to compensate for or
assist the natural light. It will have different frequencies and wavelengths that determine
Artificial light sources are categorized by the technology used to produce the light. There’s
dozens of sources, with a few common in household applications and others more suitable
for industrial uses. The five most common light sources are as follows:
1. Incandescent lamp
3. Fluorescent tube
4. Discharge lamps
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UNIT III
Lighting Design
DAYLIGHT CALCULATIONS
Daylight, on the light of day, is the combination of all direct and indirect sunlight
during the day time. This includes direct sunlight, diffuse sky radiation, and (often) both of
these reflected by the earth and terrestrial objects, like landforms and buildings.
Sunlight scattered or reflected by objects in outer space (that is, beyond the earth’s
atmosphere) is generally not considered daylight. Thus, daylight excludes moonlight,
despite it being indirect sunlight.
Daytime is the period of time each day when daylight occurs. Day lighting is
lighting an indoor space with openings such as windows and skylights that allow daylight
into the building.
Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by simply installing fewer electric
lights because daylight is present. This process is known as daylight harvesting.
In recent years, work has taken place to recreate the effects of daylight artificially.
This is however expensive in terms of both equipment and energy consumption. It is
applied in specialist areas such as film making, where light of such intensity is required.
Daylight factor
There are three possible paths along which light can reach a point inside a room through
glazed windows. They are:
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3. light entering through the window but reaching the point only
after reflection from internal surfaces, expressed as the internally
reflected component (IRC).
The sum of the three components gives the illuminance level (Lux) at
the point considered as
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UNIT III
Lighting Design
This is the only reliable prediction method in the case of unusual situations, complex
geometries or heavily obstructed windows. Model studies can be carried out under outdoor
conditions, but the limitations imposed by weather variations can be quite severe. The
artificial sky simulates the standard overcast sky conditions, giving uniform luminance.
1. Hemispherical and
2. Rectangular
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UNIT III
Lighting Design
An RGB colour space is any additive colour space based on the RGB colour medal. A particular
RGB colour space is defined by the three characteristics of the red, green and blue additive
primaries and can produce any chromaticity that is the triangle defined by those primary colours.
The RGB colour space for instance is a colour space corresponding to human trichromacy and to
the three cone cell types that respond to three bands of light; long wavelengths peak near (564 -
580 nm) red, medium wavelengths peaking near (534 - 545 nm) green and short wavelength
light near (420 - 440 nm) blue.
VISUAL FIELD GLARE
Glare is difficulty seeing in the presence of bright light such as sunlight or artificial light (car
head/lamps at night). Because of this, some cars include mirrors with automatic anti-glare
functions.
Glare is caused by a significant ratio of luminance between the task and the glare source. Factors
such as the angle between the task and glare source and eye adaptation have significant impacts
on the experience of glare.
Types of Glare
Glare is generally divided into two types;
Discomfort glare and
Disability glare.
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Lighting Design
Topic 5– Vision and its types
Session 5– Vision and its types
The terms photopic, mesopic and scotopic refer to the primary use of the
cones, rods and other light-sensitive cells on the retina of the human eye. Fovea is
responsible for sharp central vision. It is necessary in human for activities where
Fovea consists parafovea belt and perifovea outer region. Parafovea is the
intermediate belt. In this the garglian cell layer is composed of more than five rows of cells
as well as highest density of cones. Cones cover most of the retina and their greatest
concentration (50 cones per 100 micron) is at the fovea at the centre back of the eye.
The central fovea consists of very compact cones, thinner and more rod like
appearance than comes. These comes are densely packed. There are three kinds of cones,
In combination these cones are responsible for giving us color vision. Cones are the
most active in medium and high light levels. As the general environmental brightness
drops, the cones becomes less effective and it becomes difficult for us to discern fine
UNIT III
Lighting Design
Topic 4– photometry – cosines law and inverse square law
Session 4– photometry – cosines law and inverse square law
PHOTOMETRY
COSINES LAW
Illuminanation
:
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Fig. 3.6
F (1)
E
dA
F
So L
or F L
Substituting for F in equation (1) we have
L (2)
Intensity of illumination E
dA
dA cos
2
r
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Q (2)
I2 2
4 r2
2 (3)
I1 r 2
From (1) and
I2 r 2
(2) 1
Fig. 3.7
Q dA1
E1 2
4 r1
and E2
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Q dA2 4 r2
2
Hence E1 E 2
Q dA1 Q dA2
or 2 2
4 r2
4 r1
2
dA1 r1 (4)
or 2
dA2 r2
I1 dA2 (5)
I2 dA1
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UNIT III
Lighting Design
Topic 3– Hemispherical Reflectance and Transmittance
Session 3– Hemispherical Reflectance and Transmittance
Hemispherical reflectance
Directional reflectance
Transmittance
Transmittance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in transmitting
radiant energy. It is the function of incident electromagnetic power that is
transmitted through a sample.
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Hemispherical transmittance
Directional transmittance
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UNIT III
Lighting Design
Topic 2– RELATION BETWEEN LUMINESCENCE AND RADIANT
QUANTITY
Session 2– RELATION BETWEEN LUMINESCENCE AND RADIANT
QUANTITY
Radiant intensity Ie
Radiant intensity Ie describes the radiant power of a
source emitted in a certain direction. The source’s
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power de emitted in the direction of
d e Ie d
and
thus
e Ie d
4
In general, radiant intensity depends on spatial
direction. The unit of radiant intensity is W/sr.
Radiance Le
de Le cos dA d
In this relation, is the angle between the
direction of the solid angle element d and the normal of
the emitting or reflecting surface element dA.
dIe Le cos
dA
Thus,
Ie Le cos dA
emitting
surface
2
The unit of radiance is W/m sr
Irradiance Ee
Irradiance Ee describes the amount of radiant
power impinging upon a surface per unit area. In
detail, the (differential) radiant power de upon the
(differential) surface element dA is given by
de Ee dA
dAnormal cos
dA
Radiant exitance Me
Radiant exitance Me quantifies the radiant power
per unit area, emitted or reflected from a certain
location on a surface. In detail, the (differential) radiant
power de emitted or reflected by the surface element dA
is given by
de Me dA
Me Le cos d
2 sr
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Lighting Design
Topic 1 – Radiation quantity and spectral quantity
Session 1– Radiation quantity and spectral quantity
Introduction
A
2
r
SPECTRAL QUANTITIES
de d
This equation can be visualised geometrically (see Fig. 3.5).
As d is infinitesimally small, spectral radiant power is
approximately constant in the interval between and d .
The methods of sound insulation can thus be classified into three main categories.
When the source of noise is in the room itself.
When noise is air-borne.
When noise is structure-borne.
4. What are the factors to be followed for good acoustics of building.
The reverberation time should have an optimum level.
There should not be any echoes, echelon effects and resonance inside the buildings.
The sound must be evenly distributed to each and every part of the building.
There should not be any focussing of sound to any particular area.
5. Calculate the intensity level in decibel of a sound of intensity 10-9 Wm-2 and
standard intensity of sound is 10-12 Wm-2 .
Given data:
9 2
Intensity of sound I 10 Wm
12 2
Standard intensity Io 10 Wm
Solution:
PART – B
1. Explain the factors affecting acoustics of buildings. Give remedies. (16 marks)
FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS AND THEIR REMEDIES
Remedy
Optimum reverberation time is obtained by the following ways:
Providing many windows and ventilators
Covering a part of the ceiling, walls and even the back of chairs with suitable
sound absorbing materials.
Using curtains with folds
Covering the floor with carpets and having graded ceiling tops.
2. Loudness
Loudness is the degree of sensation produced on the ear. If the intensity
of sound is weak, loudness may go below the level of audibility. Sufficient
loudness in every part of the hall is important for satisfactory hearing.
Remedy
The loudness of sound is increased by the following ways:
Loudness - remedy
3. Focussing
Sound waves that reflect from the concave surfaces of a building get
focussed to a point. The intensity of sound will be maximum at such
points and zero at other places. This is called focussing effect.
As a result, sound cannot be heard with equal intensity through the entire
area of the building. In fig. the listener at point O receives sound waves from
Focussing effect
It may sometimes happen that direct and reflected waves are in opposite
phase. This causes an uneven distribution of sound intensity.
Remedy
Uniform distribution of sound in the hall is achieved by the following ways.
There should not be any curved surfaces in the hall. If such surfaces are
present, they should be covered with suitable sound absorbing materials.
4. Echoes
Sometimes, when a sound wave falls on a reflecting surface, it is reflected as
a distinct repetition of direct sound. This reflected sound is called an echo.
Echoes occur due to the reflected sound waves. They reach the listener a little
later than the direct sound, which causes confusion. This defect is comman
particularly when the reflecting surface is curved.
Remedy
Providing low ceiling.
Echoes can be avoided by covering walls and ceiling with suitable sound
absorbing materials.
5. Echelon effect
Remedy
Regular structure like a stair cases or a set of railings in the hall should be
avoided
The stair cases may be covered with carpets to avoid reflection
6. Resonance
Sometimes window-panes, sections of wooden portions, and walls lacking rigidity
(loosely fitted) are thrown into vibrations and they create other sounds.
For some note of audio frequency, the frequencies of new created sounds may be
the same thus resulting in the resonance. Such vibrations are called resonant
vibrations.
Due to the interference between original sound and the created sound, the
original sound is distorted. Hence, it leads to unpleasant effect. Such resonant
vibrations should be suitably damped.
Remedy
Resonance is rectified by hanging large number of curtains in the hall.
7. Noise
Unwanted sound is called noise. There are three types of noises.
They are
(i) Inside noise
(ii) Air - borne noise
(iii) Structure - borne noise
Noises produce a disturbing and displeasing effect on the ear. Hence, noise
should be avoided and controlled.
Remedy
Sound masking
Orientation of buildings
(ii) Back ground noise: It can adversely impact the work space too little
background noise and speech privacy is reduced letting you to hear what is
going on not only on work space but also away from that.
(iii) Sound masking: It can blend the building systems noise levels and
exterior noise levels within electronic noise systems in the middle. Traditional
sound masking systems are located in loud speakers above the ceiling.
(iv) Orientation of building: The noise impact may also be great for rooms
perpendicular to road ways because
Concluding Remark Unless we study the basic concepts of the above topics, the
we cannot understand how a good auditorium or a cinema hall may be
designed. Even our classrooms or halls for indoor games are based on the
principles stated above. The reverberation time is a key factor in designing a
good acoustical structure. This knowledge is the backbone of civil engineering,
structural and architectural engineering.
T = 0.167 * 7500/825
T = 1.52 Sec
3. Sound masking
4. Orientation of buildings
1. Hairfelt
2. Acoustic plaster
3. Acoustical tiles
These are made in factory and sold under different trade
names. The absorption of sound is uniform from tile to tile and
they can be fixed easily.
4. Strawboard
This material can be also used as absorbent material.
5. Pulp boards
These are the soft boards which are prepared from the
compressed pulp. They are cheap and can be fixed by ordinary
panelling. The average value of coefficient of absorption is 0.17.
6. Compressed fiberboard
This material may be perforated or unperforated. The
average coefficient of absorption for the former is 0.30.
8. Perforated plywood
This material can be used by forming composite panels
with mineral wool and cement asbestos or with mineral wool
and hardboard. It is generally suspended from the trusses.
When sound waves are produced in a hall, it reaches the observer directly as well
as after reflections from walls, floors, ceilings, etc. Thus there is a possibility for causing
interference between these waves, which in turn affects the originality of the sound produced.
6) Unwanted sound from outside or inside the building, so called noise may also affect the
acoustics of buildings.
OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME AND ITS REMEDY
We know reverberation time is the time taken for the sound to fall one millionth of its
original sound intensity, when the source of sound is switched off.
This reverberation time plays a vital role in the auditorium for clear audibility of sound. If
the reverberation time is very high then it produces, echoes in the hall and if the reverberation
time is very low, the sound will not be clearly heard by the audience. Therefore for clear
audibility we should maintain optimum reverberation time.
2. By choosing absorbents like felt, fiber, board, glass etc. Inside the auditorium and
even at the back of the chairs.
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3. Reverberation time can be optimized by providing windows and ventilators at the
places wherever necessary and using curtains with folds for the windows.
4. The reverberation time can also be optimized by decorating the walls with pictures.
The optimum reverberation time will not be constant for all types of buildings; it varies from one
building to the other as follows.
I) For concert halls, the speech should have the optimum reverberation time of .5 seconds
and music should have the optimum values of 1 or 2 seconds.
II) For auditorium of theatres the optimum reverberation time should be between 1.1 to 3
seconds, for smaller area and between 1.5 to 3 seconds for larger area.
Loudness is the degree of sensation produced on the ear; it varies from observer to
observer. But it is found that for a single observer the loudness varies from one place to another
in the same auditorium. This defect is caused due to the bad acoustical construction of buildings.
he loudness will be very low in some area and will be very high in some
areas. It can be optimized by the following remedies.
REMEDIES
ii) The loudness can also be increased by making reflecting surfaces, wherever necessary
iv) Absorbents are placed at the places where we have high loudness
Thus the loudness should be made even all over the auditorium, so that the observer can
hear the sound at a constant loudness at all the places
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In some places of a hall, the sound will not be heard properly and that place is said to be a
dead space, which is due to the presence of convex or concave surfaces in the hall. sometimes
the sound waves will have interference pattern because of ceiling surfaces which will create
maximum intensity of sound due to constructive interference in some places and minimum
intensity of sound due to destructive interference at some other places and hence causing uneven
distribution of sound intensity in the hall.
REMEDIES
I) By avoiding curved surfaces or covering the curved surfaces by suitable absorbents then
focusing can be avoided
II) By evenly polishing and decorating with absorbents the interference effects can be
avoided
In some halls, the wall of the halls will scatter the sound waves rather than reflecting it,
this may create nuisance effect due to echoes. The echoes are formed when the time interval
between the direct and reflected sound waves are about 1/15 th of a second. This effect occurs due
to the reason that the reflected sound waves reaches the observer later than the direct sound.
If there is a regular repetition of echoes of the original sound to the observer then the
effect is called as echelon effect. For ex, sound produced from equally spaced steps in a stair
case at regular intervals produces echelon effect.
REMEDY
The echo can be avoided by lining the surfaces with suitable sound absorbing materials
and by providing enough number of doors and windows.
FOCUSSING AND INTERFERENCE EFFECTS
In some places of a hall, the sound will not be heard properly and that place is said to be a
dead space, which is due to the presence of convex or concave surfaces in the hall. sometimes
the sound waves will have interference pattern because of ceiling surfaces which will create
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maximum intensity of sound due to constructive interference in some places and minimum
intensity of sound due to destructive interference at some other places and hence causing uneven
distribution of sound intensity in the hall.
REMEDIES
I) By avoiding curved surfaces or covering the curved surfaces by suitable absorbents then
focusing can be avoided
II) By evenly polishing and decorating with absorbents the interference effects can be
avoided
In some halls, the wall of the halls will scatter the sound waves rather than reflecting it,
this may create nuisance effect due to echoes. The echoes are formed when the time interval
between the direct and reflected sound waves are about 1/15 th of a second. This effect occurs due
to the reason that the reflected sound waves reaches the observer later than the direct sound.
If there is a regular repetition of echoes of the original sound to the observer then the
effect is called as echelon effect. For ex, sound produced from equally spaced steps in a stair
case at regular intervals produces echelon effect.
REMEDY
The echo can be avoided by lining the surfaces with suitable sound absorbing materials
and by providing enough number of doors and windows.
RESONANCE
Resonance occurs when a new sound note of frequency matches with standard audio
frequency. Sometimes the window –panel, sections of the wooden portion are thrown into
vibrations to produce new sounds, which results in interference between original sound and
created sound. This will create disturbance to the audience.
REMEDIES
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ii) Now a days the resonance is completely eliminated by air conditioning the halls
NOISE
Noise is an unwanted sound produced due to heavy traffic outside the hall which leads to
displeasing effect to the ear.
TYPES OF NOISES
I)Airborne noise
II)Structure borne noise
III)Inside noise
All these three noises pollute the area at which it has been produced and create harmful
effects to the human beings. Fortunately human beings have the capability to reject the sound
within certain limits with conscious efforts and to carry on his normal work. But sometimes
the noises are strong which results in the following effects
ii) It diverts the concentration on work and hence reduces the efficiency of the work
ii) It sometimes affects the nervous system and lowers the restorative quality of
iii) iv) Some strong noises lead to damage the ear drum and make the worker
hearin impaired
v) The noises which are produced regularly will even retard the normal growth of
infants and young children
I)AIRBORNE NOISE
The noise which reaches the hall through open windows, doors and ventilations are called
as air borne noise. This type of noise is produced both in rural areas (natural sound of wind and
animals) and in urban areas (noise that arises from factories, aircrafts, automobiles, trains, flights
etc.,)
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REMEDIES
ii) By allotting proper places for doors and windows this noise can be reduced
iii) It can be further reduced by using double doors and windows with separate
frames and by placing the absorbents in between them.
The noise that reaches the hall through the structures of the building is termed as
structure borne noise. These types of noises are produced inside the building, which may be due
to the machinery operation, movement of furniture’s, footsteps etc. and these sound will produce
structural vibration giving rise to structure borne noise.
REMEDIES
ii) By providing carpets, resilent, anti vibration mounts etc., this type of noise can be
reduced.
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III) INSIDE NOISE
The noise that is produced inside the halls is known as inside noise. For ex in
some offices the sound produced by machinery, type writers etc. produces this type of
noise.
REMEDIES
i) By placing the machineries and type writers over the absorbing materials
or pads this type of noise can be reduced.
iii) By fitting the engine on the floor with a layer of wood or felt between
them this type of noise can be avoided
To have a clear audibility of sound in the auditorium, the following factors are
to be followed.
ii) The sound must be evenly distributed to each and every part of the building
iii) There should not be any focusing of sound to any particular area
iv) Each and every syllable of sound must be heard clearly and distinctly,
without any interference
vi) The buildings should be made as sound proof building, so that external
noises may be avoided
vii) Generally to say the total quality of sound should be maintained all
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over the building to all the audience.
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The relation connecting the reverberation time with the volume of the hall, the area and
absorption coefficient is known as Sabine's formula
Sabine's developed the formula to express the rise and fall of sound intensity by the
following assumptions.
Let us consider a small element 'ds' on a plane wall AB. Assume that the element ds receives
the sound energy 'E'.
Let us draw two concentric circles of radii 'r' and r+dr from the centre point of ds. Consider a
small shaded portion lying in between the two semi circles drawn at an angle θ and θ+dθ, wit h
the normal to ds as shown in figure.
Let 'dr' be the radial length and 'rdθ' be the arc length. Then
If the whole figure is rotated about the normal through an angle d φ ' as shown in
figure, then it is evident that the area of the shaded portion travels through a small distance say
'dx' .
dx = rsinθ . d φ (2)
dV = Area × distance
dV = rdθ.d r × rsinθ . d φ
i.e. dV = r2 dr sinθ dθ d φ
= E r2 dr sinθ dθ d φ
The sound energy will travel through the element in all the directions.
In this case the solid angle subtended by the area 'ds' at this element of volume dV is
dω = (ds cosθ) / r2
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Hence, the sound energy travelling from the element (i.e. from d ) towards 'ds'
4π r2
To find the total energy received by the element 'ds' per second, we
have to integrate eqn.(3) for the whole vollume lying within a distance 'v' of 'ds'. where 'v'
is the velocity of sound. It is obvious from the geometry of the figure that,
φ changes from 0 to 2π ,
r changes from 0 to v.
Where ' E ' is the energy from sources and ' A ' is the total absorption on
all the surfaces on which the sound falls (i.e.) A = ∑ a. ds
If 'P' is the power output (i.e. the rate of sound energy from the source) then we can write
Rate of Emission of sound energy i.e. power output P = 1/4 (E mV A)
Here E m is maximum energy from the source (which has been emitted) that is
nothing but maximum energy which incidents on the wall and V is the volume of the hall.
E m = 4P / VA 6)
The Rate of growth (or) increase in energy = d/dt (EV) = V dE/dt (7)
At any instant
From eqn. (5) and (7), We can write
This expression gives the growth of sound energy density ' E' with t ime 't' . The growth is
along an exponential curve as shown in the figure.
at t = , E = E max
Initially the sound increases from E to E m and now it is going to decay from
Em. Therefore time is considered as '0' for E = E m. (i.e.) At E = E m the sound
energy from the source is cut off. Therefore rate of emission of sound energy from the
source = 0 (i.e.) P = 0
k = Em
E eαt=(4P/vA) eαt+ E m
since P = 0 (i.e.) Energy from source is cut off for decay of sound, so We can write,
E eαt = E m
E = E m e-αt (10)
Equation (10) gives the decay of sound energy density with time 't' even after the
source is cut off. It is an exponentially decreasing funtion from maximum
energy (E m) as shown in figure.
All the sound waves when pass through an open window, the open window behaves as a
perfect absorber of sound and hence the absorption coefficient can be defined as the rate of
sound energy absorbed by a certain area of the surface to that of an open window of same area.
DEFINITION: The absorption coefficient of a surface is defined as the reciprocal of its area
which absorbs the same amount of sound energy as absorbed by a unit area of an open window.
For ex, if 2m2 of a carpet absorbs the same amount of sound energy as absorbed by 1m2
of an open window, then the absorption coefficient of the carpet is ½=0.5. The absorption
coefficient is measured in open window unit sabines.
In general, the absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the ratio of the sound
energy absorbed by the surface to that of the total sound energy incident on the surface.
Absorption coefficient (a) = Sound energy absorbed by the surface/Total sound energy incident
on the surface
ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT
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1. Marble 0.01
3. Glass 0.02
6. Carpet 0.15-0.30
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Average Absorption coefficient
The average absorption coefficient is the defined as the ratio between the total
absorption in the hall to the total surface area of the hall.
T1 = 0.167V/Σ as ………..(1)
Σ as = 0.167V/T 1 ………(3)
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Hence, by knowing the terms on the right hand side the absorption coefficient
of the given sample can be determined.
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Topic XII
Session plan XII – SABINES FORMULA
Reverberation Time
Definition
The time duration for which a sound persists even after the source of sound has
stopped to emit the sound is called reverberation time.
0.167 V
It is given by T second
as
0.167 V
T a s a s
1 1 2 2
Topic XI
Session plan XI – CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND
Sound waves are classified into three types based on their frequencies.
Sound which produces a pleasing effect to our ears is called musical sound.
Example: Sounds produced by the musical instruments like sitar, violin and piano are
musical sounds.
Noise
Noise causes irritation and strain to our ear. Noise of high intensity may cause permanent
or temporary deafness.
According to Weber - Fechner law, the loudness of sound varies with intensity of sound.
Statement
The law states that the loudness (L) produced is directly proportional to logarithm of
intensity.
Part A – UNIT I
1. Define Fenestration.
PART – B UNIT I
2. Explain window air conditioner system in detail with neat diagram. Mention its advantages and
disadvantages.
4. Write a short note on central heating system and chilled water plant
5. Discuss the common causes of AC fires? What are the steps to be taken to prevent fires.
Topic IX
Session plan IX – PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE TO BE CAUSED BY
A.C. SYSTEMS
Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire.Fire safety measures
include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those that are used to limit
the development and effects of a fire after it starts.Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire
hazards. A fire hazard may include a situation that increases the likelihood of a fire or may impede escape
in the event a fire occurs.
When the air conditioner is not regularly maintained, it runs the risk of becoming faulty and catching fire.
This could be as a result of worn out filters that accumulate with dirt and dust particles resulting in the
malfunctioning of the system. The other factors include storing flammable materials near the system,
faulty parts and equipments. All these will damage the system and the result will be poor indoor.
1. Alarm systems
3.Fire detectors
4.Flame detector
5. Smoke detector
Steel pipes
Advantages
COOLING LOAD
It is defined as the total heat required to be removed from the space in order to bring it to
the desired temperature by air conditioning.It is responsibility of Air-conditioning and
Refrigeration equipment capacity to maintain the desired inside conditions.The purpose of
a load estimation is to determine the size of the air conditioning and refrigeration
equipment that is required to maintain inside conditions during periods of maximum
outside temperatures.
Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, or A/C) is the process of removing heat from the interior of an
occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and
commercial environments
Different Types of Air Conditioner Systems
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Topic VII
Session plan VII – AC SYSTEM
Principle of Air-conditioning
An Air-conditioner continuously draws an air from an indoor space to be cooled and cools it by the
refrigeration principles and discharges it back into the same indoor space that needs to be cooled. Such
continuous cyclic processes of drawl, cooling and recirculation of the cooled air keeps the indoor space at
the required lower temperature for the desired purpose.
1 Compressor
2 Condenser
3 Air filter
4 Evaporator
5 Motor
6 Fans
7 Thermostat
8 Capillary tube, etc.
9
The while unit is divided into two units as indoor unit and outdoor unit.The indoor unit consists of an
evaporator, air filter, motor driven fan, control panel, trays, etc.The outdoor unit consists of a compressor
unit, condenser, trays and motor driven fan. All the basic refrigeration components are enclosed in a
single unit.
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• The evaporator fan sucks the air from the room to be conditioned through air filter and it passes
the air over the evaporator coil.
• This cool air brings down the temperature and humidity levels in the room and provides
comfortable conditions.
• The compressor compresses the low-pressure vapour refrigerant coming from the evaporator or
cooling coil and converts into high-pressure vapour refrigerant.
• The high-pressure vapour refrigerant is then passed into the condenser where it is cooled.
• Outside air is drawn in by the another fan (which also driven by same motor) and it cools the
refrigerant then becomes liquid.
• In the evaporator, the liquid refrigerant picks up heat and gets vaporized. This cycle repeats again
and again.
• The unit stops automatically when the required temperature is reached in the room.
• A thermostat is provided for controlling the operation of the compressor to maintain the desired
temperature in the room.
• A damper is used to regulate the fresh air supply. The conditioned chilled air is blown back into
the room through dampers.
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Compressors
Reciprocating compressors
Helical rotary compressor
Centrifugal compressors
Evaporators
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The chilled water is fed to a number of air-handling units, each sized for a suitable zone, where the
conditions throughout the zone can be satisfied by the outlet air from the unit. This offers a wise range of
comfort conditions within the space, with units serving a single rooms, or part of a room. The coil is
normally operated with a fin temperature below room dew point, so that some latent heat is removed by
the coil, which requires a condensate drain. Multi-speed fans are usual, so that the noise level can be
reduced at times of light load.
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Topic VI
Session plan VI – NATURAL VENTILATION
Ventilation
The term ventilation is used to mean the free passage of clean air in a structure. If
the room is not properly ventilated, there will be excessive quantity of carbon
dioxide in the air. The more the amount of carbon dioxide, the more difficult is the
breathing. The ventilation is also required to suppress odours, smoke,
concentration of bacteria, etc. For removal of body heat liberated or generated by
the occupants, the ventilation is necessary.
In order to prevent the formation of conditions leading to suffocation in
conference rooms, committee halls, cinema halls, big rooms, etc., the proper
ventilation of such premises must be made.
Factors Affecting Ventilation
Following factors affect the ventilation from the view point of comfort to the persons and therefore
should be considered carefully: 1. air changes 2. Humidity 3. Quality of air 4. Temperature 5. Use of
building
It should be so designed that the required quantity of fresh air is admitted in the
premises and that the vitiated air is extracted from the premises.
The value of desired relative humidity should be maintained.
The effective temperature should be properly maintained with regard to the human
comfort.
The air movements should be uniform and it should be seen that pockets of
stagnant air re not formed.
PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL VENTILATION
Natural ventilation: In this system of ventilation, the use is made of doors, windows, ventilators and
skylights to make the room properly ventilated. This system is useful for small buildings and it cannot be
adopted for big offices, theatres, auditoriums, etc. The only advantages of this system are that it is
economical in the sense that no special equipment is necessary for making the room adequately ventilated.
The windows, deflectors and radiators should be properly manipulated for achieving the desired
effects. The exhaust duct is provided near the ceiling of the opposite wall and it is taken out of the roof to
act more or less like a chimney. The windows open from bottom and the deflectors maybe of curved vanes.
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VENTILATION MEASUREMENTS
Natural or passive ventilation occurs because of wind and thermal forces which produce a flow of outdoor
air through the various openings in a building. The flow of outdoor air through operable windows, doors,
and other controllable openings can be effectively used for both temperature and contaminant control.
Temperature control by natural ventilation conserves energy and is particularly effective in mild climates.
The arrangement, location, and control of ventilating openings can be designed to take into consideration
the driving forces of wind and temperature.
Roof ventilators
Natural Ventilation
This is difficult to measure as it varies from time to time. The amount of outside air through windows and
other openings depends on the direction and velocity of wind outside (wind action) and/or convection
effects arising from temperature or vapour pressure differences (or both) between inside and outside of
the building (stack effect)
Stack Effect
Ventilation due to convection effects arising from temperature difference between inside and outside.
Natural ventilation by stack effect occurs when air inside a building is at a different temperature than air
outside. Thus in heated buildings or in buildings wherein hot processes are carried on and in ordinary
buildings during summer nights and during pre-monsoon period, the inside temperatures higher than that
of outside, cool outside air will tend to enter through openings at low level and warm air will tend to leave
through openings at high level.
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation that
reaches any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies according to:
Geographic location
Time of day
Season
Local landscape
Local weather.
Because the earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0 to 900.
When the sun’s rays are vertical, the earth’s surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the
sun’s rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse.The
earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere.
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by:
Air molecules
Water vapor
Clouds
Dust
Pollutants
Forest fires
Volcanoes.
This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface without being
diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called
global solar radiation.
Solar Radiation: Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays
falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in watts per square w/m2.
The instruments used for measuring of solar radiation are the pyranometer and the pyrheliometer. The
duration of sunshine is measured using a sunshine recorder.
Distribution
The amount of power generated by any solar technology at a particular site depends on how much of the
sun’s energy reaches it.
Solar passive buildings are designed to achieve thermal and visual comfort by using natural energy
sources and sinks e.g. solar radiation, wet surfaces, outside air, vegetation, etc.Architects and designers
can achieve energy efficiency in the buildings they design by studying the macro and micro climate of the
site, applying solar passive and bio climatic design features ad taking advantage of the natural resources
on site. Designer can achieve a solar passive building design by following the steps mentioned below:
SHADING DEVICES
Sun control and shading devices can also improve user visual comfort by controlling glare and reducing
contrast ratios. This often leads to increased satisfaction and productivity. Some shading devices can also
function as reflectors, called light shelves, which bounce natural light for day lighting deep into building
interiors.
Classification:
Shading devices is classified in to two types they are internal shading devices and external shading
devices.
Use fixed overhangs on south-facing glass to control direct beam solar radiation
Limit the amount of east and west glass since it is harder to shade than south glass.
A light shelf bounces natural light deeply into a room through high windows while
shading lower windows.
The heat is distributed throughout the building, typically by forced-air through duckwork, by water
circulating through pipes, or by steam fed through pipes. The most common method of heat generation
involves the combustion of fossil fuel in a furnace or boiler.The circulating hot water can be used for
central heating.
A gas supply lines, oil tanks and supply linear distinct heating supply lines.
A Boiler which heats water in the system.
Pump to circulate the water in the closed system.
Radiators which are wall-mounted panels through which the heated
water passes in order to release heat into rooms
Hot water from the boiler rises up passes through the radiation of different rooms. Radiation get heated and
radiate heat to the room. Hot water also reaches the cold water tank at the top of the building. Convection
currents are set up and the building is kept warm continuously at a constant temperature. The circulating
water systems use a closed loop; the same water is heated and then reheated. A sealed system provides a
form of central heating in which the water used for heating circulates independently of the building’s
normal water supply.
Session plan : 4
Topic: 4 Thermal measurement and comfort
THERMAL MEASUREMENTS
Every material used in an envelope assembly has fundamental physical properties
that determine their energy performance like conductivity, resistance, and thermal
mass.
Understanding these properties will help are chose the right materials to manage
heat flows
1. Thermal Conductivity k
Conductivity per unit area for a specified thickness is known as thermal conductance.
For such common materials, it is useful to know the rate of heat flow for that standard
thickness instead of the rate per inch.
U - Factor U
U factor is the overall coefficient of thermal transmittance. Lower U-factors mean less
conduction, which means better insulation.
A material’s ability to resist heat flow is known as R value. Thermal resistance indicates how effective
any material is as an insulator.
5. Thermal Mass
Dense materials usually store more heat.Density is the mass of a material per unit volume.
Specific Heat
High specific heat requires a lot of energy to change the temperature. Specific heat is a measure
of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of given mass of material by 1
Thermal Capacity
Thermal capacity is an indicator of the ability of a material to store heat per unit volume.
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Thermocouples
Thermistors
Pyrometer
Other thermometers
THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation. It is the occupant’s satisfaction
with the surrounding thermal conditions. The main factors that influence thermal comfort
are those that determine heat gain and loss, namely metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air
temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and relative humidity. Psychological
parameters, such as individual expectations, also affect thermal comfort.
Significance
Satisfaction with the thermal environment is important for its own sake and because it
influences health.
Influencing factors
There are six primary factors that directly affect thermal comfort that can be grouped in
two categories:
Personal factors
Environmental factors
Air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and humidity are Environmental factors.
1. Metabolic rate
People have different metabolic rates that can fluctuate due to activity level and
environmental conditions. Food and drink habits may have an influence on metabolic rates,
which indirectly influences thermal preferences. These effects may change depending on
food and drink intake.Body shape is another factor that affects thermal comfort.Heat
dissipation depends on body surface area.
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Clothing insulation
Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and consequently the thermal balance.
Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or
lead to overheating.
3.Air temperature
The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the occupant, with
respect to location and time.
The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from a surface,
and it depends on the material’ ability to absorb or emit heat, or its emissivity. So the mean
radiant temperature experienced by a person in a room with the sunlight streaming in varies
based on how much of his/her body is in the sun.
5.Air speed
Air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction. It is
average speed of the air to which the body is exposed with respect to location and time.
6.Relative humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapour in the air to the amount
of water vapor that the air could hold at the specific temperature and pressure.While the
human body has sensors within the skin that are fairly efficient at feeling heat and cold,
relative humidity is detected indirectly. Sweating is an effective heat loss mechanism that
relies on evaporation from the skin.
Air temperature
Initially the air temperature as measured from a dry bulb thermometer was taken as the
indicator of thermal comfort. But it was found to be unsatisfactory measure as comfort
levels depended on other factors too.
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Later, air temperature and humidity levels were considered to convey the thermal comfort
levels.This was also unsatisfactory.
Cooling power
This takes into consideration the following factors.
Air temperature
Humidity
Air movements
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Sessio plan : 3
Topic : 3 Heat gain and Heat loss Estimation & Factors affecting thermal performance
HEAT GAIN ESTIMATION M
Q A S
Solar heat gain through transparent elements can be written as, s Si 1 i gi i
Q A U T T
base ba se o
To – Outside Temperature
The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modeling the energy
transfer between building and its surroundings.
Heat flows by conduction through various building elements such as walls, roof,
ceiling, floor, etc.
Heat transfer also takes place from different surfaces by convection and radiation.
Besides, solar radiation is transmitted through transparent windows and is absorbed
by the internal surfaces of the building.
There may be evaporation of water resulting in a cooling effect.
Heat is also added to the space due to the presence of human occupants and the use
of lights and equipments.
The interaction between a human body and the indoor environment is shown in fig.
A block diagram showing various factors affecting the heat balance of a building is
presented in Fig.
Topic II
• Thermal insulation is to resist the flow of heat to and from a body or material.
• The term thermal insulation is used to indicate the construction in which the transmission of
heat from the room is retarded.
• The aim of thermal insulation is to minimize the transfer of heat between inside and outside of
building.
• Heat is energy that flows from one region to another because of a difference in temperature
between the two regions.
The materials which are used to insulate thermally are known as thermal insulating materials.
• Thermal insulating materials may be laid over the roofs, but a waterproof course is essential
below them.
• Providing a 25 mm thick concrete mixed with coconut pith is one such method of thermal
insulation.
• A false ceiling of insulating material may be provided to leave an air gap between the roof and
ceiling.
Walls should not have thermal transmittance and should not have a thermal damping less than 60
percent. The following treatments also may be adopted.
• Fixing heat insulating materials on the inside and outside of the exposed walls.
• Providing sunshades
• Using shutters
1. Energy Saving
2. Prevention of thermal stress on roofs
3. Non-Toxic and Environmental friendly solutions.
4. Reduced costs
5. Temperature drop depending on outside temperature