Name : Widi Lumbantoruan ( 16052046 )

Class : VI/ B

Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains

Grading

Assignments are graded at the level indicated on the assignment. Generally, in Pharm 439,
higher cognitive levels are expected (e.g., application and higher). Use the following tables
to help you prepare your assignments.

Cognitive Domain

According to various researchers there are six levels of cognitive complexity: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation. In the chart below, note the
hierarchical arrangement, which means that higher levels subsume ability in lower levels.
The higher the level, the presumably more complex mental operation is required. Higher
levels are not necessarily more desirable than lower levels, because one cannot achieve the
higher levels without an ability to use the lower levels. As one moves up into higher levels,
however, the more applicable the skills are to those needed in daily life.

Action Verbs
Describing Learning
Level Description Outcomes
Evaluation Requires the formation of judgments and Appraise Judge
decisions about the value of methods, ideas, Compare Justify
people, products. Must be able to state the Contrast
bases for judgments (e.g., external criteria or Support
principles used to reach conclusions.) Criticize
Validate
Defend

Sample question: Evaluate the quality or

worth of a value as applied to pharmacy.
Synthesis Requires production of something unique or Categorize Devise
original. At this level, one is expected to Compile
solve unfamiliar problems in unique way, or Formulate
combine parts to form a unique or novel Compose Predict
solution. Create Produce
Design

Sample question: Integrate data from several

sources (e.g., various readings and
observations at the service site).
Analysis Identification of logical errors (e.g., point out Break down Infer
contradictions, erroneous inference) or Deduce
 differentiate among facts, opinions, Outline
assumptions, hypotheses, conclusions. One Diagram
is expected to draw relations among ideas Point out
and to compare and contrast. Differentiate Relate
Distinguish Separate
out
Illustrate
Sample question: Deduce a client’s beliefs Subdivide
regarding preventive health actions.
Application Use previously acquired information in a Change
setting other than the one in which it was Organize
learned. Because problems at this level are Compute Prepare
presented in a different and applied way, one Demonstrate Relate
cannot rely on content or context to solve the Develop
problem. Solve
Modify
Transfer
Operate
Sample question: Organize your Use
observations at a site to demonstrate a
particular value.
Comprehension Some degree of understanding is required in Convert
order to change the form of communication, Extend
translate, restate what has been read or Defend
heard, see connections or relationships Generalize
among parts of a communication Discriminate Infer
(interpretation), draw conclusions, see Distinguish
consequences from information (inference). Paraphrase
Estimate
Predict
Explain
Sample Question: Explain pharmaceutical Summarize
care.
Knowledge Remember or recall information such as Define Name
facts, terminology, problem-solving Describe Outline
strategies, rules Identify
Recall
Label Recite
List Select
Sample question: Define pharmaceutical Match State
care.

Borich, G.D. (1996). Effective teaching methods, 3rd Ed. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
 Affective Domain

Like the cognitive domain, the affective domain is hierarchical with higher levels being more
complex and depending upon mastery of the lower levels. With movement to more
complexity, one becomes more involved, committed, and self-reliant. Note the parallel
between external and internal motivation. As one moves from being externally to internally
motivated, one moves to higher levels.

Action Verbs Describing

Learning Outcomes
Level Description
Characteri- All behavior displayed is consistent with Avoid
zation one’s value system. Values are Display
integrated into a pervasive philosophy Exhibit
that never allows expressions that are Internalize
out of character with those values. Manage
Evaluation at this level involves the Require
extent to which one has developed a Resist
consistent philosophy of life (e.g., Resolve
exhibits respect for the worth and Revise
dignity of human beings in all
situations).
Organization Commitment to a set of values. This Abstract Formulate
level involves 1) forming a reason why Balance
one values certain things and not others, Select
and 2) making appropriate choices Compare Systemize
between things that are and are not Decide Theorize
valued. One is expected to organize Define
likes and preferences into a value
system and then to decide which ones
will be dominant.
Valuing Display behavior consistent with a Act Express
single belief or attitude in situations Argue Help
where one is neither forced or asked to Convince Organize
comply. One is expected to demonstrate Debate Prefer
a preference or display a high degree of Display
certainty and conviction.
Responding One is required to comply with given Applaud Participate
expectations by attending or reacting to Comply Play
certain stimuli. One is expected to obey, Discuss
participate, or respond willingly when Practice
asked or directed to do something. Follow Volunteer
Obey
Receiving One is expect to be aware of or to Attend Listen
passively attend to certain stimuli or Be aware Look
phenomena. Simply listening and being Control
attentive are the expectations. Notice
Discern
Share
Hear
 Psychomotor Domain

This domain is given primarily for information. Other courses within the curriculum stress
this various levels of psychomotor performance (e.g., Clinical Skills Laboratory, Pharmacy
Practice I).

Psychomotor behaviors are performed actions that are neuromuscular in nature and demand
certain levels of physical dexterity.

Action Verbs Describing

Learning Outcomes
Level Description
Naturali- High level of proficiency is necessary. Automatically
zation The behavior is performed with the least Spontaneously
expenditure of energy, becomes routine, Effortlessly With ease
automatic, and spontaneous. Naturally With
perfection
Professionally With poise
Routinely
Articulation Requires the display of coordination of a Confidence Smoothness
series of related acts by establishing the Coordination Speed
appropriate sequence and performing the Harmony Stability
acts accurately, with control as well as Integration Timing
with speed and timing. Proportion
Precision Requires performance of some action Accurately Proficiently
independent of either written instructions Errorlessly With balance
or a visual model. One is expected to Independently With control
reproduce an action with control and to
reduce errors to a minimum.
Manipulation Performance of an action with written or Align Place
verbal directions but without a visual Balance
model or direct observation. The action Repeat
may be performed crudely or without Follow Rest (on)
neuromuscular coordination at this stage. Grasp Step (here)
Notice that the action verbs are the same Hold
as those for the imitation stage. The
difference is that these actions are
performed with the aid of written and
verbal instruction, not visual
demonstration.
Imitation The learner observes and then imitates an Align Place
action. These behaviors may be crude Balance
and imperfect. The expectation that the Repeat
individual is able to watch and then Follow Rest (on)
repeat an action. Grasp Step (here)
Hold
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ESP

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ESP

I. Introduction

1.1. The definition of ESP

ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP community to
have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however, this does not seem to be the
case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate took place on the TESP-L e-
mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) could be
considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP also, clear differences in
how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as
simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. Others,
however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English used in academic studies
or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes.
At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-
editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the
ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning
of ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable'
characteristics (see below).

Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)

1.2. Absolute Characteristics

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis,
register, study skills, discourse and genre.

1.3. Variable Characteristics

1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines

2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General
English
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems

The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although
he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in
contrast with 'General English'" (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable
characteristics. The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is
very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can
see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have
to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an
'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an 'attitude of mind'. This is a
similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on
the learner's reason for learning".

II. CONTENT

2.1. THE ORIGIN OF ESP

2.1.1 The Demands of a brave new world

The end of the Second World War in 1945 heralded an age of enormous and unprecedented
expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale. This
expansion created a world unified and dominated by two forces – technology and commerce
– which in their relentless progress soon generated a demand for international language.
The effect was to create a whole new mass of people wanting to learn English, not for the
pleasure or prestige of knowing the language, but because English was the key to the
international currencies of technology and commerce. The general effect of all this
development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required
goods.

2.1.2 A Revolution in Linguistic

At the same time as the demand was growing for English courses tailored to specific needs,
influential new ideas began to emerge in the study of language. Traditionally the aim of
linguistic had been to describe the rule of English usage that is the grammar. However, the
new studies shifted attention away from defining the formal features of language usage to
discovering the ways in which language is actually used in real communication (Widdowson,
1978). One finding of this research was that the language we speak and write varies
considerably, and in a number of different ways, from one context to another. The idea was
simple if language varies from one situation of use to another; it should be possible to
determine the features of specific situation and than make these features the basis of the
learners’ course.
In short, the view gained ground that the English needed by a particular group of learners
could be identified by analyzing the linguistic characteristics of their specialist area of a work
or study.

2.1.3 Focus on the Learner

Learners were seen to have different needs and interest which would have an important
influent on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learn. The
clean relevance of the English course to their needs would improve the learners’ motivation
and thereby make learning better and faster.

2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ESP

ESP has develop at different speeds in different countries, and example of all the approaches
we shall describe can be found operating somewhere in the world at the present time.

2.2.1. The concept of special language: register analysis

This stage took place mainly in the 1960s and early 1970s and was associated in particular
with the work of Peter Strevens (Halliday Melcintosh and Stevens, 1964), Jack Ewer ( Ewer
and Lattore, 1969) and John Swales (1971).
Operating on the basic principle that the English of, say, electrical engineering constituted as
specific register different from that of, say, biology or of general English, the aim of the
analysis was to identify the grammatical and lexical future of these registers. Teaching
materials then took these linguistic features as their syllabus. A good example of such a
syllabus is that of A Course in Basic Scientific English by Ewer and Latorre (1969).

The aim was to produce a syllabus which gave high priority to the language forms students
would need in their. Sciences studies and in turn would give low priority to forms they would
not meet. Ewer and Hughes-Davies (1971).

2.2.2. Beyond the sentence: rhetorical or discourse analysis

ESP had focused on language at the sentence level, the second phase of development shifted
attention to the level about the sentence, as ESP become closely involved with the emerging
field of discourse or rhetorical analysis.

2.2.3. Target Situation Analysis.

The stage that we come to consider now did not really add anything new to the range of
knowledge about ESP. What it aimed to do was to take the existing knowledge and set it on a
more scientific basis, by establishing procedures for relating language analyzing more closely
to learners’ reasons for learning. Given that the purpose of an ESP course is to enable
learners to function adequately in a target situation, that is, the situation in which learners will
use the language they are learning, then the ESP course design process should proceed by
first identifying the target situation and then carrying out a rigorous analysis of the linguistic
features of that situation. The identified features will form the syllabus of the ESP course.
This process is usually known as need analysis. However, we prefer to take Chambers’
(1980) term of target situation analysis, since it is a more accurate description of the process
concerned.

The most thought explanation of target situation analysis is the system set out by John Munby
in communicative Syllabus Design (1978). The Munby model produces a detailed profile of
the learners needs in terms of communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of
communication, language skills, functions, structures etc.

2.2.4. Skills and Strategies

The fourth stage of ESP has seen an attempt to look below the surface and to consider not the
language itself but the thinking processes that underlie language use. There is no dominant
figure in this movement, although we might mention the work of Francoise Grellent (1981).

The principal idea behind the skills centered approach is that underlying all language use
there are common reasoning interpreting processes, which, regardless of surface forms,
enable us to extract meaning form discourse. There is, therefore, no need to focus closely to
the surface forms of the language. The focus should rather be on the underlying interpretive
strategies, which enable the learner to cope with the surface forms, for example guessing the
meaning of words from context, using visual lay out to determine the type of text, exploiting
cognates (i.e. words which are similar in the mother tongue and the target language) etc. A
focus on specific subject registers in unnecessary in this approach, because the underlying
processes are not specific to any subject registers.

2.2.5. A learning-centered approach

Our concern is with language learning. We can not simply assume that describing and
exemplifying what people do with language will enable someone to learn it. A truly valid
approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of the processes of language learning.
The important and the implications of the distinction that we have made between language
use and language learning.

III. CONCLUSION

In this section we have identified the main factors in the origins of ESP and given a brief
overview of its development. We have note that the linguistic factor has tended to dominate
this development with an emphasis on the analysis of the nature of specific varieties of
language use. Probably this have been a necessary stage, but now there is a need for a wider
view that focuses less of differences and more on what various specialism have in common is
that they are all primarily concerned with communication and learning. ESP should properly
be seen not as any particular language product but as an approach to language teaching which
is directed by specific and apparent reason for learning.

REFRENCES

1. http//www.esp journal.com
2. Wilkins,D.A.,National Syllabuses,Oxford University Press,1976
3. Swales,J.,Writing Sientific English, Nelson,1971
4. Carver, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP.
5. The ESP Journal, 2, 131-137.Dudley-Evans, T. & St. John, M. (1998).
6. Developments in ESP: A multi-disciplinary Approach.
7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8. Gatehouse, K. (2001). Key issues in English for specific purposes (ESP) Curriculum. The
Internet TESL Journal, 7,1-11.
9. http://courses.washington.edu/pharm439/Bloomstax.htm

Questions
1. What is the definition of ESP?
2. Mention the three absolute characteristic of ESP?
3. ESP is centered on the language that is appropriate with?
4. What is the definition of ESP according to the Dudley-Evans?
5. Mention the variable characteristics of ESP?
6. What is the definition of ESP according to Thu Hutchinson?
7. What is the general effect of the demand of a brave new world?
8. What about English?
9. What is the aim of linguistics?
10. What is the idea of development of English courses for specific group of learners?
11. what will make the learners’ motivation and learning better and faster improve?
12. Beyond the sentence, rhetorical or discourse analysis, ESP had focused on what?
13. What is target situation analysis?
14. Why the target situation analysis approach didn’t really change?
15. What is the principle idea behind the skills centered approach?

ANSWERS
1. The teaching of English used in academic studies or teaching of English for vocational or
professional purposes.
2. a. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners.
b. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves.
c. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activity in terms of grammar, lexis,
register, study skills, discourse, and genre.
3. Grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse, and genre.
4. ESP is giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of absolute and variable
characteristic.
5. a. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines.
b. ESP may use in specific teaching situations.
c. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, a tertiary level institution or in professional
work situation.
d. ESP is generally designed for immediate or advanced students.
e. Most ESP courses assume some basics knowledge of the language systems
6. ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method
are based on the learner’s reason for learning.
7. Exert pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver required good.
8. English had became accountable to the security of the wider world and traditional leisurely
and purpose free stroll through the landscape of the English language seemed no longer
appropriate in the harsher realities of the market place.
9. The aim of linguistic is to discovering the ways in which language is actually used in real
communication.
10. Language varies from one situation to another, it should be possible to determine the
features of specific situation.
11. The learners’ motivation and learning become better and faster will improve with the
clean relevance of the English course to their needs.
12. ESP had focused on language at the sentence level and the second phase of development
shifted attention to the level about the sentence.
13. Target situation analysis is a detailed profile of the learners needs in term of
communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of communication, language
skill, functions, structures, etc.
14. Because in its analysis of learner need. It still looked mainly at the surface linguistics
features of the target situation.
15. The principle idea behind the skills centered approach is that underlying all language use
there are common reasoning interpreting processes which regardless off surface form, enable
us to extract meaning form discourse.