629U7-XLT5H-6SCGJ-2CENZ

XONF7-PMUOL-HU7P4-D1QQX
F9TZ9-P6IGF-SME74-2WP21
CJA0S-K6CO4-R4NPJ-EKNRK
L67GT-CE6TR-DFT1D-XWVCM
N0Z90-KJTTW-7TZO4-I27A1

– Old Keys –
I23LZ–H5C2I–QYWRT–RZ2BO
PAQ34–MHDIA–1DZUU–H4DB8
8XJTJ–ZTWES–CIQNV–9ZR2C4
4CSYW–3ZMWW–PRRLK–WMRAB
DDLFR–JKN5K–B4DE3–H2WYO
D91GM–T5X1J–DW7YG–1GHIS
9RVII–F3W58–6FAYV–WPTFD
M7CQ2–VARGX–QFYGZ–URKG0`
7JPTJ–4XLY3–HM4LK–9UP4Q
POOUS–S8V4C–1RXUH–HG6NQ
KCE9Y–PUYTC–1L2ES–77OQS
 The Difference Between Residential
And Commercial Electrical Wiring
Posted on Dec 01, 2014 by Grant Oesch | Comments (0)

Industrial Electrical System

Commercial and residential electrical wiring are completely different in terms of energy
needs, load demands, and equipment setup. They also require different classes of materials
and procedures. Integrity Power and Electric specializes in Commercial and Industrial
electrical work. Let's look at some of the differences:

- Residential electrical wiring is always completely covered within sheath insulation. This
is meant to protect residents from electrical shock. From a technical aspect, most
residential wiring are single phase and 120 Volts, consisting of three wires, positive,
negative, and neutral. For some more demanding appliances, such as air conditioning
units, refrigerators, washers, and dryers use a two phase circuit of 240 Volts. In
commercial applications this wiring is normally run through conduits or ceiling rafters
where it is easily accessible to service. For residential applications, the wiring is normally
hidden from view within walls and attic crawl spaces.

- Commercial electrical wiring normally uses a three-phase design. In three phase

electrical systems, there are two smaller legs running 120 Volts each and i wider leg
running 208 Volts. This setup allows each wire less workload, while creating a higher
output when they work together. This leads to greater efficiency and longer lasting
equipment. The higher voltage requirements are due to the increased power demands in an
office environment. Commercial wiring often has a higher level of insulation, known as
TTHT (Thermoplastic, high-heat resistant, nylon coated). This helps to protect the
electrical wiring from corrosive gases and liquids. In some cases, special outlets may be
installed for power-hungry or especially sensitive equipment.
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Power Substation / Testing and Commissioning / Transformers

Testing and commissioning

of HV power transformers,
circuit breakers, CTs and VTs
By Edvard | September, 11th 2019 | 5 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / Testing and commissioning of HV power transformers, circuit breakers, CTs and VTs

Testing and commissioning

procedures
As you already know, substations are the points for controlling the supply of
power on different routes by means of various equipment such as power
transformers, circuit breakers, CTs/VTs, compensating equipment, isolators,
etc. The various circuits are joined together through these components to
busbar systems at the substations.

Testing and commissioning of HV power transformers, circuit breakers, CTs

and VTs
This technical article provides guidance to substation personnel in carrying out
testing and commissioning oF high voltage power transformers, circuit
breakers, current and voltage instrument transformers.

One of the prime requirements of a good substation is that it MUST have

regular maintenance. Testing and commissioning procedures are crucial and
ensure safety of the operation and maintenance personnel.

Table of content:
1. Power transformers
1. Pre-commissioning tests on transformer
2. Testing of auxiliary protective devices
3. Testing OLTC (On Load Tap Changer)
4. Tests for reference (Signature)
5. Tests on main protective relays
2. Circuit breakers
3. Current transformers (CTs)
4. Voltage transformers (CVTs / IVTs)
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1. Power transformers
After installation of transformer on the plinth, accessories viz. radiators,
headers, bushings, air blowers, oil pumps with connecting pipes, OLTC drive
mechanism and the connecting pipes to diverter switch compartments,
marshalling box, etc. have to be mounted on the transformer as per the
manufacturers’ drawings.

Oil should be admitted into the transformer from its bottom valve and suction
side to be connected to the top valve to evacuate nitrogen/dry air inside the
transformer as the oil fills from the bottom.

It is preferable to fill the oil received from the works (in barrels) into an oil tanker
of sufficient capacity and filter this oil separately. This helps in removing
moisture absorbed in the oil during transport and storage. Fairly moisture free
filtered oil now can be admitted from the oil tanker to the transformer.
The following check list provides various checks to be conducted for
transformer assembly.

No. Description Done

1 Availability of erection drawings and literature at site. Yes/No

2 Whether all components available at site in good condition. Yes/No

3 Rinsed all the piping, radiators, conservator etc. with 60kV tested oil and blocked with dummy Yes/No
plates.

4 Filtered the oil for 60kV BDV and recorded in the erection register. Yes/No

5 Measured the IR values of HV, MV condenser type bushings(with a 5kV Megger testing device) and Yes/No
observed more than 5000 MΩ after removing coverings, wrappers etc and cleaning.

6 Washed with hot oil (in case of other bushings of plain porcelain type). Yes/No

7 Assembled the bushing after fixing corona shield and removing links and bends in pull through Yes/No
leads, on the turret at proper incline.

8 Complete assembly of HV, LV, Ter. & Neutral bushings done correctly. Yes/No

9 Completed all piping work, conservator, explosion vent, equalizer pipes etc. as per the drawing and Yes/No
filled with oil , Bucholz relay checked.

10 Filled radiator after washing individually and ensuring removal of blanking plates and free Yes/No
movement of butterfly valves both top and bottom.

11 Measured IR values with temperature after filling of oil and compared with factory test value and Yes/No
recorded in the register.

12 For drying out of Transformer:

Applied proper lagging around the transformer. Fire fighting equipment kept at site. Yes/No

Filter machine cleaned and filled with transformer oil. Yes/No

Filter connected with outlet into the conservator and inlet from the bottom tank. Yes/No
 Filter heaters switched on and the filter temperature maintained less than 60°C and filter vacuum Yes/No
maintained at 755 mm of mercury.

Dehydration process for 7 days maintained oil temperature 60°C in the transformer (thermometer Yes/No
pockets filled with oil).

13 Filled the radiators with 60kV BDV tested oil. Opened the bottom butterfly valve provided between Yes/No
main tank and radiators after opening top air release valve to communicate with main tank.

14 All gases released from different release points in the order of ascending heights. Yes/No

15 HV, LV, Tertiary Neutral earthing provided. Body earthing at two sides, earthing of DM and FCC Yes/No
provided.

16 Petroleum jelly applied in clamps and connectors in the transformer bushing studs and checked the Yes/No
tightness.

17 Blue silica gel crystals of 2.5 to 4mm size filled in the breather. Breather filled with oil after Yes/No
removing bottom cup, transit protection cover, cork packing etc.

18 Removed blanking plates on explosion vent pipe and fixed diaphragm. Yes/No

19 In case of transformers provided with thermo-siphon filter and air-cell (pronol bag) breathing Yes/No
arrangement checked up as per manufacturers recommendations.

20 All air release points and other points thoroughly checked to ensure that there is no oil leakage. Yes/No

21 Connecting test taps of all 132,220,400kV condenser bushings. Yes/No

22 Oil level in main& OLTC conservators upto the mark. Yes/No

23 Filling of oil in oil packets of OTI and WTI. Yes/No

24 Welding of wheel stoppers to the rails. Yes/No

Go back to Content Table ↑

1.1 Pre-commissioning Tests On Transformer

After installation and assembly at site, the following pre-commissioning tests
on transformer should be conducted. These are basically low voltage tests.

1. Ratio
2. Polarity and vector group
3. Measurement of magnetizing current and no load losses (3-phase 415V to
be supplied on low voltage side of the transformer)
4. Measurement of short circuit current, load losses and impedance at all taps
(3-phase 415V supply to be given on the high voltage side and the other side
shorted)
5. Magnetic balance test
6. Measurement of winding resistance at all taps
7. Insulation Resistance and polarization index
Go back to Content Table ↑

1.2 Testing of Auxiliary Protective devices

Checking of operation of alarms and trips of following auxiliary relays:

1. High temperature settings for oil and winding temperatures

2. Bucholz relay and OLTC oil surge relay
3. Pressure relief device
4. Magnetic oil gause (MOG) of conservator
Checking for running /stopping of cooler fans and/or oil circulating pumps
in groups at the set temperatures/pressures. Conduct all checks and tests on
turret mounted CTs as indicated under CTs.

You might find interesting reading an article about the most important alarms
coming from a substation.

Go back to Content Table ↑

1.3 Testing OLTC (On Load Tap Changer)

The following checks should be performed for OLTC:
1. Checking for manual and electrical operation (both local & remote and lower
& raise) of On Load Tap Changer and for continuity between the operations.
2. Check for operation of limit switches at the extreme tap positions and
mechanical interlock between manual and electrical operation.
3. Check for Master/Follower and out of step relay operation of transformers if
parallel operation is intended.
Go back to Content Table ↑

1.4 Tests for reference (Signature)

The following tests should be done before commissioning and the results
compared with the factory test results. These results should be kept as
reference values for comparison with the future test results of these tests while
conducting, as a part of O&M later.

1.Measurement of Capacitance and tanδ of windings, Condenser Bushings

2.Dissolved Gas analysis
3.Furan Analysis (to measure degree of polymerization)
4.Frequency Response Analysis
5.Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) Measurement
6.Oil sample test for Dielectric strength, acidity, specific resistance, moisture
content and tanδ
Go back to Content Table ↑

1.5 Tests on main protective relays

The following protective relays connected to the transformer HV/LV/Tertiary
sides shall be tested for proper operation duly adopting the settings
communicated by the power systems:

1. Over current / Earth fault relays (directional/non-directional).

2. Operation of the instantaneous elements for the set current value.
3. Differential relays with bias and restraint features including through current
stability.
4. Restricted Earth fault relays.
5. Local Breaker Backup (LBB) relays.
6. Over flux relay.
7. Under and Over voltage relays.
Testing procedures for protective relays are not described in this article, but you
can read about this subject in details here.

Go back to Content Table ↑

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2. Circuit breakers
Physical checks for any damages to components of the circuit breaker should
be made. Tightness of connections at all jumpers, flanges, joints in pipes,
valves etc. should be checked. Check for oil/ gas/ air leakages at concerned
valves/pipes and all oil seals, gaskets should be made. Checking and tightening
of all foundation bolts should be done.

The following pre-commissioning tests/checks shall be conducted:

1. Measurement of insulation resistance – Phase to earth, Between phases,

across contacts with breaker open.
2. Measurement of capacitance and tanδ of voltage grading capacitors. The
grading capacitors are oil filled paper capacitor type.
3. Purity and dew point measurement of SF6 gas at rated pressure of the
breaker and at atmospheric pressure.
4. In ABCBs Dew point of air to be measured. Air serves as insulation as well
as arc quenching medium.
5. Measurement of CB close, open, close-open, timings with CB Operation
analyzer.
6. Measurement of Dynamic contact Resistance and contact travel.
7. Operation of Pole Discrepancy relay:
To measure the difference in closing and opening times of different poles of
CB where the poles are individually operated (220kV and above).
Simultaneous closing of all the three poles in case of a three pole/ gang
operated breaker (132kV and below).

8. Check for proper working of carrier inter trip and auto-reclose features (for
feeder breakers).
9. Check for capacitor tripping device where provided.
10. Measurement of resistance and current drawn by close coil and trip coils I
and II.
11. Checking of interconnecting cables to bay marshalling box.
12. Checking of operating mechanism.
13. Checking of operation counter and all mechanical indications.
14. Checking of all Non-return valves/ Safety valves.
15. Checking of local/remote breaker operations.
Check for correct operation of following operational lockouts at set
pressures:

1. SF6 gas pressure- alarm and lockout at different set pressures.

2. Pneumatic operating system – Automatic start/stop of air compressor at set
pressures.
3. CB closing lockout.
4. CB operational lockout.
5. CB auto-reclose lockout.

HV Circuit Breaker Testing (VIDEO)

Circuit breakers allow the flow of energy to be controlled by safely switching
currents on and off at all voltage levels of the energy grid. The interrupter and
the mechanical drive are the main components that are subject to wear and
aging.

In order to ensure the proper operation of a circuit breaker throughout its

lifetime, diagnostic tests are performed, such as resistance, timing, minimum
pick-up, travel, and power factor.

Go back to Content Table ↑

3. Current transformers (CTs)

Physical observation of the CTs for proper installation with respect to the
drawings and substation layout should be made. Tightness of bolts of support
structures to the foundation and CT base mounting to the support structure
shall be ensured.
Oil leakages in case of oil filled CTs and SF6 gas leakages/rated pressure of
gas in case of SF6 gas filled CTs to be observed. Bellows provided for taking
care of oil expansion shall be checked for proper functioning.

The following checks and electrical tests shall be conducted:

1.
1. Checking of tightness of all electrical connections including connections
made in the marshalling box.
2. Checking for tightness of CT secondary terminals and checking
healthiness of secondary terminal bushings.
3. Checking for short circuiting the secondary terminals of such CT
secondary windings which are not required. Shorting should be done at
secondary terminals in the CT secondary terminal box.
4. Checking for earthing of common point of three phases of each
secondary winding at one point only, preferably at the marshalling box.
5. Measurement of IR values including Di-electric absorption ratio and
Polarization index of primary to body and primary to secondary with a 5
kV Megger testing device.
6. Measurement of IR values between secondary winding of each core to
body and between different secondary windings of the CT with a 0.5 kV
Megger testing device.
1. Measurement of capacitance and tan∂ of the CT.
2. Measurement of secondary winding resistance of each secondary winding.
3. Testing for Magnetization characteristics (knee point voltage) of CT cores.
4. Ratio test for approved CT ratios in all the cores including complete wiring in
the secondary side to ensure correct ratio and continuity of the wiring.
5. Check for polarity of CTs, to ensure correct directional sensitivity of metering
and protection system.
Each CT should be individually tested to verify the polarity markings on primary
and secondary windings. Test circuit is given below.
 Figure 1 – CT
polarity test

Ammeter “A” is a robust moving coil permanent magnet center zero type
instrument. Primary winding is given DC supply momentarily from a low voltage
battery through a push button. When push button is pressed with the above
markings on CT and ammeter, the ammeter should give a +ve flick, indicating
correct polarity.

Multi meters and Digital ammeters can also be used. CT secondary connections
to transformers, busbars, and feeders:

3.1 Busbar CT’s secondary connections

Busbar CTs secondary connections

3.2 Transformer CT’s secondary connections

Transformer CT’s secondary connections

3.3 Line CT’s secondary connections

Line CT’s secondary connections

Where CT secondary connections are to be made in star, the star point should
be made as follows.
Irrespective of the polarity on the primary side, star point on secondary side
shall be on line side for feeders and on the equipment side for the bus bars, and
transformers as shown in the figures above. In case of a feeder protection, if P1
is towards the bus, then S2s’ are to be shorted and if P2 is towards bus then
S1s’ are to be shorted.

Testing protection current transformers with CT

Analyzer (VIDEO)
Important parameters of a protection current transformer are its ratio, its
excitation curve, the knee point, its winding resistance, and the burden.

CT Analyzer determines all relevant current transformer data during a test

duration of approximately one minute: it measures the burden of the secondary
circuit, the winding resistance and the excitation curve, calculates the accuracy
limiting factor for rated and actual burden, determines its ratio, amplitude and
phase angle accuracy, and verifies the polarity.

Go back to Content Table ↑

4. Voltage transformers (CVTs / IVTs)

Visual observation for any cracks/breakages must be made. Mounting of
capacitor stacks, electromagnetic units, and terminal box shall be checked for
correctness as per the drawing.

Tightness of foundation bolts connecting the support structures to the

foundation and the bolts connecting base of the VTs/CVTs to the supporting
structures should be ensured.

The following checks shall be made:

1. Check for tightness of all electrical connections on primary and secondary

sides of CVTS/VTs including connections in the marshalling box.
2. Check for oil leakages and oil level.
3. Ratio test –voltage in all the secondary windings should be measured.
4. Insulation resistance of primary to body and primary to secondary windings
to be measured by a 5 kV Megger testing device.
5. Insulation resistance of secondary to body and between secondary windings
to be measure by a0.5 kV Megger testing device.
6. Measurement of capacitance and tan ∂ of CVTs.
7. Checking of HF point in case of CVTs. Caution given on the name plate by
the manufacturer should be followed.
8. Check for adopting the approved ratios and connections for different
secondary windings.

Testing voltage transformers (VIDEO)

Voltage transformers (VTs) are used around the clock throughout the energy
grid, and their life span can reach up to 40 years. During that time, the effects of
aging, regular operation, network faults, or external influences may affect the
integrity of a voltage transformer.

Utilities perform various tests during commissioning and maintenance to find

any irregularities that have been caused by transportation, installation or
daily operation.

Go back to Content Table ↑

Source: Technical reference guide by APTRANSCO

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 Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for
design of LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in
power substations, commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in
AutoCAD programming.

5 Comments

1.
TAPAN KUMAR DAS
SE P 1 1 , 2 0 1 9

Very nice information and helpful for people working in HV substations.

(reply)

2.
Satyender Kumar
SE P 1 1 , 2 0 1 9

Sir please update all pre commissioning tests results table of each equipment
like CTS pts,transformers , relays,cb
(reply)

3.
Mukund Pawar
SE P 1 1 , 2 0 1 9
 Portal very much good and informative
(reply)

4.
Georgios Kafes
SE P 1 1 , 2 0 1 9

Thanks for the site. It is really helpful.

(reply)


Edvard
SE P 1 1 , 2 0 1 9

You’re welcome Georgios, thank you.

(reply)

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Power Substation / Protection / Transformers

Protection scheme for the

substation with a single
supply from the utility
By Edvard | January, 7th 2019 | 2 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / Protection scheme for the substation with a single supply from the utility

Single-transformer, single-bus
configuration
The utility supply voltage depends on both availability and consumer
requirements. The consumer transformer is connected delta on the high-voltage
side and grounded wye on the low-voltage side.

Protection scheme for the substation with a single supply from the utility

A fused-disconnect switch provides three-phase switching and protection for the

transformer, as well as physical isolation of the transformer during
maintenance. The consumer voltage may range from 480 V to 34.5 kV. As
stated above, power transformer is connected delta/wye and system
configuration is single-transformer / single-bus.
A normally open feeder tie switch is shown to facilitate circuit breaker
maintenance.
Single supply from a remote utility substation (single-transformer / single-bus
configuration)

Contents:
1. Transformer protection
2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection
3. Protection of the supply line
4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)
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1. Transformer protection
Several factors are involved in selecting the transformer high-side fuses.

FACTOR #1 – In general, the voltage rating of the fuse should be equal to or

greater than the system phase-to-phase voltage. Solid material expulsion-type
fuses are not “voltage critical” and may be applied on systems rated less than
the voltage rating of the fuse.
In contrast, current-limiting fuses, which are available in ratings through 34.5
kV, inherently develop an overvoltage during fault current interruption.

This overvoltage typically restricts application of current-limiting fuses to the

same system voltage class as the maximum voltage rating of the current-
limiting fuse.

FACTOR #2 – The interrupting rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater

than the maximum anticipated fault
duty, including possible utility system expansion.
FACTOR #3 – The continuous current rating of the fuse should be equal to or
greater than the maximum anticipated emergency loading of the transformer.
IMPORTANT! Overload capability of power fuses may vary from 0% to 40%
with different fuse types and with different ampere ratings of the same fuse
type.
FACTOR #4 – The continuous current rating and melting time-current
characteristics of the fuse should be selected to provide optimum transformer
protection as well as coordination with upstream and downstream relays or
fuses, taking into account the effect of ambient temperature and load current
heating.
To achieve fast fault clearing, it may be necessary to accept fuse melting
along with tripping of the low-side breakers for close-in feeder faults. For
further information, refer to IEEE Std C37.91.

If two transformers are involved, as in Figure 2, the fuse size and relay setting
or fuse coordination should be selected based on the normal maximum loading
level of both transformers.

Coordination with the low-side breaker may be sacrificed under emergency

loading conditions with one transformer out of service.
Figure 2 – Dual supply-dual transformer (single-supply circuit breakers)

FACTOR #5 – Primary fusing as the only means of transformer protection may

not be suitable if the secondary ground fault current is limited by using
resistance grounding on the neutral.
This is because the primary current resulting from a phase-to-ground secondary
fault may not be sufficient to melt the fuse.

If low-resistance grounding is used, several relay schemes can be employed to

clear a ground fault between the transformer and feeder breakers, or beyond
the feeder breakers if one fails to open.

All of these schemes use a neutral CT and overcurrent relay (51G).

Figure 4 – Transformer
neutral and zero-sequence ground relaying applications for
resistance-grounded systems

For a low-resistance-grounded system, the use of an overcurrent relay

connected to a CT in the service transformer neutral is usually the best option.
This CT should have a ratio smaller than the phase CT’s, and the relay pickup
range in conjunction with the neutral CT should allow a pickup as low as 10% of
the neutral resistor rating.
For a feeder circuit downstream from the service transformer, a zero-sequence
CT is recommended, again with a ratio small enough to allow a pickup as low
as 10% of the neutral resistor rating.

When an overcurrent relay is utilized with a zero-sequence CT it is referred to

as a 50G, 51G or 50/51G relay depending upon relay type used. Figure 4
shows typical arrangements for both these applications.

This neutral overcurrent relay (51G) trip output can be connected to do

one of the following:

1. Close a high-side grounding switch to force tripping of the remote utility

breaker
2. Open a high-side motor-operated switch that is rated to interrupt such faults
3. Transfer trip the remote utility breaker
Go back to contents ↑

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2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder

protection
The fuse provides protection for transformer high-side and low-side faults. It
also provides limited backup protection for low-side feeder faults.

Feeder phase protection is provided by non-directional instantaneous and

time-overcurrent relays. The purpose of the instantaneous relays is to provide
high-speed detection of close-in faults.

On short feeders, where the magnitude of fault current does not decrease
significantly from the bus to the end of the feeder, coordination of the
instantaneous relays with downstream protective devices may be difficult, if not
impossible. The time-overcurrent relays should coordinate with the largest
protective device on the feeder.

The time current characteristics of the relays should be selected accordingly.

For coordination with branch fuses, a very inverse or extremely inverse-time
characteristic should be selected. Phase relay pickup should be greater than
the expected full load current on the feeder.

It is also important to check coordination of the time-overcurrent relay with

the transformer high-side fuse. Coordination should be reviewed when the
load-side tie switch is closed. The phase relay pickup should be high enough to
carry the load of both feeders and still provide adequate fault protection while
maintaining coordination with the high-side fuse.
 Figure 3
– ANSI 50 and 51 overcurrent relay characteristics

Feeder ground fault protection may be provided by non-directional

instantaneous and time-overcurrent relays. A ground relay, connected in the
neutral circuit, is not sensitive to balanced three-phase load current.

Only currents resulting from an unbalanced load (on a four-wire system), or

unbalanced faults involving ground, will flow in the ground relay. Thus, the
feeder full load current need not be a directly considered when determining
relay pickup.

The following are two different methods for setting ground relays:

a. Maximum coordination
b. Maximum ground fault sensitivity

a) Maximum coordination
The ground relay has a setting identical to that of the phase relays. This
ensures the same degree of coordination with downstream protective devices
as the phase relay.

The ground relay will provide redundancy in the event of phase relay failure
for a line-to-ground fault.

b) Maximum ground fault sensitivity

The ground relay instantaneous and time-overcurrent pickup may be set much
lower than phase relay pickup. This provides sensitive protection for ground
faults but may also result in feeder outages for faults that would normally be
cleared by downstream protective devices.

For greater sensitivity, the ground relay may also be set with a time-overcurrent
relay pickup of about one-half that of the phase relay but with a high time-dial
setting to coordinate with downstream fuses over a reasonable range of
fault current.

Go back to contents ↑
3. Protection of the supply line
Different supply voltage levels generally dictate different levels of utility line
protection. These systems will normally trip instantaneously for all line
faults. The utility’s instantaneous relaying may reach into the consumer’s
transformer, but not completely through it.

Ideally, transformer faults that are detected by instantaneous line

relaying should also blow the transformer fuse. This permits the line to be re-
energized and the fault located.

Transformer isolation in this manner may not always be possible, particularly on

utility systems with large fuses and relatively low levels of ground fault current.

Normally, the supply line will also be protected with time-delayed relays.
These relays may reach completely through the transformer, depending on
other relay setting restraints on the utility system. If the relays do respond to
low-side faults, coordination is necessary with the transformer fuses.

If coordination between the fuses and the supply line protection is not possible,
the consumer may be required to use relay protection (connected to high-
voltage CTs) for the transformer, instead of fuses.

Failure to achieve coordination may result in nuisance tripping, additional

damage to the transformer due to supply line automatic reclosing, and an
extended outage of the supply line while maintenance personnel are trying to
locate the fault.

Go back to contents ↑

4. Selective coordination and transformers

(VIDEO)
Part 1
Calculating the required fuse ampacity ratios for selective coordination between
the primary side and secondary side of a transformer and downstream circuits.

Part 2
Selectively coordination circuit breakers around a transformer.

Part 3
Achieving selective coordination between fuses and circuit breakers when
protecting transformers.

Go back to contents ↑

Sources:
1. IEEE Std C37.95 – IEEE Guide for Protective Relaying of Utility-Consumer
Interconnections
2. System Protection by Bill Brown at Square D Engineering Services
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design of LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in
power substations, commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in
AutoCAD programming.

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High Voltage / Power Substation / Transmission and Distribution

Major components you can

spot while looking at HV/EHV
GIS (Gas-insulated
switchgear)
By Edvard | September, 18th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF
 Share!

Home / Technical Articles / Major components you can spot while looking at HV/EHV GIS (Gas-insulated

switchgear)

Introduction to GIS sections / bays

Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) is a piece of high voltage equipment that is
being constantly developed day by day. The basics of GIS technology is more
or less the same, but everything else under the hood is improved a lot
comparing to just a few years ago. This article explains major GIS components
and their characteristics.

Major components you can spot while looking at MV/HV GIS (Gas-insulated
switchgear)
GIS are available internationally, covering the complete voltage range from 11
kV to 800 kV. The thermal current-carrying capacities and the fault-withstanding
capabilities are tailored to meet all the substation requirements. More than
200,000 GIS bays have been in service all over the world since the introduction
of such substation systems in the transmission and distribution field.

High voltage substation generally consists of many sections/bays. The main

equipment in a section consists of circuit breakers, isolators or disconnect
switches, earth switches, current transformers, surge arresters, etc.

Figure 1 shows a single line diagram of a section at a substation identifying

different components. Single busbar, double busbar and 3/2 circuit breaker are
popular configurations at substations.

Figure 1 – Single line diagram for

a double bus section

In GIS, the modular components are assembled together to form a desired

arrangement for a section or a bay. Figure 2 shows a cross-section of a double
bus GIS section. Here, the constituent components are assembled side by side.
The porcelains and connections (ACSR conductors), as required in a yard
substation, are totally eliminated in this new configuration.

The high voltage conductors (bus bars) are supported on simple disc insulators.
Figure 2 – Cross-section of a double bus GIS section

Where typical double busbar feeder components are:

1. Circuit-breaker interrupter unit

2. Stored-energy spring mechanism
3. Circuit-breaker control unit
4. Busbar I
5. Busbar disconnector I
6. Busbar II
7. Busbar disconnector II
8. Work-in-progress earthing switch
9. Work-in-progress earthing switch
10. Outgoing-feeder disconnector
11. Make-proof earthing switch (high-speed)
12. Current transformer
13. Voltage transformer
14. Cable sealing end

GIS components
The following are the principle gas insulated modules for a substation:

1. Busbar
2. Disconnecting switch
3. Circuit breaker
4. Current transformer and
5. Earth switch
6. Accessories
The auxiliary gas insulated module or accessories, excluding control panel, that
are required to complete a substation are terminations, instrument voltage
transformer and surge and lightning arrester.

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height: 280px; width: 336px; display: block;">
1. Busbar
The busbar is one of the most elementary components of the GIS system. Co-
axial busbars are common in isolated-phase GIS as this configuration results in
an optimal stress distribution. Busbars of different lengths are used in GIS to
cater to the requirement of circuit or the bay formation.

The high voltage conductor (copper/aluminium) is centrally placed in a

tubular metal enclosure. The conductor is supported, at a uniform distance,
by the disc or post insulator to maintain concentricity. Two sections of bus are
joined by using plug-in connecting elements.

Various sizes of the bus enclosures exist nowadays.

1.1 Connectors
The high voltage and high current electrical connections from one module to
another in a gas insulated substation system are carried out with the help of
the spring loaded plug-in contacts. Plug-in contact systems impart the
maximum flexibility during assembly and dismantling. These contacts offer plug-
in features and are suitable for tubular conductors.

The connections made are reliable without the need for any additional hardware
to secure their location.
 Figure 3
– An example of busbar module for switchgear type 8DN9 up to 245 kV (three-
phase encapsulated passive busbar)

1.2 Insulating Materials and Insulators

The following insulating materials are commonly used in low tension (LT)
and air insulated substation applications:

1. Sheet moulding compound (SMC),

2. Dow moulding compound (DMC),
3. Glass fibre reinforced plastics,
4. Compression and thermo-setting plastics, and
5. Refractory-based in-sulating materials (like cordrite and alumina)
Of these insulations, glass/silica-based systems are generally found unsuitable
for SF6 applications due to their weak resistance to hydrofluoric acid (a by-
product of moisture and decomposed SF6). Large shrinkage and instability at
higher working temperatures prohibit the use of plastics in GIS.

Stable polymers like PTFE (poly tetra fluoroethane) are selectively used in
GIS and associated accessories.

Insulating materials like PTFE (teflon) with very high volume resistivity retain
electrical charges for long durations. This material property is sometimes
undesirable and causes a deterioration in the performance of GIS (critically for
direct current applications).
The stagnation of charge locally modifies local potential and the electrical field.
The electrical stresses in the system thus get modified unpredictably from the
designed values. In an AC system, this trapped charge concentration also
varies with time and adversely affects the electric field intensities. The use of
materials promoting charge concentration is thus avoided in gas insulated
systems.

Alumina-filled epoxy matrix is a common insulating material for GIS-related

applications. The filler alumina offers good resistance to decomposed SF6
products like hydrofluoric acid (HF) as compared to silica or felspar (common
fillers used with epoxy).

Go back to Content Table ↑

2. Disconnectors
Disconnectors (or disconnect switches) are placed in series with the circuit
breaker to provide additional protection and physical isolation. In a circuit, two
disconnectors are generally used, one on the line side and the other on the
feeder side. Disconnect switches are designed for the interruption of small
currents, induced or capacitively coupled.

Disconnect switches can be motorized or driven manually. In GIS systems,

motorized isolators are preferred. A pair of fixed contacts and a moving contact
form the active parts of disconnect switch. The fixed contacts are separated by
an isolating gas gap.

During the closing operation, this gap is bridged by the moving contact. The
moving contact is attached to a suitable drive, which imparts the desired linear
displacement to the moving contact at a pre-determined design speed.

A firm contact is established between the two contacts with the help of spring-
loaded fingers or the multi-lam contacts. The isolation gap is designed for the
voltage class of the isolator and the safe dielectric strength of the gas.

Figure 4 shows a cross-section of an isolated-phase GIS diconnector.

Figure 4 – Cross-section of an isolated-phase GIS disconnector

An insulator is used to drive the moving contact and to isolate the drive from the
high voltage components of the disconnector. The shape and size of the
insulator are controlled by the electrical and mechanical requirements of the
isolator. In three-phase ac systems, the individual phase isolators are ganged
together to operate simultaneously.

Leak-tight rotary seals are used in gas insulated isolators for transferring motion
from external drive to the gas. Disconnectors in high voltage GIS operate at
SF6 pressures of 0.38 MPa to 0.45 MPa.

This is how disconnectors are operated inside SF6 filled switchgears (GIS).
The operating speed of the disconnector moving contact ranges from 0.1 to 0.3
m/sec. The design of electrostatic shields on two fixed contacts and the earth
side of the drive insulator plays an important role in ensuring the satisfactory
performance of a gas insulated diconnector.

Note that there are a lot of variations of disconnectors and that visually they
could be visually different.

Go back to Content Table ↑

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height: 280px; width: 336px; display: block;">

3. Circuit breaker
The circuit breaker is the most critical part of a gas insulated substation system.
The circuit breaker in a gas insulated system is metal-clad and utilises SF6
gas, both for insulation and fault interruption.

The SF6 gas pressure in a circuit breaker is around 0.65 MPa. The circuit
breaker is directly connected to either current transformers or the isolators in
gas. A barrier is maintained between the circuit breaker and the other
connected equipment, operating at lower gas pressure, to maintain a pressure
difference.

Puffer SF6 circuit breakers are commonly used to accomplish fault current
interruption in gas insulated substation systems. In three-phase common
modules of circuit breakers, hot gas mix-up is checked to prevent inter-phase
short-circuit by electrically conducting hot gas.

Spring, spring-hydraulic and pure hydraulic are the preferred drives for the
circuit breakers of gas insulated substations.
Figure 5 – An example of Siemens Type 8DQ1 circuit breaker interrupter
module (The central element of a switchgear bay within the gasinsulated
switchgear is the single-phase encapsulated circuit breaker. The circuit breaker
is designed for singlepole automatic reclosure. It consists of two main
components: interrupter unit and stored-energy spring mechanism.)

Hydraulic drives are reliable, robust and compact as compared to their spring
counterparts. Hydraulic drives can be interfaced to the circuit breaker directly
without any intermediate motion seals and linkages. The spring drives are
relatively cheaper and can be used only with the state-of-the-art self-blast or
hybrid circuit breakers.

Opening speeds in the range of 6.0-8.0 m/sec and operating energies in the
range of 4500-8500 Nm are common for operating the GIS circuit breakers.
Note that mentioned values can be different depending on the manufacturer.

As a safety device, the circuit breaker enclosure features a rupture diaphragm

or a spring-loaded plate valve. This arrangement vents high pressure gas, if it
is above proof pressure, during extensive arcing or pressure build-up for some
reason in the circuit breaker enclosure.

The circuit breaker enclosure also serves as the main support element for the
individual GIS bay. The GIS circuit breakers are oriented both in horizontal and
vertical configurations, depending on the system requirements and ease of
installation.

A cross-section of a GIS circuit breaker is given in Figure 5 above.

Figure 6 – Arc-quenching principle (The interrupter unit used in the circuit
breaker for arc-quenching operates according to the dynamic self-compression
principle. This principle requires only little operating energy, which keeps the
mechanical stresses on the circuit breaker and its housing as well as the
foundation loads to a minimum.)

Testing the timing of a GIS circuit breaker

Testing the timing of a circuit breaker within a gas-insulated switchgear (GIS).
Using this measurement method, both sides of the breaker remain grounded
throughout the test.

Go back to Content Table ↑

4. Current transformer
The conventional substations use either live-tank or dead-tank type current
transformers with oil/SF6 insulation. A porcelain insulator is used to insulate the
low potential section of the current transformer from the high voltage zone.

Ribbon or cut silicon steel cores are used for the magnetic circuit of the current
transformer for obtaining the desired ratio and accuracy. Hairpin shaped
primary conductor is the standard geometry for a dead-tank type current
transformer. The current transformers in gas insulated systems are essentially
in-line current transformers.

Gas insulated current transformers, with classical coaxial geometry,

consist of the following parts:

1. Tubular primary conductor

2. Electrostatic shield
3. Ribbon-wound toroidal core and
4. Gas-tight enclosure
The primary of a current transformer is a tubular metal conductor linking two
gas insulated modules, placed on either side of the current transformer. Disc
insulators, at either end of the current transformer enclosure, support this high
voltage conductor. One end of the conductor end is solidly fastened, while the
other end is provided with a sliding joint, which compensates for the thermal
expansion of the conductor and simplifies the assembly of the current
transformer module.
A ribbon-wound silicon steel core (formed in toroidal shape) is used for the
magnetic circuit of the current transformer. A coaxial electrostatic shield, at
ground potential, is placed between the high voltage primary and the toroidal
magnetic core of the current trans-former for ensuring zero potential at the
secondary of the current transformer.

The electrostatic shield also helps in generating a perfect coaxial geometry

and uniform electrical field in the gas gap.

The length of the current transformer module thus changes with the number
and types of current transformers specified. The magnetic core and the
secondary winding assembly of the current transformer are supported in gas by
an enclosure or a grounded support enveloping the core and the winding.
Figure 7 – Location of current transformer in GIS

Go back to Content Table ↑

5. Earth switch
Fast earth switch and maintenance earth switch are the two types of earth
switches used for gas insulated substation systems. The maintenance earth
switch is a slow device used to ground the high voltage conductors during
maintenance schedules, in order to ensure the safety of the maintenance
staff.

The fast earth switch, on the other hand, is used to protect the circuit-
connected instrument voltage transformer from core saturation caused by
direct current flowing through its primary as a consequence of remnant charge
(stored online during isolation/switching off of the line).

In such a situation, the use of a fast earth switch provides a parallel (low
resistance) path to drain the residual static charge quickly, thereby protecting
the instrument voltage transformer from the damages that may otherwise be
caused. The basic construction of these earth switches is identical.

The earth switch is the smallest module of a gas insulated substation

system. The module is made up of two parts:

1. Fixed contact, which is located at the live bus conductor and which forms a
part of the main gas insulated system;
2. Moving contact system mounted on the enclosure of the main module and
aligned to the fixed contact.

SF6 fast earthing switch operation

Go back to Content Table ↑

6. Accessories
Incomer and feeder connections are the main accessories of a substation. At
the incomer, the supply is received from a higher level substation or from a ring
main.

The power is received and delivered through either the underground cables or
the overhead lines, at a substation. If they are economically viable,
underground cables are also employed for other similar power installations. In
either case, interfaces are required to receive/deliver the power.
Cable-to-gas and Air-to-gas terminations are employed as an interface to the
two media in GIS installations. Conventional as well as the dry terminations are
now available for such applications up to 170 kV voltage class.

Beyond this voltage level, conventional terminations, with capacitive foil grading
and liquid insulation, are employed. For air-to-gas termination, the use of
composite insulator for bushings has been gaining importance because they
are light-weight, and offer better mechanical and seismic performances. Figure
5.16 shows a gas-to-air bushing featuring a composite insulator.

An instrument voltage/potential transformer, used for metering and protection,

forms a part of the GIS and is gas insulated. This equipment is directly mounted
and connected to GIS, at times with an isolator /disconnector in series.

A gas insulated surge arrester is a critical accessory required for a

substation. This device protects the system from switching surges. Surge
arresters are commonly used for installation above 170 kV class, where an
appreciable switching surge intensity is recorded.

In exceptional cases, lower kV class substations are also equipped with surge
arresters to provide additional safety and reliability. The conventional yard
surge/lighting arresters are used for gas insulated substation systems, where
overhead lines are used to source/deliver the energy.

6.1 Control panel

Both local and remote control panels are used in GIS. The local control panel
(LCP) provides an access to the various controls and circuit parameters of an
individual GIS bay. The local control panel facilitates the monitoring of gas
pressures, status of the switchgear element and operating fluid pressures, of
oil, SF6 and air.

A dedicated local control panel for each bay is a common specification. The
local control panel essentially features interlocks, operating buttons and a single
line diagram.
 Figure 8
– Gas-insulated switchgear control panel

The operator can verify the status of the circuit through a glass panelled clear
door, containing the mimicked single line diagram, indicators and push buttons.
The circuit operations are possible only by the authentication and authorisation
process based on physical issuance of the ‘clear door key’ by the concerned
authority.

Go back to Content Table ↑

Sources:
 1. Switchgears book by BHEL – Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
2. Gas-insulated switchgear up to 550 kV, 63 kA, 5000 A, Type 8DQ1 –
SIEMENS
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Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for
design of LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in
power substations, commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in
AutoCAD programming.

One Comment

1.
Shaik.Gudubhai
SE P 1 8 , 2 0 1 9

Spread the electrical engineering knowledge throughout the world, great sir
(reply)
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Power Substation / Protection

The principles of differential

protection you MUST
understand
By Edvard | December, 9th 2016 | 4 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / The principles of differential protection you MUST understand

Differential protection
Although nowadays differential protection is achieved numerically, in order to
understand the principles of differential protection it is useful to analyze the
ubiquitous electromechanical relay.

The principles of differential protection you MUST understand (on photo:

SIPROTEC protection relays)

Figure 1 shows a simple differential protection scheme, also known as a Merz-

Price scheme.

In this simple scheme, we can assume that under normal operating conditions,
the current entering into the piece of equipment under protection is equal (or in
the case of a transformer, proportional) to its exiting current. In this example
we will assume that the entry and exit currents are equal. A circuit breaker
either side of the equipment under protection is controlled by an overcurrent
relay.

Figure 1 – Simple differential protection (click to expand scheme)

Current transformers of identical types and turns ratio are installed on either
side of the equipment. These current transformers induce identical secondary
currents, because their primary currents are identical and they have the same
turns ratio.

By simple inspection of the diagram, it is clear to see that under these

circumstances no spill current will flow through the relay, therefore no trip
signals will be generated.

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!important; display: block;">
…and when the fault occurs
Consider a fault internal to the equipment. A large current would flow through
the fault, thus the current exiting the equipment would rapidly reduce resulting
in a reduced secondary current in CT B. This would cause a current to flow
through the relay, which would be of a magnitude sufficient to trip the circuit
breakers.

Now consider an external fault at F as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 – Simple differential protection with external fault

You can see that in this case, the current exiting the equipment, albeit large, is
still the same as the current entering it, therefore the relay will not trip. This is
exactly as how we want it, because faults external to the equipment are in a
different protection zone and are protected within another scheme.

If the equipment to be protected is a busbar, or generator winding, for instance,

it is clear that the exit current is the same as the entry current. If, however, the
equipment is a transformer where the turns ratio is not equal to one, the current
entering will be different from the current exiting.

In this case, the current transformers must be balanced with an equivalent turns
ratio differential.
The differential scheme creates a well-defined protection zone,
encompassing everything between the two current transformers. Any fault
existing in this protection zone is regarded as an internal fault, while any fault
existing outside this protection zone is an external fault.

A differential scheme should therefore be able to respond to the smallest of

internal faults, but restrain on the largest of external faults.

In practice, this is difficult to achieve – especially for very large through

faults, due to the non-ideal nature of the current transformers used to measure
the currents. The term used to specify the system’s ability to cope with these
imperfections is called Through-fault Stability.

In modern IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices), the current in the current

transformers do not directly control the operating coil which trips the circuit
breakers, so the connectivity is not as it is shown in this example. In reality, the
currents from the current transformers are simply input to the IED, where they
are sampled and digitized.

The differential operation is then carried out by the IED’s software.

Basic Transformer Differential Theory

(VIDEO)
Reference // Substation Automation Principles by Michael J. Bergstrom
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links
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and extra premium content (electrical guides and software).
GET PREMIUM NOW ⚡
 Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for
design of LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in
power substations, commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in
AutoCAD programming.

4 Comments

1.
Electrical
AUG 22, 2018

Dear Sir,
We Have Transformer plus Cable differential protection achieved through
7SD610 Numerical Relay.
Recently We have observed that R phase outzone fault in other feeder cause
activation of B phase differential protection without any fault. can u tell why?
(reply)

2.
Beryl
FE B 2 7 , 2 0 1 8

Very detailed but simple to understand piece.I am preparing to be tested for

33KV switching and the simple explanations in this article have made it very
interesting for me to read
(reply)
3.
ULHAS VAJRE
DE C 1 1 , 2 0 1 6

Earlier I had asked few questions to Edward, but till date I didn’t get any reply
from him. Is there any unwritten protocol that no replies shall be given, is that
so??
(reply)

4.
Emmanuel
DE C 0 9 , 2 0 1 6

Could you, please, clarify how does thr alghorithim of the digital relay computes
reading the fault?
With the static and electromechanic relays the basis was angle measurement.
Static used the coincidence+ anti-coincidence principle of the formulae and
integrated them so that by triggering the integrated value you would be able to
tripp the switching device.
/as far as I know, digital devices use the DFT Discrete Fourier Transformation
but I would be pleased if you could develop it so that it can be more
´´digestible´´.
I thank you in advance.
Kind regards
emmanuel
(reply)

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Energy and Power / High Voltage / Protection

Five protection relay types

used to detect grid
disturbances and isolating
By Edvard | March, 29th 2017 | 2 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / Five protection relay types used to detect grid disturbances and isolating

System protection relays

Consider a medium voltage distribution system having local generation
(e.g., captive power generation) as shown in figure 1 which is also
synchronized with the grid. During grid disturbance, if plant generators are not
successfully isolated from the grid, they also sink with the grid.

Four protection relay types used to detect grid disturbances and isolate (on
photo: Micom protection relay P633; credit: Edvard Csanyi)

All this is resulting in significant loss in production and damage to process

equipments.
 Figure 1 – Captive
generator that exports power and meets local demand

The following relays are used to detect such disturbances, its severity and
isolate the inplant system from the grid.

1. Underfrequency and over frequency relays

2. Rate of change of frequency relays
3. Undervoltage relays
4. Reverse power flow relays
5. Vector shift relays

Underfrequency relay and Rate of change of

frequency relay
In case of a grid failure (figure 2), captive generators tend to supply power to
other consumers connected to the substation. The load-generation imbalance
leads to fall in frequency.

The underfrequency relay R detects this drop and isolates local

generation from the grid by tripping breaker at the point of common coupling.
After disconnection from the grid, it has to be ascertained that there is load-
generation balance in the islanded system.

Because of the inertia of the machines, frequency drops gradually. To speed up

the islanding decision, rate of change of frequency relays are used.
 Figure 2 – Loss
of utility and overloading of captive plant

Undervoltage relay
Whenever there is an uncleared fault on the grid close to the plant, the plant
generators tend to feed the fault, and the voltages at the supply point
drops. This can be used as a signal for isolating from the grid.

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!important; display: block;">

Reverse power relay

Distribution systems are radial in nature. This holds true for both utility and
plant distribution systems. If there is a fault on the utility’s distribution system, it
may trip a breaker thereby isolating plant from the grid.

This plant may still remain connected with downstream loads as shown in
figures 3 and 4. Consequently, power will flow from the plant generator to
these loads.
If in the prefault state, power was being fed to the plant, then this reversal of
power flow can be used to island the plant generation and load from the
remaining system.

This approach is useful to detect loss of grid supply whenever the

difference between load and available generation is not sufficient to obtain an
appreciable rate of change of frequency but the active power continues to flow
into the grid to feed the external loads.

Figure 3 – Utility and plant

generator in parallel
 Figure 4 – Isolation of grid
reversal of power flow

Example
In figure 4, consider that the plant imports at all times a minimum power of 5
MW. Studies indicate that for various faults in utility side, minimum power export
from the plant generator is 0.5 MW. Deduce the setting of reverse power relay.

If the plant generator is of 50 MW capacity, what is likelihood of

underfrequency or rate of change of frequency relay picking up on such
faults?

ANSWER: Reverse power flow relay can be set to 0.4 MW. Since minimum
reverse power flow is 1% of plant capacity, it is quite likely, that utility
disconnection may not be noticed by underfrequency or the rate of change of
frequency relays.
Dynamical nature of the power
system
Usually, system protection requires study of the system dynamics and
control. To understand issues in system protection, we overview dynamical
nature of the power system. Power system behaviour can be described in terms
of differential and algebraic system of equations.

Differential equations can be written to describe behaviour of generators,

transmission lines, motors, transformers etc. The detailing depends upon
the time scale of investigation.

Figure 5 shows the various time scales involved in modelling system dynamics.
The dynamics involved in switching, lightning, load rejection, etc. have a high
frequency component which die down quickly. In analysis of such dynamics,
differential equations associated with inductances and capacitances of
transmission lines have to be modelled. Such analysis is restricted to a few
cycles.

It is done by Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP).

Figure 1 – Transient spectrum

At a larger time scale (order of seconds), response of the electromechanical
elements is perceived. These transients are typically excited by faults which
disturb the system equilibrium by upsetting the generator-load balance in the
system. As a consequence of fault, electrical power output reduces
instantaneously while the mechanical input does not change instantaneously.

The resulting imbalance in power (and torque) excites the electromechanical

transients which are essentially slow because of the inertia of the mechanical
elements (rotor etc).

Detection and removal of fault is the task of the protection

system (apparatus protection). Post-fault, the system may or may not return to
an equilibrium position.

Transient stability studies are required to determine the post fault system
stability. In practice, out-of-step relaying, underfrequency load shedding,
islanding etc are the measures used to enhance system stability and prevent
blackouts.

The distinction between system protection and control (e.g. damping of

power swings) is a finer one. In the today’s world of Integrated Control and
Protection Systems (ICPS), this distinction does not make much sense.

ElectroMagnetic Transient Program –

EMTP
Reference // Fundamentals of Power System Protection – Extract from IIT
Bombay NPTEL
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Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for
design of LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in
power substations, commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in
AutoCAD programming.

2 Comments

1.
Shanmugam
SE P 3 0 , 2 0 1 9

Does the relay settings/group to be changed for export and import breakers
every time or the IED can manage itself.
(reply)
2.
Geresu
APR 02, 2017

Well come
(reply)

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