Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UKASJAnimal Science Journal1344-39412004 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty LtdApril 20047528995Review ArticleViral diseases of the

ostrichR. G. COOPER
et al.

REVIEW ARTICLE
Viral diseases of the Ostrich (Struthio camelus
var. domesticus)
Ross Gordon COOPER,1 Jaroslaw Olav HORBANCZUK2 and Noboru FUJIHARA3
1
Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom, 2Institute of
Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kosowska, Poland and 3Fukuoka Women’s Junior
College, Fukuma-machi, Fukuoka-ken, Japan

ABSTRACT
The ostrich is an important animal in many livestock industries. A significant threat to this industry is losses from diseases.
Newcastle disease is a notifiable, highly contagious viral infection of ostriches. Avian influenza may be transmitted from
waterfowl, shorebirds and gulls to ostriches. Borna disease virus is a viral neurotropic infection spread mainly by rodents
and felines. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever is a viral disease transmitted by Hyalomma ticks to humans. Avipoxvirus
afflicts ostrich chicks and is transmitted by mosquitoes or by direct contact with a pox lesion. Maintenance of a healthy and
profitable enterprise requires the implementation, with assistance from the local veterinary authority, of comprehensive,
practical and effective methods of health management and preventative medicine.

KEYWORDS: disease, health, ostrich, treatment.

INTRODUCTION Adequate nutrition is important for good ostrich

productivity and knowledge of the specific nutrient
The ostrich (Struthio camelus var. domesticus) is the larg- requirements of ostriches is needed to achieve maxi-
est of the flightless birds. Commercial ostrich farming mum growth rates. Inadequate nutrition is often a
currently forms an important component of the agri- cause of poor health and disease in ostriches, and
business industry. The global growth of the industry Tully (1998) attributes this to the possible inclusion
has been through increases in the numbers of birds of self-milled and non-species-specific feeds in
and the creation of a production, marketing and ostrich diets in an attempt to cut down on feed
export infrastructure to support the industry (Cooper costs. Cooper et al. (2000) discusses deficiencies of fat
1999a). In order to support a growing export market in ostrich feed being detrimental to bird health
place, the industry has become increasingly producer because of an inability to use fat-soluble vitamins.
focused thus ensuring successful breeding pro- The authors describe the mobilization and storage of
grammes (Tully 1998). The red meat is much in vitamins A, D3, E and K being realized through a
demand because of its low calorific value of 0.43 kJ/ dietary blend of vegetable and animal fat. Cooper
100 g ostrich meat compared with 0.51 for beef and Benson (2000) describe the inclusion of soy-
(Cooper 1999b; Cooper & Horbanczuk 2002). Other bean meal in the diet as an important source of
marketable benefits of the meat include its high ten-
derness (Sales & Olivier-Lyons 1996); its low sodium
content of 43 mg/100 g meat compared with 63 mg/
100 g in beef (Sales 1996); and its high iron content of Correspondence: Ross Gordon Cooper, Department of
Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol,
2.3 mg/100 g (Sales & Olivier-Lyons 1996). The skin is
University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom. (Email:
a highly sought after commodity in the leather market rgcooperuk@yahoo.com)
because of its distinctive quality, versatility, durability Received 22 September 2003; accepted for publication 19
and comfort (Cooper 2000b). November 2003.

Animal Science Journal (2004) 75, 89–95 89

R. G. COOPER et al.
amino acids that provides an essential nutrient
source for optimal growth and development, meat
and egg production, and for reproduction.
Disease may also be spread from infected birds to
healthy flocks in areas with inadequate quarantine
facilities (Tully & Shane 1996), and associated poor
construction and siting of paddocks (Tully 1998). The
aim of the present review is to discuss viral diseases
afflicting the ostrich and the susceptibility of birds to
infection from sick poultry, domestic animals and wild
animals. It is hoped that this article will encourage a
focus on preventative medicine in an attempt to max-
imize productivity on the farm.
DISEASES IN THE OSTRICH
Tully and Shane (1996) describe a number of zoonotic
diseases affecting ratites particularly arising from the
movement of breeding birds between areas (Table 1).
Within the breeding environment Tully (1998) lists
the following factors as influencing and potentiating
the spread of infection:
• Pen size
• Number of birds per pen
• Shelter for birds
• Pen construction
• Feed and water availability and accessibility. Dirty
drinking water is a major source of infective agents
• Pen topography
• Environment surrounding pens
• Stress associated with the environment including
that from other animals (e.g. dogs) and machinery
(industrial, mechanical)
Ostriches are susceptible to a number of infectious
agents from other animals. These diseases pose a
threat to the future viability of an ostrich production
system if not controlled. The role of the veterinarian is
crucial for the control and treatment of such diseases
as is the producer for vaccinating his/her flock. It is
essential that the producer establishes separate quar-
antine areas especially when new birds are introduced
Table 1 Some zoonotic diseases afflicting ratites
Viral Bacterial
Equine encephalitis Anthrax
Tuberculosis
Colibacillosis
Salmonellosis
Source: Tully and Shane (1996).
Animal Science Journal (2004) 75, 89–95
to the farm, to prevent contamination of the soil and
facilities with pathogens (Cooper 2000a,c).
Viral infections
Newcastle disease
Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral
infection of ostriches and is therefore a notifiable dis-
ease (Bolte et al. 1999). The disease is caused by
paramyxovirus sero-type 1 and manifests itself clini-
cally as nervous aberrations resulting even in 80%
mortality in experimentally infected ostrich chicks
(Samberg et al. 1989). While in experimental infection
the death rate is high, mortality in field outbreaks is
very low. Symptoms include slight head shaking,
tremors, swaying, tilting of the head, and head
scratching, followed by complete loss of head move-
ments and total ataxia (Huchzermeyer & Gerdes 1993;
Huchzermeyer 1996). Pathology symptoms include
hemorrhages on the heart and an enlarged liver (Fog-
gin 1992). Diagnosis is made following isolation of
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in the laboratory from
samples of the mucosa, lung and brain taken from an
acutely sick bird (Foggin 1992).
Southern Africa is a major exporter of ostrich
meat to ND-free areas like Europe and USA. For
example, since 1998, Zimbabwe has recorded 45
outbreaks of ND in rural chickens and one in
ostriches (Cooper 2000d). Huchzermeyer (1993) dis-
cusses reasons why velogenic ND is unlikely to
become endemic in Zimbabwe. Ostriches kept in
outdoor paddocks usually contract ND orally with
resultant nervous symptoms and slow spread of
infection. The pathogenicity of ostrich isolates from
South Africa and Botswana is comparable to that of
poultry isolates showing that the source of transmis-
sion is from poultry and/or wild birds (Seal et al.
1998). Most ND strains are spread on farms either
by aerosol in intensively housed poultry or by the
faecal-oral route in free-ranging chickens. The virus
may also be spread by vehicles and workers (Awan
et al. 1994; Verwoerd et al. 1997).
Fungal Parasitic
Aspergillosis Giardiosis
Baylisascaris visceral larva migrans
90
Viral diseases of the ostrich
The disease is highly contagious and is transmitted
by both direct and indirect contagion with infected
carriers. Overcrowding birds in pens and siting of pens
near areas where wild fowl congregate significantly
enhances the transmission of ND. Indeed, waterfowl
have been identified as carriers and reservoirs of ND
(Verwoerd 1995). Ostriches should be vaccinated in
areas where velogenic Newcastle Disease (VVND) is
endemic. Birds of all ages are susceptible to challenge
by VVND, although standard inactivated La Sota poul-
try vaccines can stimulate protective immunity lasting
over 6 months. The viraemic period in vaccinated
slaughter birds is 9–11 days and there are no indica-
tions of a carrier state or presence of the virus in the
body tissues after this period (Verwoerd 2000). Anti-
bodies produced in vaccinated birds can be detected if
a test and depletion control programme is imple-
mented in a nonendemic area (Tully & Shane 1996).
Export of ostrich meat from an endemic country has
the potential to transmit velogenic strains of the dis-
ease (Blignaut et al. 2000). The authors conducted two
vaccination trials to assess serum antibody production
in response to vaccination with La Sota strain ND vac-
cines, a method also described by Bolte et al. (1999), in
which antibodies were measured in hemagglutination
inhibition (HI) and virus neutralization tests. La Sota
live and inactivated oil emulsion vaccines were well
tolerated by birds receiving conjunctival or subcutane-
ous application. In the first trial ostriches were immu-
nized subcutaneously with four different volumes of
inactivated vaccine and their immune response mon-
itored in birds aged from 2.5 to 14 months. The results
demonstrated that the birds respond in a dose-depen-
dent manner. In the second trial, 5-week-old birds
vaccinated with live La Sota vaccine did not elicit a
humoral immune response. The results of this study
showed that if correct vaccination procedures were
followed, ostrich meat would not transmit ND. Given
that NDV does not persist in the muscles of immunized
infected birds following the initial viraemic stage, vac-
cinating the birds at least 1 month before slaughter
and strict preslaughter inspection are sufficient to pre-
vent the transmission of NDV in exported meat
(Huchzermeyer 1997a). Ostriches destined for export
from southern Africa are vaccinated against NDV with
a combination of both live and inactivated vaccines at
least 30 days and no longer than 6 months before
slaughter (Verwoerd et al. 1997). The authors demon-
strated that it is highly improbable that NDV is trans-
mitted in ostrich meat. In the study, 20 slaughter
ostriches (90 kg bodyweight, 10 months old) were
Animal Science Journal (2004) 75, 89–95
studied as an unvaccinated group and a vaccinated
group. The latter were exposed to live La Sota vaccine
in an aluminum hydroxide carrier during chick rear-
ing stages at 6 weeks and 10 weeks of age. All unvac-
cinated ostriches developed clinical signs principally
respiratory in nature whilst no vaccinated ostriches
developed any clinical signs. Although virulent NDV
was re-isolated from dead birds, it was not detected in
organs, fresh muscle, muscle chilled for 24 h, the gas-
tro-intestinal tract, bone marrow or the respiratory
system from surviving ostriches slaughtered 14 days
after the last mortality.
A later study investigated the vaccination and pre-
slaughter quarantine regulations enforced in South
African export ostrich facilities to determine the
viraemia period and immune response during this
period (Verwoerd et al. 1999). In the study, 143
slaughter ostriches were allocated into three test
groups of periods between pretrial vaccination and
challenge (1–2, 2–4 and 4–6 months) and compared
with an unchallenged control group. All birds in the
test groups were challenged by oral, tracheal and ocu-
lar routes with a field isolate of NDV. Virus isolation
was performed on seven sets of pooled samples from
each bird to determine the viraemia period and serum
antibody concentrations were measured by HI and
ELISA to establish the immune response curve. NDV
could only be back-isolated up to day 9 postinfection.
NDV was recovered from the brain and respiratory
tract tissue. Immune response curves did not differ sig-
nificantly between treatment groups and peaked on
day 14 postinfection. Being more sensitive, ELISA was a
good indicator of the probability that an ostrich is
infected following NDV challenge. The current vacci-
nation schedule enforced in South Africa provides
protective immunity in a maximum of 95% of slaugh-
tered ostriches. The standard 30-day preslaughter
quarantine period employed in the prevention of
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus is sufficient
to encompass the NDV viraemia period of 9–11 days.
Avian influenza
Avian influenza (AI) is a highly contagious viral infec-
tion and is found naturally in waterfowl (Huchzerm-
eyer 1997b; Cooper 2000d), shorebirds and gulls
(Suarez 2000). A recent study in South Africa demon-
strated AI A virus transmission from wild waterfowl to
ostriches (Pfitzer et al. 2000). The investigators tested
262 aquatic birds and isolated serotype H10N9 from
eight samples. All isolates were found to be apatho-
genic as determined by an intravenous pathogenicity
91
R. G. COOPER et al.
index. Although none of 33 sera of these wild birds
showed antibodies against H10, one bird was found
serologically positive for H6 A1, a serotype that was
isolated from ostriches during an outbreak in the same
area. Ostriches are infected with AI (Allwright et al.
1993; Selmons et al. 1995) as are other animal species
including chickens, turkeys, swine, horses and humans
(Suarez 2000). This indicates the adaptation of A1 to
new host species. Avian influenza is highly mutagenic
and is able to spread very rapidly between avian
species. Given the propensity of wild birds to con-
gregate on farms, this virus poses a great threat to
ostrich flocks. The virus may also be carried by non-
quarantined ostriches, on clothing of workers and on
vehicles. In Zimbabwe, spread of the infection is greatly
reduced through the enforcement of strict hygiene and
sterilization standards, including the necessity for vis-
itors to take a shower and change their attire before
entering a paddock (Cooper 2000c). Control pro-
grammes that allow a low incidence of infection are
not suitable for controlling highly pathogenic AI,
although they have been employed during some out-
breaks of mildly pathogenic AI. An eradication strategy
for AI includes surveillance and diagnosis, bio security,
education, quarantine and depopulation (Swayne &
Suarez 2000). Prevention may include monitoring
newly purchased ostriches for the presence of antibod-
ies using an agar gel precipitation procedure prior to
purchase or delivery (Tully & Shane 1996).
Huchzermeyer (1997a) describes clinical symptoms
as being more severe in younger ostriches aged over
5 days and less than 8 month old. Documented symp-
toms include green discoloration of the urine, ruffled
feathers and secondary bacterial infections including
airsacculitis and ocular discharge. Birds aged over
8 months of age have green discoloration of the urine
and slight depression, and normally recover after 2–
3 weeks (Allwright et al. 1993). Opportunistic bacterial
infections often result in focal areas of hepatic necro-
sis, severe congestion by mucus of the proximal small
intestine, and kidney disease as shown by pale discol-
oration and the excretion of greenish urine (Allwright
1992).
In South Africa, AI viruses (H7N1) were detected
and recorded as being particularly devastating in
young ostriches (Allwright et al. 1993) followed by an
outbreak of H5N9 AI in ostriches in 1994. In Zimba-
bwe, H5N2 subtypes were isolated from ostriches in
1995 and 1996, and also in ostriches imported into the
Netherlands and Denmark in 1996. In Denmark, AI
was shown to cause 146 of 506 deaths within 23 days
Animal Science Journal (2004) 75, 89–95
of importation (Jorgensen et al. 1998). H9N2 AI was
isolated from ostriches in South Africa in 1995. In
ostriches, AI infection occurs principally through con-
tact with feral birds, for example, in free-range breed-
ing paddocks especially when they are situated on
migratory waterfowl routes (Alexander 2000).
Avian influenza has also been reported in other
ratite species. A recent study by Woolcock et al. (2000)
demonstrated an AI viral infection in the eye of a male
emu chick that exhibited ocular discharge, dyspnea
and mild respiratory signs. Lesions were numerous
including conjunctivitis, tracheitis, bronchopneumo-
nia and airsacculitis. Con-current bacterial infections
included Escherichia coli isolated from the conjunctiva
and sinus, and Staphylococcus sp. isolated from the
conjunctiva.
Borna disease
Borna disease (BD) is a viral neurotropic infection that
affects several species of livestock (Gosztonyi et al.
1993; Berg & Berg 1998). Insect vectors are believed to
transmit Borna disease virus (BDV). The possible
spread of BDV from infected horses, sheep, cattle, cats
and rats to ostriches, necessitates exemplary standards
of paddock construction and strict separation of
livestock.
Borna disease virus has been reported in ostrich
chicks aged 2–8 weeks old, raised under intensive
conditions in Israel (Weisman et al. 1994). A paretic
condition was described in ostrich chicks with incoor-
dination in movements, from which only 1% recov-
ered when undergoing intensive care treatment
(Weisman et al. 1993). Tully and Shane (1996)
describe clinical signs as being initiated by paresis and
general malaise, followed by anorexia and depression.
Death occurs within 4–8 days because of dehydration
(Weisman et al. 1994). Ashash et al. (1996) reported
mortality in ostriches aged up to 3 months over a 5-
year period in which annual mortality percentages of
hatched chicks were 61, 58, 30, 29 and 16.6%, respec-
tively. The most significant cause of death was BDV
related paresis syndrome that accounted for 20, 11, 16,
10.1 and 2% mortality, respectively. The investigations
further demonstrated that brain extracts from para-
lyzed birds given orally or intramuscularly to 5-week-
old birds reproduced clinical signs and microscopic
lesions. The mean time to death was less than 3 weeks
for intramuscularly and twice as long for orally
infected birds.
Prevention of BDV outbreaks in intensive
ostrich-raising facilities requires stress-reduction
92
Viral diseases of the ostrich
management of birds (Huchzermeyer 1997a). The
use of an inactivated viral vaccine is useful for
immunizing parent stock and for providing mater-
nal immunity to progeny. Prophylactic administra-
tion of reconvalescent serum has been reported to
prevent further outbreaks of BDV (Weisman et al.
1993; Ashash et al. 1996). Lewis et al. (1999) reports
immunization of Lewis rats against BDV with recom-
binant vaccina virus that were later infected with
BDV to evaluate protection against BD. By compari-
son with animals that were not vaccinated, immu-
nized animals had a significantly (P < 0.01) reduced
viral burden, more marked inflammation and aggra-
vated clinical disease. Vaccination may also be sup-
plemented with ribavirin, an antiviral agent that at
concentrations of 1–10 mg/mL significantly inhibits
transcription of BDV in persistently infected cells
(Mizutani et al. 1998).
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a viral
disease transmittable from infected ostriches to
humans. The virus is transmitted by ticks particu-
larly of the genus Hyalomma (Huchzermeyer 1997a).
The virus, during multiplication in sheep and cat-
tle, causes a mild and transient febrile reaction.
Humans contract CCHF either directly from a tick
bite or from contact with infected blood, and 30%
of infections are fatal (Swanepoel 1994). Shepherd
et al. 1987) reported a worker in Oudtshoorn, South
Africa infected with CCHF in 1984 following
slaughter of ostriches. The diagnosis was confirmed
following isolation of the virus from the patient’s
serum and demonstration of a specific antibody
response. The infection was described as being
acquired from contact with ostrich blood contain-
ing the virus, or from inadvertently crushing
infected Hyalomma ticks during skinning. The inves-
tigators used a reversed passive hemagglutination
inhibition antibody test to confirm the presence of
CCHF in the sera of 22/92 ostriches from farms in
the Oudtshoorn district. Six out of nine tested
ostriches on the farm where the worker was
employed were infected with CCHF. Of 460 birds of
37 other species tested, CCHF antibodies were not
detected. Pathogenicity studies showed that domes-
tic chickens were refractory to CCHF infection,
although there was viraemia of a low intensity with
a maximum titre 2.5-log10 mouse ic LD50/mL fol-
lowed by a transient antibody response in blue-
helmeted guinea fowl (Numidia meleagris).
Animal Science Journal (2004) 75, 89–95
Avipoxvirus
Avipoxvirus is a viral infection emanating as nodu-
lar cutaneous and diphtheric oral lesions. An infec-
tion of avipoxvirus has been reported in young
ostrich chicks in South Africa and typical eosino-
philic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were seen in
histological sections from which pox virus was iso-
lated (Allwright et al. 1994). The virus may be trans-
mitted by mosquitoes or by direct contact with a pox
lesion (Tully & Shane 1996). Pox has also been diag-
nosed in ostriches in Israel (Perelman et al. 1988).
Foggin (1992) describes the presence of the disease
in chickens in Zimbabwe with symptoms including
the presence of blisters or crusts on the beak, eye-
lids and skin of the head. The cutaneous form of pox
in ostriches is characterized by persistent prolifera-
tive lesions of 0.5–2.0 cm in size on the eyelids,
beak, wings and toes. The diphtheritic form pro-
duces tracheitis, stomatitis and a severe dyspnea in
affected birds (Tully & Shane 1996). Diagnosis of the
virus includes culture and electron microscopy of
swabs from cases of active infection.
Prevention includes strict separation of poultry and
infected chickens away from ostrich farms. Sick
ostriches should be separated and given supportive
therapy including systemic and topical antibiotics to
prevent secondary bacterial infections (Tully & Shane
1996). Fowl pox vaccine may be used to immunize
ostriches if a threat of pox outbreak arises. The vaccine
is administered in the follicle of a pulled feather or by
pinprick. Control of mosquitoes may be useful,
although rapid diagnosis and vaccination are the most
appropriate preventative measures.
CONCLUSION
Ostriches are susceptible to numerous viral diseases.
For some diseases afflicting ostriches, new methods of
control are poorly documented and an attempt was
made to apply methods used in poultry biosecurity to
ostriches. Diseases normally result in significant losses
to producers and in order to maintain a healthy and
profitable enterprise, producers must implement, with
assistance from the local veterinary authority, compre-
hensive, practical and effective methods of health
management and preventative medicine.
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insert Table 1 near here rgcooperuk@yahoo.com
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