Gupta art is the art of the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak

between
about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally
regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North Indian art for all the major religious
groups.[4] Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious
sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the
production of the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the latter often on
a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish,
with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta
territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially
at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not
actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the Vakataka dynasty who ruled
the Deccan c. 250–500.[5] Their region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta
Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were
probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic
style continued to be used across most of northern India until about 550,[6] and arguably around
650.[7] It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over time) many
similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.[8]
In general the style was very consistent across the empire and the other kingdoms where it was
used.[9] The vast majority of surviving works are religious sculpture, mostly in stone with some in
metal or terracotta, and architecture, mostly in stone with some in brick. The Ajanta Caves are
virtually the sole survival from what was evidently a large and sophisticated body of painting,[10] and
the very fine coinage the main survivals in metalwork.
Gupta India produced both textiles and jewellery, which are only known from representations in
sculpture and especially the paintings at Ajanta.[11]

Contents

 1Background
o 1.1Early chronology
 2Sculpture
o 2.1Mathura school
o 2.2Sarnath school
o 2.3Other centres
 3Terracotta sculpture
 4Sculpture in metal
 5Coins and metalwork
o 5.1Coinage
 6Architecture
 7Painting
 8Influences in Southeast Asia
 9Notes
 10References

Background[edit]
Gupta art was preceded by Kushan art, the art of the Kushan Empire in northern India, which
flourished between the 1st and the 4th century CE and blended the tradition of the Greco-Buddhist
art of Gandhara, influenced by Hellenistic artistic canons, and the more Indian art of Mathura.[12] In
Western India, as visible in Devnimori, the Western Satraps (1st-4th century CE) developed a
refined art, representing a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise of Gupta art,
and which may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and
other places from the 5th century onward.[13][14][15] In central India, the art of the Satavahanas had
already created a rich Indian artistic idiom, as visible in Sanchi, which also influenced Gupta art.[15]

One of the earliest dated Gupta statues, a Bodhisattva derived from the Kushan style of Mathura art, inscribed
"year 64" of the Gupta era, 384 CE, Bodh Gaya.[16]

With the conquests of Samudragupta (r.c. 335/350-375 CE) and Chandragupta II (r.c. 380 – c. 415
CE), the Gupta Empire came to incorporate vast portions of central, northern and northwestern
India, as far as the Punjab and the Arabian sea, continuing and expanding on these earlier artistic
traditions and developing a unique Gupta style, rising "to heights of sophistication, elegance and
glory".[17][18][19][20] Unlike some other Indian dynasties before and after them, and with the exception of
the imagery on their coins, the Gupta imperial family did not advertise their relationship to the art
produced under them by inscriptions, let alone portraits that have survived.[21]

Early chronology[edit]
There are a several pieces of statuary from the Gupta period which are inscribed with a date.[22] They
work as a benchmark for the chronology and the evolution of style under the Guptas. These Gupta
statues are dated from the Gupta era (which starts in 318–319 CE), and sometimes mention the
reigning ruler of that time.[22] Besides statuary, coinage is also an important chronological indicator.[23]
Although the Gupta Empire is reckoned to start after King Gupta in the late 3rd century CE, the
earliest known and dated sculptures of Gupta art come relatively late, about a century later, after the
conquest of northwestern India under Samudragupta. Among the earliest is an inscribed
pillar recording the installation of two Shiva Lingas in Mathura in 380 CE under Chandragupta II,
Samudragupta's successor.[24] Another rare example is a statue of a seated Bodhisattva in
the Mathura style with dhoti and shawl on the left shoulder, coming from Bodh Gaya and dated to
"year 64", presumably of the Gupta era, thought to be 384 CE.[16] This type remained a rare
occurrence, as in most of the later Gupta statues the Buddha would be shown with
the samghati monastic robe covering both shoulders.[16]
Coinage too was a relatively late development, also consecutive to Samugragupta's conquest of the
northwest.[25][26][27] The Gupta coinage was initially in imitation of the Kushan types.[28][29][30]
Sculpture[edit]

Vishnu, 5th century, Mathura

Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath
and to a lesser extent Nalanda.[31] The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from
the main centres described below aids identification greatly.[32]
Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major
deities, respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu, who now
features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had preferred Shiva. Minor
figures such as yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and
less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's
previous lives are rare.[33] When scenes include one of the major figures and other less important
ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger. This is also the
case in representations of incidents from the Buddha's life, which earlier had showed all the figures
on the same scale.[34]
The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear,
including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on
either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland".[35] The
main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,[36] as in the paintings at Ajanta.
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style,[37] and there is a "growing likeness of
form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.[6]
The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes"
is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtlely tilted and varied, in
contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures.[38] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear,
jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the
emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.[39] Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm
and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the
unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate higher spiritual states".[6]

Mathura school[edit]
 Main article: Mathura art
The long-established Mathura school continued as one of the main two schools of Gupta Empire art,
joined by the school of Varanasi and nearby Sarnath.[1] Mathura sculpture is characterized by its
usage of mottled red stone from Karri in the district, and its foreign influences, continuing the
traditions of the art of Gandhara and the art of the Kushans.[40]
The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated during the Gupta Empire. The pink
sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period to reach a very high fineness of
execution and delicacy in the modeling, displaying calm and serenity. The style become elegant and
refined, with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage
of pink sandstone.[1] Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls
used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the orante halos around the head of the Buddhas.
The art of the Gupta is often considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art, achieving a beautiful
rendering of the Buddhist ideal.[1]
Gupta art is also characterized by an expansion of the Buddhist pantheon, with a high importance
given to the Buddha himself and to new deities, including Bodhisattvas such as Avalokitesvara or
divinities of Bramanical inspiration, and less focus on the events of the life of the Buddha which were
abundantly illustrated through Jataka stories in the art of Bharhut and Sanchi (2nd–1st centuries
BCE), or in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (1st–4th centuries CE).[41]
The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a reducing
of foreign influences; its style can be seen in Gupta statues to the east in areas as far as Allahabad,
with the Mankuwar Buddha, dated to the reign of Kumaragupta I in 448.[42]
There are a number of "problematical" Buddhist and Jain images from Mathura whose dating is
uncertain; many are dated with a low year number, but which era is being used is unclear. These
may well come from the early Gupta period.[6]
 Lord Buddha in Abhaya Mudra. Kushana-Gupta transitional period. Circa 3rd-4th century, Mathura.[43]

 Standing Buddha, Mathura

 Standing Buddha, inscribed Gupta Era year 115 (434 CE), Mathura.[44]

Head of a Buddha, 6th century.

 

Vishnu statue, 5th century, Mathura.

Sarnath school[edit]

A Gupta statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, 5th century CE. The Buddha is depicted
teaching in the lotus position, while making the Dharmacakra mudrā.[45]

The Varanasi/ Sarnath style produced mainly Buddhist art, and "Sarnath Buddhas are probably the
greatest single achievement of the Indian sculptor", largely setting the representation of the Buddha
that was followed in eastern India and South-East Asia for many centuries, and the general
representation of the human body in India.[46] A number of dated examples show that the mature
style did not develop until 450–475.[47] It is characterized by its yellowish sandstone from the quarries
of Chunar, and lacks the foreign influences seen in Mathura.[41] Folds on clothing have disappeared,
and the clothing itself is extremely thin, to the point of being transparent. The halo has become large
and is often elaborately decorated.[48] The top edge of the eye-socket is very marked, forming a
sharply carved edge.[49]
The Sarnath style was the origin of Buddha images in Siam, Cambodia and Java.[50]
 

The Mankuwar Buddha, with inscribed date "year 129 in the reign of Maharaja Kumaragupta", hence 448
CE.[51] Mankuwar, District of Allahabad. Lucknow Museum.[41][52]

 Buddha, standing, inscribed: "Gift of Abhayamira in 154 GE" (474 CE) in the reign of Kumaragupta
II. Sarnath Museum.[53]

5th century Sarnath statue, Indian Museum.

Buddha head, Sarnath, 5th century

 

Buddha, 450-500

Other centres[edit]
Nalanda

Sultanganj Buddha in bronze, 500–700 CE.[54] Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery.

Gupta sculptural qualities tend to deteriorate with time, as in Nalanda in Bihar in the 6th century
BCE, figures become heavier and tend to be made in metal. This evolution suggests a third school
of Gupta art in the area Nalanda and Pataliputra, besides the two main centres of Mathura and
Vanarasi. The colossal Sultanganj Buddha in bronze from the area of Pataliputra is a uniquely large
survival from this school, but typical in style.[41] In the same monastery two similar but much smaller
(and slightly later) figures in stone were found, one now on display in the British Museum.[55]
Udayagiri Caves/Vidisha
The "first dated sculptures in a fully-fledged early Gupta style" come from the rock-cut Udayagiri
Caves and the surrounding area near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.[56] Though the caves, all but one
Hindu, are "of negligible importance architecturally", around the cave entrances are a number of rock
relief panels, some with large deities. They are in a relatively crude and heavy style, but often with a
powerful impact; Harle describes the mukhalinga in Cave 4 as "pulsating with psychic power". The
most famous is the 7 x 4 metre relief of Vishnu in the form of the giant boar Varaha, raising the earth
from the primordial waters, watched by rows of much smaller gods, sages and celestial beings. One
cave also has an extremely rare inscription relating a site to the Gupta court, recording the donation
of a minister of Candragupta II.[57] The famous Iron pillar of Delhi is thought likely to have been
originally set up outside the caves.

Udayagiri Caves mukhalinga (Cave 4), described as "pulsating with psychic power".[58]

Head of Vishnu from Vidisha near Udayagiri, Central India, 4th century


Vishnu in the form of Varaha, Udayagiri caves, 5th century
Eran

Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

Eran in Madhya Pradesh has a "pillar" or large single column dated 484/5 by an inscription
of Buddhagupta, the only standing Gupta example, with two Garuda figures at the top (illustrated
below). It had two large Varaha figures outside the ruined Gupta temple. The style of the sculpture is
somewhat provincial. Still at the site is a huge and impressive boar on four legs, with no human
characteristics, its body covered with rows of small figures representing the sages who clung to the
hairs of Varaha to save themselves from the waters. Now moved to the university museum
at Sagar is a figure with the same body and pose as that at Udayagiri, "one of the greatest of all
Indian sculptures ... nothing can match the figure's air of insolent triumph". Both are dated to the late
fifth century.[59]
Others
The surviving sanctuary of the early 6th-century Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh has a typically fine
doorway, and large relief panels on the other three walls. These are now external, but would
originally gave given on to the covered ambulatory. Though "majestic", these show "the sturdiness of
early Gupta sculpture is yielding to a softer, more delicate and ultimately weaker style".[60] The row of
men beneath the sleeping Vishnu have "stylized poses, probably imitated from the theatre".[61]
There are also other minor centres of Gupta sculpture, particularly in the areas
of Dasapura and Mandasor, where a huge eight-faced mukhalinga (probably early 6th-century)
found in the river has been reinstalled in the Pashupatinath Temple, Mandsaur.[62]
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara continued a late phase through at least most of the Gupta
period, having also been a formative influence.[56]
Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550.

Very important rock-cut sites outside the Gupta Empire proper, to the south, are the Ajanta
Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in the Gupta period, and the Ellora Caves which
were probably begun around the end of it. As it was mainly restricted to the Gangetic plain, the vast
Gupta territories included relatively few rock-cut sites with much sculpture. The later Ajanta style of
sculpture is somewhat heavy, but sometimes "awe-inspiring" in the large seated shrine Buddhas, but
other smaller figures are often very fine, as is the ornamental carving on columns and door-
frames.[63] When combined with the painted walls, the effect can be considered over-decorated, and
lacking "motifs on a larger scale to serve as focal points". The main internal carving was probably
completed by 478, though votive figures to the sides of many cave entrances may be later. The
Ajanta style is only seen at a few other sites nearby. After work ended there much of the skilled
workforce, or their descendants, probably ended up working at Elephanta and then Ellora.[64]
Unlike the series of caves side by side at Ajanta, the main interest at Elephanta is the largest cave, a
huge Shiva temple, and above all the colossal triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall,
which "because it is so amazingly skilfully placed in relation to the various external entrances ...
receives exactly the amount of light necessary to make it look as if it is emerging from a black void,
manifestation from the unmanifest".[65]

The Eran Varaha, about 5 metres long, later 5th century

 

Vishnu, Central India, 5th century

Shiva mukhalinga, Bhumara Temple, 5th or 6th century, Madhya Pradesh

 Mother Goddess from entrance of a Hindu Temple. Northwestern India, Rajasthan, 5th-6th century

Terracotta sculpture[edit]
There are many sculptures in terracotta of very fine quality, and they are similar in style across the
empire, to an even greater extent than the stone sculpture.[6] Some can still be seen in their original
settings on the brick temple at Bhitargaon, where the large relief panels have almost worn away, but
various heads and figures survive at higher levels.[66] The very elegant pair of river goddesses
excavated from a temple at Ahichchhatra are 1.47 metres high. Buddhist sites such
as Devnimori in Gujarat and Mirpur Khas in Sind have yielded numbers both of fine terracotta
Buddhas and architectural ornament such as friezes.[67]
 

Terracotta Buddha head, Devnimori, Gujarat, 375-400

Terracotta Ganges and attendant; 1.47 metres, from Ahichchhatra, now National Museum, New Delhi

 Terracotta of Krishna battling the horse demon Keshi, 5th century

Terracotta head of Parvati, National Museum, New Delhi

Sculpture in metal[edit]
The over life-size copper Sultanganj Buddha is "the only remaining metal statue of any size" from the
Gupta period, out of what was at the time probably approximately as numerous a type as stone
or stucco statues.[68] The metal Brahma from Mirpur-Khas is older, but about half the size.
The Jain Akota bronzes and some other finds are much smaller still, probably figures for shrines in
well-off homes.[69]
The style of the Sultanganj figure, made by lost-wax casting, is comparable to slightly earlier stone
Buddha figures from Sarnath in "the smoothly rounded attenuation of body and limbs" and the very
thin, clinging body garment, indicated in the lightest of ways. The figure has "a feeling of animation
imparted by the unbalanced stance and the movement suggested by the sweeping silhouette of the
enveloping robe".[68]

Coins and metalwork[edit]

Silver plate with a festival scene

Survivals of decorated secular metalwork are very rare,[70] but a silver plate in the Cleveland Museum
of Art shows a crowded festival scene in rather worn relief.[71] There is also a highly decorated object
in bronzed iron that is thought to be a weight for an architect's "plummet" or measuring line, now in
the British Museum.[72]
The gold coinage of the Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in
Sanskrit, are regarded as the finest coins in a purely Indian style.[73] The Gupta Empire produced
large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver
coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.[74]

Coinage[edit]
Gupta coinage only started with the reign of Samudragupta (335/350-375 CE), or possibly at the end
of the reign of his father Chandragupta I, for whom only one coin type in his name is known
("Chandragupta I and his queen"), probably a commemorative issue minted by his son.[75][26][27][76] The
coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting
its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the
northwest.[26][27][77] The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara for their coinage,
which ultimately came from the Roman name Denarius aureus.[78][79][80] The imagery on Gupta coins
was initially derived from Kushan types, but the features soon became more Indian in both style and
subject matter compared to earlier dynasties, where Greco-Roman and Persian styles were mostly
followed.[81][82][83]
The usual layout is an obverse with a portrait of the king that is normally full-length, whether
standing, seated or riding a horse, and on the reverse a goddess, most often seated on a throne.
Often the king is sacrificing. The choice of images can have political meaning, referring to conquests
and local tastes; the types often vary between parts of the empire.[84]
Types showing the king hunting and killing various animals: lions (the "lion-slayer" type), tigers and
rhinoceros very likely refer to new conquests in the areas where those animals were still found. They
may also reflect influence from Sassanian silverware from Persia.[85] The king standing and holding a
bow to one side (the "archer" type) was used by at least eight kings; it may have been intended to
associate the king with Rama. Profile heads of the king are used on some silver coins for Western
provinces added to the empire.[86]
Some gold coins commemorate the Vedic Ashvamedha horse sacrifice ritual, which the Gupta kings
practiced; these have the sacrificial horse on the obverse and the queen on the
reverse.[87] Samudragupta is shown playing a string instrument, wearing huge earrings, but only a
simple dhoti. The only type produced under Chandragupta I shows him and his queen standing side
by side. The bird Garuda, bearer of Vishnu, is used as a symbol of the dynasty on many silver
coins.[88] Some of these were in the past misidentified as fire altars.[89]
The silver coinage of the Guptas was made in imitation of the coinage of the Western
Satraps following their overthrow by Chandragupta II, inserting the Gupta peacock symbol on the
reverse but retaining traces of the Greek legend and the ruler's portrait on the
obverse.[90][91] Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and
the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types.[73] The copper coinage was mostly
confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types
known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the king on it. The
gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver
money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory.[73]

Chandragupta I and his queen

Samudragupta (left) playing a musical instrument; Goddess, right, c 335-380


Samudragupta coin with Ashvamedha horse standing in front of a yūpa sacrificial post, with legend "The
King of Kings, who had performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, wins heaven after conquering the
earth".[92][93]

The queen, reverse of last, is holding a chowrie for the fanning of the horse and a needle-like pointed
instrument, with legend "One powerful enough to perform the Ashvamedha sacrifice". [92][93]

Chandragupta II on horse


Archer type of Chandragupta II

Reverse of last; goddess seated on a lotus

Kumaragupta I lion hunting on an elephant,

Silver head of Skandagupta, peacock on reverse, 455-467

 

Silver head of Budhagupta, peacock on reverse, 476-495

Architecture[edit]

Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, a 6th-century Vishnu temple, originally with a mandapa and
covered ambulatory.

For reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta period represented a hiatus
in Indian rock-cut architecture, with the first wave of construction finishing before the empire was
assembled, and the second wave beginning in the late 5th century, just as it was ending. This is the
case, for example, at the Ajanta Caves, with an early group made by 220 CE at the latest, and a
later one probably all after about 460.[94] Instead, the period has left almost the first surviving free-
standing structures in India, in particular the beginnings of Hindu temple architecture. As Milo
Beach puts it: "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the medieval world in a passion
for housing precious objects in stylized architectural frameworks",[95] the "precious objects" being
primarily the icons of gods.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta,
and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under
other dynasties in Central India, and in the case of Ellora after the Gupta period, but primarily reflect
the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals
of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a
long development, mainly in painting palaces.[96] The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record
connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[97] and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major
temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture, although it has lost its mandapa and
covered ambulatory for parikrama.[98]
Examples of early North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after the Udayagiri
Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early 5th century),[99] Sanchi Temple 17 (similar,
but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465),[100] Bhitargaon, the
largest Gupta brick temple to survive,[101] and Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE). Gop
Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator.[102]
There are a number of different broad models, which would continue to be the case for more than a
century after the Gupta period, but temples such as Tigawa and Sanch