UNIT I--FLUID POWER SYSTEMS AND FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction to Fluid Power:

Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of
forces and movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids
in a confined system. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids.
Fluid power system includes a hydraulic system (hydra meaning water in Greek) and a
pneumatic system (pneuma meaning air in Greek). Oil hydraulic employs pressurized
liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and pneumatic employs compressed air that is
released to the atmosphere after performing the work.

Advantages of Fluid Power:

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately: Fluid
power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using fluid power,
we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large forces/components with great
accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For example, in Earth-moving equipment, bucket
carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator using a lever. The landing gear of an aircraft
can be retrieved to home position by the push button.
2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a fraction
of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and
control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The fluid power
controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a complete control
of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation machine or a group of machines.
Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill industry.
4. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large
amount of torque while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors can even
maintain torque at a very slow speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.
6. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or elimination
of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use of fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio compared
to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of vital
importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in mining
and manufacture of delicate products. For example, hydraulic systems are responsible for the
safety of takeoff, landing and flight of aero planes and space craft. Rapid advances in mining and
tunneling are the results of the application of modern hydraulic and pneumatic systems.

Applications of Fluid Power System:

Agriculture Tractors; farm equipment such as mowers, ploughs,

chemical and water sprayers, fertilizer spreaders, harvesters
Automation Automated transfer lines, robotics
Automobiles Power steering, power brakes, suspension systems,
hydrostatic transmission
Aviation Fluid power equipment such as landing wheels in aircraft.
Helicopters, aircraft trolleys, aircraft test beds, luggage
loading and unloading systems, ailerons, aircraft servicing,
flight simulators
Construction For metering and mixing of concrete rudders, excavators,
industry/equipment lifts, bucket loaders, crawlers, post-hole diggers, road
graders, road cleaners, road maintenance vehicles, tippers
Defense Missile-launching systems, navigation controls
Entertainment Amusement park entertainment rides such as roller coasters
Fabrication industry Hand tools such as pneumatic drills, grinders, borers,
riveting machines, nut runners
Food and beverage All types of food processing equipment, wrapping, bottling,
Foundry Full and semi-automatic molding machines, tilting of
furnaces, die-casting machines
Glass industry Vacuum suction cups for handling
Hazardous gaseous Hydraulic fracturing technologies: It involves pumping
areas large volumes of water and sand into a well at high pressure
to fracture shale and other tight formations, allowing
hazardous oil and gas to flow into the well. However,
hydraulic fracturing has serious environmental and water
pollution related issues.
Instrumentation Used to create/operate complex instruments in space
rockets, gas turbines, nuclear power plants, industrial labs
Jigs and fixtures Work holding devices, clamps, stoppers, indexers
Machine tools Automated machine tools, numerically controlled(NC)
 machine tools
Materials handling Jacks, hoists, cranes, forklifts, conveyor systems
Medical Medical equipment such as breathing assistors, heart assist
devices, cardiac compression machines, dental drives and
human patient simulator
Movies Special-effect equipment use fluid power; movies such as
Jurassic park, Jaws, Anaconda, Titanic
Mining Rock drills, excavating equipment, ore conveyors, loaders
Newspapers and Edge trimming, stapling, pressing, bundle wrapping
periodicals
Oil industry Off-shore oil rigs
Paper and packaging Process control systems, special-purpose machines for
rolling and packing
Pharmaceuticals Process control systems such as bottle filling, tablet
placement, packaging
Plastic industry Automatic injection molding machines, raw material
feeding, jaw closing, movement of slides of blow molder
Types of Fluid Power Systems:

The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:

1. Based on the control system
Open loop System: There is no feedback in the open-system and the performance is based on
the characteristics of individual components of the system. The open loop system is not accurate
and error can be reduced by proper calibration and control.

Closed-loop system: This system uses feedback. The output of the system is fed back to a
comparator by a measuring element. The comparator compares the actual output to the desired
output and gives an error signal to the control element. The error is used to change the actual
output and bring it closer to the desired value. A simple closed-loop system uses servo valves
and an advanced system uses digital electronics.
2. Based on the type of control
Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air. The system
employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc. Two types
of fluid logic systems are available:
(a) Moving part logic (MPL): These devices are miniature fluid elements using moving parts
such as diaphragms, disks and poppet’s to implement various logic gates.
(b) Fluidics: Fluid devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on interacting fluid jets to
implement various logic gates.
Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four basic electrical
devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays, timers and solenoids.
These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing, speed, positioning, timing and
reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors. Electrical control and fluid power work well
together where remote control is essential.
Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices. The electronic
brain is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This system uses the most
advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable logic control (PLC) or
microprocessor (P). In the electrical control, a change in system operation results in a cumbersome
process of redoing hardware connections. The difficulty is overcome by programmable electronic
control. The program can be modified or a new program can be fed to meet the change of
operations. A number of such programs can be stored in these devices, which makes the systems
more flexible.
Properties of Hydraulic Fluids:
i) Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the fluid’s internal resistance offered to flow. If the viscosity of the
hydraulic oil is higher than recommended, the system will be affected in the following manner,
a. Viscous oil may not be able to pass through the pipes.
b. The working temperature will increase because there will be internal friction.
c. The Power consumption will increase.
If the viscosity of the oil is lesser than recommended then,
a. The internal and external leakage will increase.
b. It cannot lubricate properly and will lead to rapid wear of the moving parts.
 The viscosity is expressed in Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU). It is the number of seconds
required for 60ml of oil to flow by its own gravity through a standard orifice under a standing
falling head at a given temperature.
The majority of the systems operate more efficiently within the ranges; 135-165 SSU.
ii) Viscosity Index
The rate of change of viscosity with temperature is indicated on an arbitrary scale called
viscosity index. Viscosity index is computed by comparing the change of viscosity of the oil
between the temperature 38oC and 100oC, with the two reference oil having a viscosity index of
0 and 100 respectively.
iii) Oxidation Stability
The most important property of hydraulic oil is its oxidation stability. Oxidation is caused
by a chemical reaction between the oxygen of the dissolved air and the oil. The oxidation
of oil creates impurities like sludge, insoluble gum and soluble acidic products.
The soluble acidic products cause corrosion and insoluble products make the operation
sluggish.
iv) Demulsibility
The ability of a hydraulic fluid to separate rapidly from moisture and successfully resist
emulsification is known as “Demulsibility”. If oil emulsifies with water, the emulsion
will promote the destruction of lubricating valve and sealant properties. Highly refined
oils are basically water resistant in nature.
v) Lubricity
Wear results in increased clearance which leads to all sorts of operational difficulties
including fall of efficiency. At the time of selecting hydraulic oil, care must be taken to
select one which will be able to lubricate the moving parts efficiently.
vi) Rust Prevention
The moisture entering into the hydraulic system with air causes the parts made ferrous
materials to rust. The rust if passed through the precision made pumps and valves may
scratch the nicely polished surfaces. So, inorder to avoid that “inhibitors” are added to
the oil to keep the moisture away from the surface.
vii) Pour Point
 The temperature at which oil will congeal is referred to as the pour point, i.e the lowest
temperature at which the oil is able to flow easily. It is of great importance in cold
countries where the systems are exposed to very low temperatures.
viii) Flash Point and Fire Point
Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to
ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. The minimum temperature at which
the hydraulic fluid will catch fire and continue burning is called the fire point.

ix) Neutralization Number

The neutralization number is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a hydraulic fluid.
This is referred to as the pH value of the fluid. High acidity causes the oxidation rate in
an oil to increase rapidly.
A satisfactory hydraulic fluid must have the following properties,
Chemical stability
Freedom from acidity
Lubricating properties
Satisfactory viscosity and viscosity index
Minimum pour point
Maximum flash point
Minimum toxicity

GENERAL TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Water Petroleum Water Water oil Phosphate Silicones

oil Glycol emulsion esters

Hydraulic fluids are classified into two major types, they are a) Petroleum based oils b) Non-
Petroleum based oils
Petroleum based oils: Aromatics, Wax, olefins, Paraffins
Non-Petroleum based oils: Water, emulsion, glycol, water glycol, phosphate ester, silicate ester,
castor oils.
Water:
Water is the least expensive among the all hydraulic fluids. Water should be treated with
chemicals before being used in the fluid power system, to avoid the contaminations and
foreign particles which affect the efficiency of the fluid power systems.
Advantages: Excellent lubricity, and Non-Corrosive
Disadvantage: Non-Fire Resistant
Petroleum Oils:
Petroleum oils are most commonly used in all fluid power systems, the characteristics of
petroleum based oils are controlled by the type of crude oil used (Naphthenic, aromatic,
or paraffinic). Naphthenic oils have low viscosity index so it is unsuitable where the oil
temperatures vary too widely. Paraffin oils have high viscosity index and they are more
suitable for systems where the temperatures varies greatly.
Advantages: Inexpensive and compatibility
Disadvantage: Poor Corrosion resistance

FLUIDPOWER SYMBOLS:
BASICSOFHYDRAULICS

PASCAL’SLAW

Pascal’s law reveals the basic principle of how fluid power systems perform useful work. This
law can be stated as follows: “Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid and acts perpendicular to the surfaces
in contact with the fluid”.

For Example:

The pressure at the bottom of the jug is equal to the externally applied pressure on the top of the
fluid plus the static fluid pressure from the weight of the liquid.

APPLICATIONSOFPASCAL’SLAW:

a) Hydraulic lift:
b) Hydraulic Press:

c) Hydraulic Brake:
LAMINAR ANDTURBULENT FLOW:

The Laminar flow which is characterized by the fluid flowing in smooth layers or
laminae. In this type of flow, a particle of flow in a given layer stays in that layer, as shown
in the below fig. This type of flow is called streamline flow because all the particles
of fluid are moving in parallel paths. Therefore laminar flow is smooth with essentially no
collision of particles. For, laminar flow, the friction is caused by the sliding of one layer or
particle of fluid over another in a smooth continuous fashion.
If the velocity of flow reaches a high enough value, the flow ceases to be laminar and
becomes turbulent. In turbulent flow the movement of particles becomes random and
fluctuates up and down in the direction perpendicular as well as parallel to the mean flow
direction. The mixing action generates turbulence due to the colliding fluid particles. This
cause considerably more resistance to flow and thus greater energy losses that that
produced by laminar flow.

REYNOLD’S NUMBER:

Reynolds’s Number = Density of the fluid X Velocity of the fluid X Diameter of a pipe

Viscosity of the fluid

= ρ V D/ μ = VD/υ
where:

V is the mean fluid velocity (SI units: m/s)

D is the diameter (m)

μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m²)

 ν is the kinematic viscosity (ν = μ / ρ) (m²/s)

ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m³)

Q is the volumetric flow rate (m³/s)

A is the pipe cross-sectional area (m²).

< 2000 : Laminar

2000 – 4000 : unpredictable

> 4000 : Turbulence { more resistance to flow, energy loss, increased fluid temperature}

DARCY’SEQUATION

Friction is the main cause of energy losses in fluid power systems. The energy loss due to
friction is transferred to heat, which is given off to the surrounding air. The result is a loss
of potential energy in the system and this is considered as loss in pressure or head. The
head loss (HL) in a system actually consists of two components,
1. Losses in pipes
2. Losses in valves and fittings

Head losses in pipes can be found by using Darcy’s equation:

HL= f (L/D)(V2/2g)
f = friction factor (dimensionless)

L= length of pipe (m)

D= pipe inside diameter (m)

υ= average fluid velocity (m/s)

g= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

FRICTIONALLOSSESINLAMINAR FLOW

Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes experiencing laminar flow by noting
that for laminar flow the friction factor equals constant 64 divided by the Reynolds number.

f= 64/Re
HL= (64/Re) (L/D)(V2/2g)
FRICTIONALLOSSESINTURBELENT FLOW

Due to random and fluctuating movement of fluid particles, the friction factor for
turbulent flow cannot be represented in simple formula as in case of laminar flow. For
turbulent flow, experiments have shown that the friction factor is a function of not only
the Reynolds’s number but also the relative roughness of the pipe.
The relative roughness is defined as the pipe inside surface roughness (ε) divided by the
diameter (D), which can be determined with the help of moody’s diagram.
Relative Roughness = ε / D

Fig.Moody’s Diagram

LOSSESINVALVESANDFITTINGS

In addition to losses due to friction in pipes, there also energy losses in valves and fittings
such as tees, elbows, and bends. For many fluid power applications, the majority of energy
losses occur in these valves and fittings where there is a change in the cross section
of the flow path and change in the direction of flow.
 Fig. Valves and Fittings
Experiments have shown that head losses in valves and fittings are proportional to the
square of the velocity of the fluid.

HL= K(V2/2g)
The constant of proportionality (K) is called the K factor (also called loss coefficient) of the
valve or fitting. The table given below shows typical K-factor values for several common types
of valves and fittings.

VALVE OR FITTING K FACTOR

Globe valve: WIDE OPEN 10.0
½ OPEN 12.5
Globe valve: WIDE OPEN 0.19
3/4 OPEN 0.90
½ OPEN 4.5
¼ OPEN 24.0
RETURN BEND 2.2
STANDARD TEE 1.8
STANDARD ELBOW 0.9
45O ELBOW 0.42
90O ELBOW 0.75
BALL CHECK VALVE 4.0