Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains the related literature, related studies, synthesis-of-

the-art, gap bridge of the study, theoretical framework, conceptual
framework, and the definition of terms. The following sources were taken
from the library, internet, newspaper, pamphlets, and in different book
references.

Related Literature

Increasing electrical energy demand, modern lifestyles and energy usage

patterns have made the world fully dependant on power systems. This
instigated mandatory requirements for the operators to maintain high
reliability and stability of the power system grid. However, the power
system is a highly nonlinear system, which changes its operations
continuously. Therefore, it is very challenging and uneconomical to make
the system be stable for all disturbances. The system is usually designed to
handle a single outage at a time. However, during the last decade several
major blackouts were reported and all of them started with single outages.
Each major blackout was mandatorily and transparently reported to the
public.

The properly written blackout reports help to minimize the operational

risk, by strengthening the system and its operations based on selected high
risk contingencies. In the last decade, several major blackouts were reported
separately in many research papers. This paper lists a good collection of
properly reported literatures on power system stability and reliability
including history of blackouts. Some critical comments on root causes,
lessons learnt from the blackouts and solutions are addressed while briefly
discussing the blackout events presented in published literatures.
 Blackouts in a power system can occur in several ways. How to prevent a
blackout is an important issue in power systems. The reasons to cause
blackouts can be the overloading of transmission lines, ice coating on lines,
failure of protection or control systems, and others. Blackout can be
prevented through appropriate control strategies in a system to prevent from
an N-1 contingency, maintain load-generation balance, and cascade to more
fault contingencies. This work reviews blackouts from different countries by
considering their causes and solutions, as well as the discussion thoughts
from many researchers. The survey can provide significant references to
improve the grid protection strategies.

Almost all business continuity planning addresses the IT element of

business services, but without a strategy for dealing with all aspects of a
business during and after a power failure, the overall planning may be
resting on a very shaky foundation. To build a strong and realistic plan,
consider these three steps: First, understand and document the potential
causes of failure including the technical reasons; second define which
systems and processes need to remain in operation in order to limit losses
and protect production, reputation and/ or life accordingly; and third develop
and rehearse a plan.

In prioritizing the aspects of business or services that need to keep

operating in an emergency situation remember that there may be an occasion
when a complete loss of power is not preceded by some hint of what is about
to happen, meaning that planning should accommodate the worst of
circumstances. Also, in assessing risk, think about what happens after the
initial event; sometimes a disaster is started by a relatively minor incident.
There can be uncontrolled collateral damage when an incident spirals out of
control to have a wider impact on things such as business reputation, liability
and customer satisfaction.
 Causes of Power Outage, A power outage or blackout is defined as power
interruption during which a customer has lost access to electricity grid. It is
measured in duration of time. In United States, the time for such an
interruption of power is less than 5 minutes. In United Kingdom, this
interruption is defined as more than 3 minutes and in Sweden it is 1 minute.
A large power outage is normally referred to as a blackout affecting more
than 1 million people. A recent example of large power outages include two
severe blackouts in India in Jul. 30 and 31, 2012, where more than 670
million people, half of India population spread across 22 states in Northern,
Eastern and Northeast India were affected. The power outage took off an
estimated 32 GW of electricity.

Either types of natural disaster could damage many electric power

system components, causing widespread outages or power shortages over a
short duration or a longer period of time. The damages leading to longer
time outages can happen only if significant components of generation and
transmission are damaged. The most probable causes of such damage are
hurricanes or strong earthquakes which affect distribution systems much
more than generation and transmission.

In the Philippines, one would have to get used to brownouts, or the drop
in voltage in an electrical power supply system. Whether or not it is
intentional, these outages have wide-ranging effects on the economy:
households would experience no electricity for a few minutes or even for
hours, causing great inconvenience; businesses would incur higher costs by
way of lost revenue and reduced productivity; and investors would be
hesitant to do business, leading to reduced investments.The Luzon grid has
had episodes of “yellow” alerts since March due to high electricity demand
outstripping supply as well as unscheduled outages of power plants.

The first yellow alert, which occurred on March 5, saw peak demand for
the day reaching 9,491 megawatts (MW) against the grid’s available
capacity of 10,115 MW with an operating margin at just 624 MW — falling
short of the required contingency reserve of 647 MW.Thinning reserves
reached a low when the National Grid Corporation of the Philippines
(NGCP) declared on April 10 its first “red” alert notice as power demand in
Luzon outstripped reserves following unscheduled outages.NGCP, which is
the private firm that operates, maintains, and develops the country’s
transmission network, issues these alerts whenever energy reserves are
inadequate.

The grid operator has several levels of reserve energy that it uses to
stabilize the fluctuating power demanded from the electricity grid.One, there
is a “regulating” reserve, which is the standard operating requirement to
maintain a balance between available capacity and system demand. This is
ideally equivalent to around four percent of peak demand.

Related studies

(Ward,2008) stated that, We use a dynamic inoperability input–output

model (DIIM) to assess the direct, indirect, and induced impacts of power
supply interruptions on different sectors of the economy. Input–output
models are effective tools for investigating the spread of failure and recovery
in a system of interdependent infrastructures

(Professor Byrd,2014) said: "Electricity fuels our existence. It powers

water purification, waste, food, transportation and communication systems.
Modern social life is impossible to imagine without it, and whereas cities of
the past relied on man-power, today we are almost completely reliant on a
series of interlocking technical systems. Our research therefore explores
what happens when the power goes off, and explains why the security of
fuel supply is such a pressing social problem."

(Professor Byrd,2014) Electrical power has been defined as a 'critical, in

that it is a 'large-scale human-built system that supplies continual services
central to society's functioning'. However, electricity supply is less robust
than commonly supposed.
 Ogden and Claus (1997) discussed the “burgeoning service learning
movement” of the 1990s and relay the importance of reflection among
student participants to avert relegating service learning projects to a mere
“superficial addition” to the school curriculum (p. 72). The authors relay,the
experiential education and service learning literature makes clear that
reflection is the central way in which we process experience into learning.
Reflection contributes to understanding and generalization, and it becomes
the cornerstone to developing a more thoughtful and intentional pursuit of
future action.

Yancey (1998) relayed that many teachers see reflection activities as

student self-evaluation and that many students are reticent to participate in
self-assessment because they “see that kind of judgment as belonging to the
teacher” (p. 13). However, the same study is clear to assert that to transition
students from external to intrinsic motivation to succeed, reflection must be
integrated and embraced within the classroom. Therefore, while reflection
does not need to take the place of a teacher’s assessment, it can be infused as
part of an activity to enhance student performance because, if students are
“makers of meaning,” their own thoughts and interpretation of their work
and its overall impact “have to be part of the mix” (Yancey, 1998, p. 17). All
in all, the most compelling issue related to prior research in the use of
reflective thinking is its inherent power to enhance outcomes—particularly
in combination or support of metacognition and/or critical thinking (Ford &
Yore, 2012). From professional fields outside of education, to teachers, to
students, the power of reflection is evident; however, its integration into the
curriculum must be intentional and well planned to have maximum effect.

Billinton (2001) and more recently Electricity Reliability Council of

Texas (ERCOT, 2013) reviewed studies from different regions worldwide.
ERCOT concluded, however, that the findings across regions are limited by
lack of comparability.Nooij et al. (2007)identified two decision-making
applications for interruption-cost values: first, to make socially optimal
investment decisions, and second, to decide which customers should be cut
off in times of electricity supply shortages. COUE values have been applied
in transmission planning and investment in Australia (Hicklin, 2010),
Canada (Bhava ...
 International researchers have developed several approaches to
determining the cost of interrupted electrical power service. Primary
amongst these are the production-function and customer surveys (Nooij et
al., 2007). ...

As a result, the production approach is often used because it does not

account for time dependence. Interruption impact studies using the
production function method have been conducted in the Netherlands (Nooij
et al., 2007), Ireland (Leahy and Tol, 2010), Germany (Praktiknjo et al.,
2011), and Spain (Linares and Rey, 2013). ...

Synthesis of the State of the Art

This review of related studies provided the researcher with the needed
knowledge and background of the subject under the study. It also guided the
researcher on how to proceed with the analysis and to show the differences
and similarities of the previous researches to the present.

Several researchers related to this conflicts are the studies of

Bilinton,Ward, Prodessor Byrd, Praktiknio and Noojia all included conflict
that the respondents encountered.Their Studies revealed the most common
problems when power interruption is being encountered by the students,
businessman and other people.Thei study help us to have knowledge about
power interruptions.

Odgen and Claus discussed the learning movement of the 1990’s they also
categorize understanding and generalization .
Gap Bridged by the Study

The related literature and studies focused on determining

the electric or power outages and focused in report of past
power outages.The present study makes it unique because it
focuses to the power interruption that was encountered of the
students and their feedback about this emergency power
outages.

On our research we focuses in MORMS and the effects of

power outages in their academic studies and how they react in
environment when power interruption comes.

Theoretical Framework

Recovery Rate Theory and Energy Balance Theory

Recovery theory, The rate at which the dielectric strength get recovered
and then it is compared with the rate at which the restriking the voltage
across the contacts rises.If the rate of rising of re-striking voltage is rapid
than the dielectric strength then the space breaks down and arc persists.Since
arc consist of column of ionized gases. So to extinguish the arc the ions and
the electrons are required to be removed from the gap immediately after the
current reaches to zero. It can be removed by recombining the ions and
electrons with neutral molecules or by using the insulating medium in gap it
can be swept away when the ions are removed from the gap with a rate faster
than the rate of ionization then the arc get interrupted.

Energy balance theory, Immediately after current zero the space between
the contacts contains some ionized gas due to which it has a finite part zero
resistance, at this moment power is equal to zero because re-striking voltage
is equal to zero. The power again becomes zero when the arc is finally
extinguished then the gap is demonized and resistance becomes infinitely
high between these the first power increase having the maximum value then
decreases and lastly reaches to zero.
 Recovering and Re striking voltage,When the arc persist the voltage
across the contacts in a circuit breaker it is known as arc voltage, as soon as
the arc is extinguished the voltage becomes system voltage and this arc
basically extinguished at a current zero. When this arc is extinguished the
breaker terminal voltage does not normalized initially but oscillates creating
a transient condition, this transient voltage is known as resting voltage.
When this transient oscillation die out after the arc is finally extinguished the
power frequency rms voltage is created across the breaker contacts known as
recovery voltage.

Conceptual Framework

This framework gave a thorough discussion of the concepts

found in the study. This endeavour studied the Power
Restoration in Guinobatan. The main purposed of this study
was to determine the conflicts affecting the customer by the
power interruption. It shown that the main subjects of this
study were the students making their activity in school.

The researcher tried to find out the effects of power

interruption in students ,professor or the customers. It helped
the researcher to find out the causes of the power interruption
in the study. Furthermore, this research showed the factors
that causes and who is the responsibility of the power
interruption; together with the strategies employed by the
students in resolving their problem in the power interruption .

The statement of the problem was shown in the conceptual

paradigm. These variables served as the key point towards the
formation of the structure of the study. This concept is
presented in Figure 2.
Definition of Terms

To further understand the study, the following terms are

defined operationally and or conceptual.

Admin Staff

The one who assist students. In this study it refers the

interpersonal conflicts experienced by the students with them.

Conflict

A disagreement or clash between ideas. In this study it

refers to state of misunderstanding between and among every
individual.

Other students

Are students in other blocks and year level the studying in

school that we having a conflict with them. In this study, it
refers to the students who make an interpersonal conflict to
other students.

Strategy

A method or plan chosen to bring about a desired future,

such as achievement of a goal or solution to a problem. In
this, it refers to a different specific solutions by applying and
to solve a certain conflicts experienced by stud ents with other
students, with admin staff, and with professors .

Power Outage

Is a short -or long-term state of electric power loss in a

given area or section of a power grid. It could affect a single
house, building or an entire city, depending on the extent of
the damage or cause of the outage. A power outage is also
known as power interruption, power failure, power blackout or
simply blackout.

Resolve

To cause (a person) to reach a decision. In this study, it

refers to the action and decisions to solve the certain power
interruptions experienced by the students.