Moving Iron Instrument

Moving iron type instruments are of mainly two types. Attraction type and
repulsion type instrument.
Working Principle:
Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be attracted by the
magnet. The force of this attraction depends upon the strength of magnetic field.
Construction of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
A thin disc of soft iron is eccentrically pivoted in front of a coil. This iron tends
to move inward that is from weaker magnetic field to stronger magnetic field
when current flowing through the coil. In attraction moving instrument gravity
control is used to provide the controlling torque. By adjusting balance weight null
deflection of the pointer is achieved. The required damping force is provided in
this instrument by air friction. The figure shows a typical type of damping system
provided in the instrument, where damping is achieved by a moving piston in an
air friction damping.
Working:
Suppose when there is no current through the coil, the pointer is at zero. Now due
to current I flowing in the coils a corresponding magnetic field is produced, and
the iron piece is deflected to an angle θ.
The Deflection produced is proportional to the product of current through the coil
and the flux.
But flux is also proportional to the current in the coil
And hence
TD α I2
As the Deflection torque remains +ve for whatever is the direction of current, So
this Instrument can be used to measure DC as well as AC.

Advantages of Moving iron type instruments

1. Less expensive
2. Can be used for both dc and ac
3. Reasonably accurate

Disadvantages of Moving iron type instruments

1. They can be used only in vertical position if gravity control is used.
2. Non uniform scale.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument or PMMC

Working Principle:
A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force which
is proportional to the product of Magnetic field flux and current in the conductor.

Construction:
 Stationary Part or Magnet System: It consist of permanent magnets of high
field intensities to create an area of uniform magnetic field. The magnets are
made up of materials like alcomax and alnico which provide high field
strength.
 Moving Coil: The moving coil can freely moves between the two permanent
magnets as shown in the figure given below. The coil is wound with many
turns of copper wire and is placed on rectangular aluminium core which is
pivoted on jeweled bearings.
 Control System: A spring generally acts as control system for PMMC
instruments to produce controlling torque. The spring also serves another
important function by providing the path to lead current in and out of the coil.
 Damping System: The damping force hence torque is provided by eddy
current damping method which are induced in the aluminium core when it
moves in the magnetic field created by the permanent magnets.
The deflecting torque is given by the expression:

Td = NBldI
where N is number of turns,
B is magnetic flux density in air gap,
l is the length of moving coil,
d is the width of the moving coil,
And I is the electric current.

As N, B, l and d are constant. So deflecting torque is proportional to current,

mathematically
Td = GI.

At final reading both the controlling and deflecting torques are equal.
Tc is controlling torque, on equating controlling torque with deflection torque we
have

GI = K.θ
where θ is deflection

Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current therefore we have a

uniform scale on the meter for measurement of current.

Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments

1. The scale is uniformly divided as the current is directly proportional to
deflection of the pointer. Hence it is very easy to measure quantities from
these instruments.
2. Power consumption is also very low in these types of instruments.
3. Higher value of torque is to weight ratio.
4. These are having multiple advantages, a single instrument can be used for
measuring various quantities by using different values of shunts and
multipliers.
Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
1. These instruments cannot measure ac quantities.
2. Cost of these instruments is high as compared to moving iron instruments.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

Some more diagrams for better understanding

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER

Principle of Working:-
When any current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force and due this mechanical force deflection of
conductor takes place.
Construction
There are two types of coils present in the electrodynamometer. Moving coil and
Fixed coil.
 Moving Coil Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring control
instrument. A limited amount of current flows through the moving coil so
as to avoid heating. So in order to limit the current we have connect the
high value resistor in series with the moving coil. The moving is air cored
and is mounted on a pivoted spindle and can moves freely. In
electrodynamometer type wattmeter, moving coil works as pressure
coil. Hence moving coil is connected across the voltage and thus the current
flowing through this coil is always proportional to the voltage. So the flux
produced by them is proportional to the applied voltage.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

  Fixed Coil The fixed coil is divided into two equal parts and these are
connected in series with the load, therefore the load current will flow
through these coils, so the flux produced by them is proportional to the load
current. These coils are called the current coils.
 Control System Out of two controlling systems i.e.
o Gravity control
o Spring control, only spring controlled systems are used in these
types of wattmeter. Gravity controlled system cannot be employed
because they will appreciable amount of errors.
 Damping System Air friction damping is used, as eddy current damping
will distort the weak operating magnetic field and thus it may leads to error.

Expression for Deflecting Torque:

For DC circuits
TD α ØI . ØV
But ØI α I and ØV α V

So TD α I.V= power consumed into the load

And for AC circuits

TD (Instantaneous) α ØI (instantaneous) . ØV(instantaneous)
TD (Instantaneous) α I (instantaneous) . V(instantaneous)
so the average torque over a cycle is given by

TD(average) = ∫ TD (Instantaneous) .dt

= ∫ Vm Sin ωt .Im Sin(ωt-Ø) .dt
= Vrms .Irms. CosØ = Active power consumed into the ac circuit.

Advantages of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter

1. Scale is uniform up to certain limit.

2. They can be used for both to measure ac as well dc quantities as scale is
calibrated for both.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METERS

Construction of Induction Type Energy Meters

There are four main parts of the operating mechanism

(i) Driving system

(ii) Moving system
(iii) Braking system
(iv) Registering system

Driving system

• The driving system of the meter consists of two electro-magnets.

• The core of these electromagnets is made up of silicon steel laminations.
• The load current excites the coil of one of the electromagnets. This coil is called
the current coil.
• The coil of second electromagnet is connected across the supply and, therefore,
carries a current proportional to the supply voltage. This coil is called the pressure
coil.
• Consequently the two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets
respectively.
• Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb.
• The position of these bands is adjustable.
• The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet
exactly in quadrature (9 0 degree apart) with the applied voltage.

Moving System

• This consists of an aluminum disc mounted on a light alloy shaft.

• This disc is positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets.
• The upper bearing of the rotor (moving system) is a steel pin located in a hole
in the bearing cap fixed to the top of the shaft.
• The rotor runs on a hardened steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft.
• A jewel bearing supports the pivot.
• A pinion connects the shaft with the recording or registering mechanism.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta
Braking System

• A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc forms the
braking system.
• The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a
braking torque due to the production of eddy current.
• The position of the permanent magnet is adjustable, and therefore braking
torque can be adjusted by shifting the permanent magnet to different radial
positions.

Registering (counting) Mechanism

• The function of a registering or counting mechanism is to record continuously a
number, which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system.

Expression for Defelection Torque:

T = V . I. Sin(angle between fluxes due to Voltage and Current) = k. (Power)

To have maximum torque, Shaded band is adjusted so as the angle between fluxes due to
voltage and current is close to 90 degree.
Braking torque is provided by Eddy current braking, so braking torque is proportional to the
speed.

At Steady state
Braking torque = Deflection Torque
i.e N = k.(power)
and
Total no of revolution will give total amount of energy consumed in that given interval of
time.
Errors in Single Phase Energy Meters
The errors caused by the driving system are
(i) Incorrect magnitude of fluxes.
(ii) Incorrectphase angles.
(iii) Lackof Symmetry in magnetic circuit.
The errors caused by the braking system are
i) Changes in strength of brake magnet
ii) Changes in disc resistance
iii) Abnormal friction

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

Some More diagrams for Better understanding

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta