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Introduction

– Energy is general term embracing energy in transition and stored energy.


– The stored energy of a substance may be in the forms of mechanical energy and internal energy.
– In transition heat and work are the forms of energy; these are the only forms in which energy can cross the
boundaries of a system.
– Every matter consists of atoms. A few atoms bind together to form a molecule. A molecule is the smallest unit of
substance which can exist in Free State and possesses all the basic properties of concerned substance.
– Molecules move continuously. When they have ordered motion, their energies are expressed as kinetic energies
and potential.
Thermal Physics: The random or disordered motion of the molecules is the subject of thermal physics.
– The study of these individual molecules in disordered motion molecules is called thermal or internal energy of the
system.
This chapter of heat is divided under three categories:
1. Intro to heat and temperature
2. The kinetic theory of gases
3. Thermodynamics

Heat

Heat (denoted by the symbol Q) is defined as an agent, which produces the sensation of warmth or hotness in us.
Q: What is caloric theory?
Ans:
– The caloric theory was established in the late 18th century by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, who between
1768 and 1787 published over sixty papers leading to his theory of combustion, in which the process of combustion
resulted in the release of "caloric" particles.
– Caloric theory was a postulate that heat was composed of a type of fluid made of indestructible particles called
"caloric". The fluid was conceived as being able to pass into the pores of bodies, such that the more caloric that was
in the space of the pores the more the body had a tendency to expand, due to the action of heat.
– According to this theory, heat was a fluid substance called caloric.
– This caloric was assumed to be invisible and weightless fluid that could neither be created nor destroyed.
– According to this theory, every object contained a certain amount of caloric at a given temperature.
– If more caloric flowed into the object, its temperature increased and if caloric flowed out from an object, then its
temperature decreased. Also, according to this theory, when the matter was broken apart, such as during burning, a
good amount of caloric (or fluid) was believed to be lost.

Downfall of caloric theory


– In 1798, Count Rumford published An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by
Friction, a report on his investigation of the heat produced while manufacturing cannons. He had found
that boring cannon repeatedly does not result in a loss of its ability to produce heat, and therefore no loss of caloric.
– he showed that the "work" expended by a team of two draft horses (a 2 horsepower engine), turning a cannon
boring drill bit at a rate of thirty-two revolutions per minute, inside of a cannon barrel, which itself was submerged in
a tank of water, will generate "heat" in the cannon barrel to the effect that it caused the water to boil at 2 hours and
30 minutes.
– The “caloric” that caused the boiling of water was assumed to be due to breaking apart of the metal. But Rumford
observed that a large among of heat was produced by boring the barrel of cannon even with a dull borer that did
not cut the metal.
– Thus, caloric was being released, though the subdivision of matter was not occurring. Rumford argued that the
seemingly indefinite generation of heat was incompatible with the caloric theory. He contended that the only thing
communicated to the barrel was motion.
– Therefore, Rumford rejected the idea that an object contains a definite amount of caloric in it, and Rumford made
no attempt to further quantify the heat generated or to measure the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat concept


– Rumford's experiment inspired the work of James Prescott Joule and others towards the middle of the 19th
century.
– Later, He did several experiments to establish our present view about the nature of heat. Joule established a
relationship between mechanical work and heat energy in the form.
WαH
– It means that the amount of work done on an object is directly proportional to an equivalent amount of heat
produced.
– James Joule showed that both heat and work can produce the same change in the internal energy of a substance,
establishing the principle of the mechanical equivalence of heat. Heat is emphatically a quantity that solely describes
energy being transferred. It makes no sense to speak of the total ‘heat’ an object or system contains.

Heat as energy in transit


– From the experiments performed by Joule and others, the scientists came to interpret heat not as a flow of substance,
and not even as a form of energy, but as the transfer of energy.
– When heat flows from a hot body to a cold body, it means that energy is being transferred from the hot body to a
cold body.
– Thus, heat is the energy transferred from one object to another due to the temperature difference between two
objects. This transfer of energy continues until the two objects reach the common temperature. The system is then said
to be in thermal equilibrium.

Heat is not present in the body


– A body does not contain heat or work. A body always contains internal energy.
– But while interacting, it either transfers heat energy, or there is a work transfer (one body does work on the other
depending on your preference of the system).
– So, if two bodies having internal energy interact they will interact by transferring heat/work.
– But once the transfer has been done, it will again convert into internal energy inside the body. And the body on the
receiving end will now have an increased internal energy compared to what it had before, and the donating body
will have its internal energy decreased.
– So, heat and work transfer are present only during the situation when the interaction is taking place. After an
interaction is complete, there is only internal energy present.

Q: Can we say that heat is total Kinetic energy of molecules?


Ans: At the atomic scale, the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules is sometimes referred to as heat energy.
Heat is simply a form of kinetic energy, the total kinetic energy of random motion of all the atoms in an
object.

Q: What is internal energy?


Ans:

The internal energy is the energy required to create a system, excluding the energy necessary to displace its
surroundings. Internal energy has two components: kinetic energy and potential energy. The kinetic energy consists of all
the energy involving the motions of the particles constituting the system, including translation, vibration, and rotation. The
potential energy is associated with the static constituents of matter, static electric energy of atoms within molecules or
crystals, and the energy from chemical bonds. The equation describing the total internal energy of a system is then:

U=Ukinetic+UpotentialU=Ukinetic+Upotential.

We can see that internal energy is an extensive property: it depends on the size of the system or on the amount of
substance it contains.
– Every particle in a body has potential energy, due to their state and position, and, kinetic energy, due to their
motion. Collectively, the sum of these energies is called the internal energy of the body.
– Potential energy of particles in a body tends to be small and does not change very much, a change in internal
energy is generally due to a change in kinetic energy.
– The temperature of an object gives a measure of how hot or cold it is, but it is not a measure of how much
internal energy the object contains.
– Internal Energy (ΔU) is sum total of kinetic and potential energies of atoms/molecules constituting a system is called
the internal energy of the system.
– The unit of internal energy is joule in SI system.
Q: How can we increase the internal energy?
Ans:
1. By heating: When we heat a substance, energy associated withb its atoms or molecules is increased i.e
heat is converted into internal energy.
2. By doing mechanical work:
Q: Write units of heat.
Ans: The most common units for heat are
BTU (Btu) - British ThermalUnit - also known as a "heat unit" in United States
Calorie
Joule
BTU - British Thermal Unit
The unit of heat in the imperial system - the BTU - is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through 1oF (58.5oF - 59.5oF) at sea
level (30 inches of mercury).
1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.931 10-4 kWh = 0.252 kcal = 778.16 ft.lbf =
1.0551010 ergs = 252 cal = 0.293 watt-hours
An item using one kilowatt-hour of electricity generates 3412 Btu.
one hundred thousand (105) Btu are called a therm
Calorie
A calorie is commonly defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1oC
the kilogram calorie, large calorie, food calorie, Calorie (capital C) or just calorie (lowercase c) is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius
1 calorie (cal) = 1/860 international watthour (Wh)
1 kcal = 4186.8 J = 426.9 kp m = 1.163 10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft lbf = 3.9683 Btu = 1000 cal
Joule
The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is
a unit of energy equal to the work done when a force of one newton acts through a distance of one meter
4.184 joule of heat energy (or one calorie) is required to raise the temperature of a unit weight (1 g) of water
from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33.8oF
1 J (Joule) = 0.1020 kpm = 2.778 10-7 kWh = 2.389 10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft.lbf = 1 kg.m2/s2 = 1 watt second = 1 Nm
= 9.478 10-4 Btu

the (SI) unit for energy is the joule (J), after James Joule, who demonstrated that work can be converted into heat.

In CGS system the unit of heat is erg.


The practical unit of heat is calorie.
QUIZ-01

Q: Define the methods of propagation of heat.


Ans: There are three basic ways in which heat is transferred.
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another without any flow of the material medium.
– Transfer of heat by conduction, which does not involve any motion of a substance, but rather is a transfer of
energy within a substance (or between substances in contact).
– Conduction can take place in solids, liquids or gases.
– In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random
motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules
– Conduction typically requires the objects to be in physical contact with one another.
– In solids, atoms or molecules vibrate about their fixed position. In a hotter region, atoms or molecules vibrate
more vigorously or have more kinetic energy than those in the colder region.
– These molecules collide with their neighbors and transfer some of their kinetic energy to them. The neighbors
collide with their neighbors. In this way, heat is conducted to colder regions and raised the temperature.
– Solids conduct heat better than liquids and gases due to their closely packed molecules.

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by means of bulk fluid movement in the
material medium.
– In fluids, heat is often transferred by convection, in which the motion of the fluid itself carries heat from one
place to another.
– Convection of mass cannot take place in solids
– In fluids, thermal energy transfer is mainly through thermal convection. In solids, since its substance cannot
flow, there can be no thermal convection.
– In convection, the movement occurs as a result of gravity. The hot part of the fluid expands, becomes less dense
and rises. It is displaced by the colder, denser part of the fluid, which in turn is heated up. This fluid movement
or convection current allows heat to be transported.

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by means of electromagnetic radiation,
without the need of an intervening material medium.
You can feel heat transfer from a fire or the Sun. Yet the space between Earth and the Sun is largely empty, without
any possibility of heat transfer by convection or conduction. Similarly, you can tell that an oven is hot without
touching it or looking inside—it just warms you as you walk by. In these examples, heat is transferred by radiation.
The hot body emits electromagnetic waves that are absorbed by our skin, and no medium is required for them to
propagate. We use different names for electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths: radio waves, microwaves,
infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays .
– Radiation is the only process that does not need a medium to transfer the energy.
– This is the third way to transfer energy is by radiation, which involves absorbing or giving off electromagnetic
waves.

Conceptual Questions-01
1. What is the relation between heat and internal energy?
2. Why is the earth not in thermal equilibrium with sun?
3. When a block with a hole in it is heated why does not the material around the hole expand into the
hole and make it small?
4. A thermometer is placed in direct sun light. Will it read the temperature of the air, or of the sun, or of
something else?
5. Name the principal used in the mercury thermometer?
6. It is based on the fact that the change in volume of mercury is nearly proportional to the change in
temperature.
7. What is specific heat of a gas in an
(i) Isothermal process
(ii) Adiabatic process?
Ans: ∆ 𝑻 = 𝟎
∆𝑸
Using 𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝑻
= ∞
Thus specific heat is infinite
∆𝑸=𝟎
∆𝑸
Using 𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝑻
= 𝟎
Thus specific heat is zero.

8. A body at higher temperature contains more heat. Comment on this statement.


It may not always true, beacuase yhe heat of body depends on mass of body, its specific heat and
tempearure.
9. Why entropy decreases with increase in temperature?
10. What Is The Difference Between Heat Transfer And Thermodynamics?
11. Answer :
12. Heat transfer deals with the energy analysis which in transition and and depends on the modes of heat
transfer like conduction, convection and radiation or combination of any modes. Heat transfer deals in
non equilibrium domain and conditions while thermodynamics deals with study of system at equilibrium
and does not depend on how heat transfer is calculated.
13. Can a system be heated and its temperature remains constant?
14. Entropy has often called as time arrow. Explain.
15. Work can be converted completely into heat, so can heat be converted completely into work?
16. When two systems are in thermal equilibrium, do they have same amount of kinetic energy?
MCQS-1
1. The capacity to do work is called as: a) Caloric theory b) Mechanical theory
a) Power b) Energy c) Modern theory d) Joule’s theory
c) Torque d) Heat 11. The Count Rumford said that heat is
2. The study of energy of molecules due to random or a) b/c of motion of molecules
disordered motion of these molecules is known as: b) measure of work done
a) Thermal Physics b) Thermodynamics c) fluid that contained in body
c) Electrostatics d) Electricity d) both (a) & (b)
3. _____is defined as an agent, which produces sensation 12. German Scientist Count Rumford observed that, the
of warmth or hotness in us. heat is
a) Heat b) Work a) b/c of molecules are in ordered motion
c) Temperature d) Electricity b) caloric substance
4. Initially in 1783, A. Lavoisier developed that heat was c) fluid substance
considered as a invisible fluid and contained in d) b/c of molecules are in random motion
material body called as 13. The ____ failed later as it was unable to explain the
a) Caloric b) Energy production of heat by friction.
c) Torque d) Temperature a) Caloric theory b) Mechanical theory
5. The word caloric comes from Latin Calor, meaning c) Modern theory d) Joule’s theory
______. 14. _____ developed that if amount of work disappears a
a) Caloric b) Energy quantity of heat is produced.
c) heat d) Temperature a) Lavoisier b) P. Joule
6. In 1798, _____ published a report on his investigation c) Count Rumford d) J. Dalton
of the heat produced while manufacturing cannons. 15. P. Joule observed that the heat is
a) Lavoisier b) P. Joule a) b/c of molecules are in ordered motion
c) Count Rumford d) J. Dalton b) caloric substance
7. The count Rumford regarded ______ as weightless c) fluid substance
because the rise or fall in temperature of body did not d) Form of energy
affect its weight. 16. In modern theory, amount of energy transferred from
a) Caloric b) Energy hot to cold body is called_____.
c) Temperature d) Work a) Power b) Energy
8. _____ had observed the frictional heat generated by c) Torque d) Heat
boring cannon at the arsenal in Munich. 17. Heat is also called
a) Lavoisier b) P. Joule a) energy in stress b) energy in power
c) Count Rumford d) J. Dalton c) energy in transit d) energy in elasticity
9. _____ showed that the water could be boiled within 18. The total kinetic energy of the molecules of a body
roughly two and half hours and that the supply of determines?
frictional heat was seemingly inexhaustible form a) Power b) Energy
boring of canon. c) Torque d) Heat
a) Lavoisier b) P. Joule 19. The exchange of energy between two objects because
c) Count Rumford d) J. Dalton of their temperature difference is called:
10. The Count Rumford argued that the in exhaustive a) Power b) Energy
generation of heat was incomplete with the ___. c) Torque d) Heat
20. Heat transferred is due to change of ____. 37. How we measure energy value of food?
a) Charge b) Internal Energy a) joule b) erg
c) Torque d) Temperature c) joule / sec d) calorie
21. Two ends "A" and "B" of a rod are temperature -10o C 38. Heat can be propagated in
and -30o C, the heat will flow from a) conduction b) convection
a) -30 to -10 C b) -30 to -50 C c) radiation d) A.O.T
c) -10 to -30 C d) -10 to -20 C 39. Convection is a transfer of heat due to
22. The SI unit of heat is: a) vibration of the molecules
a) joule b) Pascal b) expansion of fluid
c) Joule • sec d) erg c) movement of molecules from one place to another
23. The unit of work is same as unit of d) radiation of wave
a) Power b) Entropy 40. Conduction is a transfer of heat due to
c) Energy d) Force a) vibration of the molecules
24. One Joule is equivalent to b) differences in densities
a) Kg m/ s2 b) Kg m2/s c) movement of molecules from one place to another
c) Kg m2/s2 d) Kg m/s d) radiation of wave
25. The practical unit of heat in CGS system is: 41. Radiation is a transfer of heat due to
a) joule b) Caloric a) vibration of the molecules
c) Joule • sec d) BTU b) differences in densities
26. The unit of heat in CGS system is: c) movement of molecules from one place to another
a) joule b) ft•lb/sec2 d) radiation of wave
c) Joule • sec d) erg 42. Which of the following heat transfer processes can
27. Which of the following is not unit of energy? take place in vacuum?
a) watt . sec b) erg I. convection II. Conduction III. Radiation
c) electron volt d) N.O.T a) I only b) I & II only
28. The heat can be measured in: c) I, II & III only d) III only
a) joule b) ft.lb 43. Which of the following heat transfer processes ia/are
c) BTU d) A.O.T caused by the movement of particles?
29. 1 BTU = ? I. convection II. Conduction III. Radiation
a) 41.8 J b) 0.428 J a) I only b) I & II only
c) 1055 J d) 3.6 J c) II only d) III only
30. One Calorie is equal to: 44. Once heats enter a body, it becomes its
a) 41.8 J b) 4.18 J a) constant energy b) Internal Energy
c) 18.4 J d) 4.35 J
c) negative energy d) external energy
31. 1 joule = ?
7
a) 10 erg
2
b) 1 kg m / s
2 45. When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium which
c) N • m d) A.O.T condition must apply?
32. If 20 calories of work is transferred as heat, how many a) They are at the same temperature
Joules of heat are there? b) Their internal energies are equal
a) 83.6 J b) 20 J c) Their heat capacities are equal
c) 4.8 J d) 0.48J d) A.O.T
33. One calorie of heat is equivalent to 4.2 J. One BTU 46. Total sum of its PE and KE of its molecules
(British thermal unit) is equivalent to 1055 J. The a) Constant energy b) Internal Energy
value of one BTU in calorie is : c) Negative energy d) External energy
(a) 251.2 cal (b) 200 cal 47. Which one is true for internal energy?
(c) 263 cal (d) none of these a) It is sum of all forms of energies of molecules
34. Dimension of heat is b) It is a state function of a system
a) M0 L0 T-1 b) ML2T-2 c) It is proportional to transnational K.E of the
c) M-1LT-1 d) MLT molecules
35. With increase in temperature, heat will be: d) All are correct
a) Increase b) Decrease 48. We can produce heat by
c) remain same d) N.O.T a) Frictional process b) Chemical processes
36. If a substance is hot, its particles will c) Electrical processes d) All of the above
a) move fast than the cooler object 49. ______ was one of the first to use a calorimeter to
b) move slow than the cooler object measure the heat changes during chemical reaction.
c) move as the cooler object a) Lavoisier b) P. Joule
d) may move fast or slow than the cooler object c) Count Rumford d) J. Dalton
50. A wooden spoon is dipped in a cup of ice-cream. Its 56. In which of the following processes of heat transfer
other end. no medium is required?
a) becomes cold by process of conduction a) Conduction b) Convection
b) becomes cold by process of convection c) Radiation d) All the above
c) becomes cold by process of radiation 57. In which of the following processes is heat
d) does not becomes cold transferred directly from molecule to molecule?
a) conduction b) convection
51. An iron ball at 40 degree centigrade is dropped in a c) radiation d) all of the above
mug containing water at 40 degree centigrade. The 58. A system in which there may exchange energy but
heat will not mass called
a) flow from iron ball to water a) Open System b) Close System
b) not flow from iron ball to water or from water to c) Insulated System d) Isolated System
iron ball 59. Substances which do not allow heat to pass
c) flow from water to iron ball through them are called:
d) increase the temperature of both a) Conductors b) Insulators
52. We can produce heat by c) Absorbers d) Radiators
a) Frictional process b) Chemical processes 60. Heat is transmitted through solids by a process called:
c) Electrical processes d) All of the above a) Radiation b) Convection
53. Metabolism is the name of a process in which c) Diffusion d) Conduction
energy transformation takes place within 61. In a vacuum flask, which methods of heat transfer
a) Heat engine b) Human body are prevented by the vacuum?
c) Atmosphere d) Laboratory a) conduction, convection and radiation.
54. Which of the following is the fastest process of b) conduction and convection only correct
heat transfer? c) conduction only.
a) conduction b) convection d) convection only.
c) radiation d) insulation 62. Heat from the Sun reaches Earth by:
55. A cup of hot tea on a metal table in a room loses a) Conduction b) Radiation
heat by c) Convection d) Vaporization
a) Conduction b) Convection
c) Radiation d) All the above

Temperature
Q: Define Temperature.
Ans: The temperature is thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from a cold body.
– The temperature of a body is proportional to average kinetic energy of molecules in system. So the temperature is
a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the system.
– Temperature of body is measure of its degree of hotness or coldness.
– Temperature of a body is used to determine the direction of flow of heat.

Thermal Equilibrium and Zeroth Law of thermodynamics


– Joseph Black, a professor at the University of Edinburgh in the 1700’s, noticed that a collection of objects at
different temperatures, if brought together, will all eventually reach the same temperature.
– The term thermal equilibrium implies the state when all the macroscopic variables characteristing the system (P,V,
T, mass etc ) do not change.
– Two objects are in thermal contact if they can affect each other's temperature. In thermal contact, the hotter
body becomes cooler while the cooler body becomes hotter until a point is reached where no more change
occurs. Thermal equilibrium exists when two objects in thermal contact no longer affect each other's
temperature.
– When a hotter body is placed in contact with colder body, heat flows from hotter body to colder body till their
temperature become equal and bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
– We say nowadays that bodies in “thermal contact” eventually come into “thermal equilibrium”— which means
they finally attain the same temperature, after which no further heat flow takes place.
This is equivalent to:
– Zeroth law of thermodynamics state that if two bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
body C, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
– Zeroth law of thermodynamics was enunciated by R.H. Fowler in the year 1931. However, since the first and
second laws already existed at that time, it was designed as zeroth law so that it precedes the first and second laws
to form logical sequence.
– The concept of zeroth laws gives us the concept of temperature.
– The modern concept of temperature follows from the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
– Temperature is that property of a system by which we know whether the system is in thermal equilibrium with
another system or not.
– Temperature is not measure of heat. Because temperature may increase without heating.
No temperature change occurs from heat transfer if ice melts and becomes liquid water
Q: What is thermometry?
Ans: Thermometry is branch of thermal physics that deals with the measurement of temperature.
– Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers.
– Instruments those for measuring high temperatures are known as pyrometers.
– Galileo claimed to have invented the first thermometer. Well, actually, he called it a thermoscope, but he did try to
measure “degrees of heat and cold” according to a colleague, and that qualifies it as a thermometer (Technically, a
thermoscope is a device making it possible to see a temperature change; a thermometer can measure the
temperature change.)
– The first really good thermometer, using mercury expanding from a bulb into a capillary tube, was made by
Fahrenheit in the early 1720’s.
The thermometers may also be classified as follows:
1. Expansion thermometers
(i) Liquid in glass thermometers (ii) bimetallic thermometers
2. Pressure thermometers
(i) Vapour pressure thermometers (ii) liquid filled thermometers. (iii) Gas filled thermometers.

Mercury is the only elemental metal that is liquid at ordinary temperatures. Mercury is silvery white and freezes
into a soft solid like tin or lead at about -39 °C. Mercury does not wet glass or cling to it, and this property,
coupled with its uniform volume expansion throughout its liquid range, makes it useful in liquid-in-glass
thermometers.

Alcohol

Advantages & Disadvantages of Mercury as thermometric substance

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
It is a good conductor of heat
Poisonous
(High thermal conductivity)
Does not wet (cling to the sides)
Small thermal expansion
of the tube
High boiling point (357∘C357∘C) Expensive

Uniform expansion High freezing point, −39∘C−39∘C (Cannot be


used in places that are very cold)
Respond quickly to temperature
changes
Visible meniscus

Advantages & Disadvantages of Alcohol as thermometric substance


ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Safe liquid Wets the tube
Low freezing point
Low boiling point (78∘C78∘C)
(−115∘C−115∘C)
Does not react quickly to temperature
Large expansivity
changes
Cheap Needs to be dyed since it is colourless
Non-uniform expansion

Advantages & Disadvantages Of Using Mercury Or Alcohol In Thermometers


MERCURY ALCOHOL
Silver Colourless, usually dyed red
High thermal conductivity Low thermal conductivity
(Can respond very quickly to (Takes a longer time to reach its
temperature changes) surrounding temperature)
Uniform expansion Non-uniform expansion
Does not wet glass Wets glass
Poisonous liquid Safe liquid
Expensive Cheap
Very dense liquid Less dense liquid
Small thermal expansion
Large thermal expansion
(Scale markings on stem are
(Scale marking on stem are far apart
very close to one another
Easy to read)
Hard to read)

Q: Define Scales of temperature.


Ans: A thermometer is useless without a temperature scale (the markings on the thermometer). In order to define a
temperature scale, the following steps are required:
1. Choose a thermometric substance with a suitable thermometric properties.
2. Select two fixed points which are easily obtainable and reproducible. (Fixed points are explained in more details
below.)
3. Divide the temperature range between the two fixed points into equal divisions.

1. The Centigrade Scale or Celsius Scale


– The centigrade system of temperature was suggested by Celsius in 1742.
– On this scale, the lower fixed point (ice point) is marked as 0 oC and upper fixed point (steam point) as 100 0C.
– The fundamental interval between the lower fixed point and the upper fixed point is divided into 100 equal parts.
– Each division of scale is called one degree centigrade or one degree Celsius (1oC).
2. The Fahrenheit Scale
– The Fahrenheit system of temperature was suggested by Fahrenheit in 1720.
– On this scale, the lower fixed point (ice point) is marked as 32 oF and upper fixed point (steam point) as 212 oF.
– The fundamental interval between the lower fixed point and the upper fixed point is divided into 180 equal parts.
– Each division of scale is called one degree Fahrenheit (1oF).
3. The Kelvin scale
– The Kelvin system of temperature was suggested by Lord Kelvin.
– On this scale, the lower fixed point (ice point) is marked as 273.15 K and upper fixed point (steam point) as 373.15
K.
– The fundamental interval between the lower fixed point and the upper fixed point is divided into 100 equal parts.
– Each division of scale is called one kelvin (1K).
– The unit for the Kelvin Scale is the Kelvin (K), which is the SI unit for temperature. 1 K is defined as
the 1273.161273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point of water is the
temperature at which saturated water vapour, pure water and ice all coexist in equilibrium (at 0.01 °C).

Conversion
This can be done by using following relation

𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡


𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
Thus we
𝑋 − 𝐿. 𝐹. 𝑃 𝐶−0 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273.15
= = =
𝑈. 𝐹. 𝑃 − 𝐿. 𝐹. 𝑃 100 − 0 212 − 32 373.15 − 273.15
𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273.15
= =
100 180 100
𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273.15
= =
5 9 5

– In the USA, the Fahrenheit temperature scale is used. Most of the rest of the world uses Celsius, and in science it is
often most convenient to use the Kelvin scale.

To convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius, use these equations:


– C° TO F°: CELSIUS TO FAHRENHEIT CONVERSION FORMULA
°F = (°C × 9/5) + 32
– Multiply by 9, then divide by 5, then add 32
Or
– Add 40, multiply by 9/5, then subtract 40

– F° TO C°: FAHRENHEIT TO CELSIUS CONVERSION FORMULA

°C = (°F − 32) x 5/9

°F to °C: Deduct 32, then multiply by 5, then divide by 9

– Fahrenheit to Celsius: Add 40, multiply by 5/9, then subtract 40


– The two scales agree when the temperature is -40°.
– A change by 1.0° C = a change by 1.8° F = a change by 1 K.
Self Test
What is the value of the following in 0F?
(i) 40 0 C
(ii) 40 0 C difference of temperature

Kelvin to Celsius Temperature Conversion


– The equation to convert between Kelvin and Celsius is: °C = K - 273.15
– Celsius temperature have a degree symbol while those reported in Kelvin do not.
– While the size of the degree is the same between Kelvin and Celsius, there is no point at which the two scales are equal. A Celsius temperature will
always be higher than Kelvin.
– Celsius temperatures can be negative. Kelvin goes down to absolute zero (no negative temperature).

– The Kelvin scale has the same increments as the Celsius scale (100 degrees between the freezing and boiling points
of water), but the zero is in a different place. The two scales are simply offset by 273.15 degrees.
The difference between the freezing and boiling points of water is 100 degrees in both the Kelvin and
Celsius scales; thus, the Kelvin degree has the same magnitude as the Celsius degree.
Absolute Zero Scale
Absolute Scale Of Temperature
◊ There are different scales for the measurement of temperature such as Celsius ºC and
Fahrenheit ºC. Similarly another scale known as absolute scale or Kelvin scale is
determined on the basis of Charle’s law.
◊ On the basis of Charle’s law we known that the volume of the gas changes to 1/273
times of its original volume for each 1 ºC change of temperature. It suggests that the
volume of a gas would theoretically be zero at -273ºC. But this temperature has never
been achieved for any gas because all the gases condense to liquid at a temperature
above this point. So the minimum possible temperature for a gaseous system is to be -
273ºC. This temperature is referred as absolute zero or zero degree of the absolute scale
or Kelvin scale.
◊ To form an absolute scale thermometer if the equally spaced divisions of centigrade
thermometer are extended below zero and when the point -273ºC is marked then this
point is called as absolute zero and the scale is called as absolute scale. It shows that for
the conversion of centigrade scale into Kelvin scale 273 is added to the degrees on the
centigrade scale.
K = 273 + ºC
Absolute zero is the temperature at which a system is in the state of lowest possible (minimum) energy. As molecules approach this
temperature their movements drop towards zero. It is the lowest temperature a gas thermometer can measure. No electronic devices
work at this temperature.The Kinetic Energy of the molecules becomes negligible or zero.
Another name for absolute temperature is thermodynamic temperature. Why? Because absolute temperate is directly
related to thermodynamics
The gas is supposed to have no molecular motion(Also zero volume ant zero pressure) at absolute zero temperature.
Why is it called the Kelvin? Because William Thompson – Lord Kelvin – was the first to describe an absolute temperature
scale, in a paper he wrote in 1848; he also estimated absolute zero was -273o C.
An absolute temperature scale has as its zero point absolute zero (−273.15° on the Celsius
temperature scale and −459.67° on the Fahrenheit temperature scale), the theoretical temperature
at which the molecules of a substance have the lowest energy; hence, all values on such a scale are
nonnegative.
The zero of the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, which is the lowest possible temperature that a substance can be
cooled to.

QUIZ -02
1. What is the value of the following in 0F?
(i) 400C temperature.
(ii) 400C difference of temperature.
Ans:
(i) We know that °F = (°C × 9/5) + 32
°F = (40 × 9/5) + 32
=1040C
(ii) 10C difference is equal to 1.80F
Than 400C difference is equal to = 1.8 ×40 = 72 0F
Conceptual Questions-02
MCQS-2

Thermometric properties

A thermometric property

is a physical property that varies continuously with temperature.

Thermometric properties can be used to measure the temperature. Thermometric properties commonly used for thermometers
include:

 Volume: Most objects expand when they are heated.The volume of mercury or alcohol expands when the
temperature increases. Both are often used in thermometers.
 Electrical resistance:The resistance of a copper wire increases with temperature. Resistance thermometers use the
resistance of copper or other metals to measure temperature.
The mass of an object does not change when an object is heated. Mass is not a thermometric property.

A thermometric property should be easily measurable.

The following table shows some of the thermometric properties of matter that are used in the various
thermometers:
THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY THERMOMETER
Volume expansion of a gas Gas thermometer
Volume expansion of a liquid Laboratory or clinical thermometer
Volume expansion of a solid Bi-metallic strip thermometer
Pressure change of a fixed mass of gas Constant – volume gas thermometer
Changes in e.m.f. Thermocouple
Changes in electrical resistance Resistance thermometer or thermistor

Thermal Expansion
We can see that internal energy is an extensive property: it depends on the size of the system or on the
amount of substance it contains.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, and volume in response to a change in temperature
Linear thermal expansion
When something is heated or cooled, its length changes by an amount proportional to the original length and the
change in temperature:

The coefficient of linear expansion depends only on the material an object is made from.

Volume Expansion
Bimetallic thermostat

Bimetallic thermometer

QUIZ-03

Conceptual Questions-03

MCQS-03

Gas laws

Boyle’s Law
◊ A relationship of volume with external pressure was given by Boyle’s in the form of law. This law is
known as Boyle’s Law which states,
◊ For a given mass of a gas the volume of the gas is inversely proportional to its pressure provided
the temperature is kept constant.

Mathematically it may be written as


V∞1/P
Or V=K/P
Or PV = K
On the bases of the relation, Boyle’s law can also be stated as
The product of the pressure and volume of a given mass of a gas is always constant at constant
temperature.
Density ‘d’ is related to the mass ‘m’ and the volume ‘V’ by the relation
d= m/V
V = m/d
Then, we get
P = k(d/m)
So that at a constant temperature, pressure is directly proportional to the density of a fixed mass of the
gas

Explanation
Consider for a given mass a gas having volume V1 at pressure P1, so according to Boyle’s Law we may
write as
P1V1 = K1 (constant)
If the pressure of the above system is changed from P1 to P2 then the volume of the gas will also change
from V1 to V2. For this new condition of the gas we can write as,
P2V2 = K2 (constant)
But for the same mass of the gas.
K1 = K2
P1V1 = P2V2
This equation is known as Boyle’s Equation.

MCQS

1. Boyle's law states that a) P1 T1 = P2 T2 b) P1 V1 = P2 V2


a) when the temperature of a gas is constant, its V V
c) T1 = T2 d) N.O.T
volume is inversely proportional to its pressure. 1 2
b) when the pressure of a gas is constant, its volume is 9. What volume does 400 cm3 sample of a gas at
directly proportional to its temperature. 700 torr occupy when the pressure is changed to
c) when the temperature of a gas is constant, its 2 atm?
volume is directly proportional to its volume. a) 184 cm3 b) 180 cm3
d) when the pressure of a gas is constant, its volume is c) 100 cm 3 d) 284 cm3
inversely proportional to its temperature. 10. For Boyle's law if we plot graph between inverse
2. Mathematical expression that describes Boyle's of volume and pressure result is
law is a) curve line b) straight line
a) PV = constant b) V × constant = P c) circular line d) elliptical
c) P × constant = V d) V ⁄ P = 11. According to Boyle's law, k is equal to
constant a) PT b) PV
3. For a gas obeying Boyles law if the pressure is c) P/V d) P/T
doubled the volume becomes 12. Graph for Boyle's law is called
a) double b) one half a) isotherm b) hypertherm
c) four times d) one fourth c) hypotherm d) none of these
4. If the volume of a gas is decreased a constant 13. Boyle's law is used only for
temperature, the average velocity of the gas a) non ideal gases b) light gases
molecules ____. c) ideal gases d) heavy gases
a) decrease b) Increase 14. Constant used in Boyle's law is
c) remains constant d) N.O.T a) pressure b) temperature
5. A graph of volume with 1/p gives ____. c) volume d) energy
a) curve line b) straight line 15. At constant temperature, what happens to the
c) circular line d) elliptical pressure when the volume is doubled?
6. In Boyle’s law by applying the pressure brings a) It is halved. b) It is doubled.
the molecules closer together causing ____ in c) It remains unchanged. d) It is
volume. quadrupled.
a) reduction b) Increase 16. To use Boyle's Law, which of the following needs
c) no change d) N.O.T to remain constant?
7. The product of pressure and volume of a given a) Temperature and number of moles of a gas
gas at constant temperature is always constant is b) Temperature and pressure
called___. c) Pressure and number of moles of a gas
a) Boyle’s law b) Charles’s Law d) Pressure and volume
c) Avogadro’s law d) Gay Lussic’s 17. If the temperature of a gas is constant and the
Law pressure is decreased, the volume will
8. Which of the following is the mathematical a) decrease. b) increase.
expression of Boyle’s law which is used while c) stay the same. d) randomly
solving the problems. change.

Charle’s Law
The law was named after scientist Jacques Charles, who formulated the original law in his unpublished work from the 1780s
Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when
heated.
This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease
in volume.
We know that everything expand on heating and contract cooling. This change in volume is small in
liquids and solids but gases exhibit enormous changes due to the presence of large intermolecular
spaces.
Change of volume of a gas with the change of temperature at constant pressure was studied by Charles
and was given in the form of a law, which states,

Statement
For a given mass of a gas the volume of the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
provided the pressure is kept constant.

Mathematically this law may be written as


V∞T
V=KT
OR
V/T=K
This relation shows that the ratio of volume of a given mass of a gas to its absolute temperature is
always constant provided the pressure is kept constant. On this bases Charles Law may also be defined
as,
If the pressure remains constant for each 1ºC change of temperature the volume of the gas changes to
1/273 of its original volume.
On the bases of this statement
V1 / T1 = K & V2 / T2 = K
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
This equation is known as Charle’s equation.
The volume temperature relationship can be represented graphically. When volume of a given mass of
gas is plotted against temperature, a straight line is obtained.

General Gas Equation (Ideal Gas Equation)


We can see that internal energy is an extensive property: it depends on the size of the system or on the amount of
substance it contains.
To give a relation between the volume, pressure and number of moles of n gas, Boyle’s law,
Charle’s law and Avogadro’s law are used.
According to Boyle’s law | V ∞ 1 / P
According to Charle’s law | V ∞ T
According to Avogadro’s law | V ∞ n
By combining these laws we get
V∞1/PxTxn
OR
V=Rx1/PxTxP
OR
PV=nRT
This equation is known as general gas equation n is also known as equation of state because
when we specify the four variables = pressure, temperature, volume and number of moles we
define the state for a gas.
In this equation “R” is a constant known as gas constant.

Value of R
1. When Pressure is Expressed in Atmosphere and Volume in Liters or dm3
According to general gas equation
PV=nRT
OR
R = PV / nT
For 1 mole of a gas at S.T.P we know that
V = 22.4 dm3 or litres
T = 273 K (standard temperature)
P = 1 atm (standard pressure)
So,
R = PV / nT
3
= 1 atm x 22.4 dm / 1 mole x 273 K
= 0.0821 dm3 K-1 mol-1
2. When Pressure is Expressed in Newton Per Square Meter and Volume in Cubic Meters.
For 1 mole of a gas at S.T.P
V = 0.0224 m3 ………. ( 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3)
n = 1 mole
T = 273 K
P = 101200 Nm-2
So,
R = PV / nT
= 101300 Nm-2 x 0.0224 m3 / 1 mole x 273 K
= 8.3143 Nm K-1 mole-1
= 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1
Derivation of Gas Equation
According to general gas equation
PV=nRT
For 1 mole of a gas n = 1
PV=RT
OR
PV/T=R
Consider for a known mass of a gas the volume of the gas is V 1 at a temperature T1 and
pressure P1. Therefore for this gas we can write as
P1 V1 / T1 = R
If this gas is heated to a temperature T2 due to which the pressure is changed to P2 and
volume is changed to V2. For this condition we may write as
P2 V2 / T2 = R
P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2 = R
P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2
This equation is known as gas equation.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
It was an idea of some scientist like Maxwell &Boltzmann that the properties of gases are due
to their molecular motion. This motion of the molecules is related with the kinetic energy, so
the postulates given by the scientist about the behavior of gases are collectively known as
kinetic molecular theory of gases.

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. In
particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy and how it affects matter.

Kinetic theory of gases


It relates macroscopic properties (T, P and V etc) of gases to microscopic properties ( K.E. etc)
It provides a mathematical model to study the behavior of gases.
Postulates
The postulates of kinetic molecular theory are as follows.
◊ All gases consist of very large number of tiny particles called molecules.
◊ These molecules are widely separated from each other and are so small that they are invisible.
◊ The size of the molecules is very small as compared to the distance between them.
◊ There is no attractive or repulsive force between molecules so they can move freely.
◊ The molecules are very hard and perfectly elastic so when they collide no loss of energy takes place.
◊ The gas molecules are in continuous motion they move in a straight path until they collide. The distance
between two continuous collisions is called Mean Free Path.
◊ During their motion these molecules are collided with one another and with the walls of the container.
◊ The collision of the molecules is perfectly elastic. When molecules collide they rebound with perfect
elasticity and without loss or gain of energy.
◊ The pressure of the gas is the result of collision of molecules on the walls of the container.
◊ The average kinetic energy of gas molecules depends upon the absolute temperature. At any given
temperature the molecules of all gases have the same average kinetic energy (1/2 mv2).
Interpretation of pressure on kinetic theory of gases
A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the containing Force
Pressure =
Area
vessel due to continuous collisions of the molecules
against the walls. m
Let “𝐍” number of molecules are present in a cube (v1x 2 + v2x 2 + v3x 2 + ⋯ + vnx 2 )
𝑃= 𝑙
shaped container whose length, breadth, and height is 𝑙2
equal to 𝒍. let mass of one molecule is “𝐦” and the m
molecule is moving parallel to x-axis with velocity 𝐯𝐱 , 𝑃= (v1x 2 + v2x 2 + v3x 2 + ⋯ + vnx 2 ) --------------(ii)
𝑙3
we know that when this molecule collide with the
opposite wall of the container then it will move back Mass
Density =
Volume
with velocity −𝐯𝐱 .
Then, area of each face of the cube is 𝐀 = 𝒍𝟐 .
As mass of one molecule = m
The volume of the cube is 𝐕 = 𝒍𝟑 .
Initial momentum of gas molecule = 𝐦𝐯𝐱 So, mass of N molecule = mN
Final momentum of gas molecule = −(𝐦𝐯𝐱 )
Change in momentum = 𝐦𝐯𝐱 − (−𝒎𝒗𝒙 ) mN
= 𝐦𝐯𝐱 + 𝒎𝒗𝒙 𝜌= 𝑙3
𝜌 m
Change in momentum = 2mvx = 3
𝑙𝑁
2mvx
Rate of change of momentum = Putting the value in eq (ii), we get
𝑡
According to the definition of force “ force is the rate of
ρ
change of momentum, so 𝑃= (v 2 + v2x 2 + v3x 2 + ⋯ + vnx 2 )
2mv 𝑁 1x
𝐹 = 𝑡 x --------------(i)
According to the definition of velocity v1x 2 + v2x 2 + v3x 2 + ⋯ + vnx 2
s 𝑃=ρ
v= N
t v 2 +v 2 +v 2 +⋯+vnx 2
2𝑙 Where, 1x 2x N3x =
vx =
t Mean square of velocity = v̅̅̅̅ x
2
2𝑙 𝑃 = ρv ̅̅̅̅
2
t= x ----------------------(iii)
vx the term ̅̅̅̅
vx 2 is the only on component of the total
Putting the value of “t” in equation (i) we get, velocity, since
2mvx ̅̅̅
v 2 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 + ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧 2 . on the average ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 2 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧 2 ,
F=
2𝑙 due to the randomness of motion. So
vx ̅̅̅
v 2 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 + ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧 2
̅̅̅
v 2 = 3𝑣̅̅̅̅̅
2
mvx2 𝑥
F= 1 ̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅̅̅2
𝑙 v = 𝑣𝑥
Inside the container these are various molecular 3
velocities Putting value in eq (iii), we get
1 ̅̅̅2
v1x v2x v3x v4x ……….. 𝑃 = ρv
Hence, 3
mv 2 mv 2 mv 2 mvnx 2 Where ̅̅̅v 2 is known as Root Mean Square Velocity, and
Total force = F = 𝑙1x + 𝑙2x + 𝑙3x + ⋯ + 𝑙 represented by
m
F = (v1x 2 + v2x 2 + v3x 2 + ⋯ + vnx 2 ) 3𝑃
𝑙 vrms = √
we know that 𝜌

Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity
Heat capacity (usually denoted by a capital C, often with subscripts), or thermal capacity, is the measurable physical
quantity that characterizes the amount of heat required to change a substance’s temperature by a given amount. In SI
units, heat capacity is expressed in units of joules per kelvin (J/K).

An object’s heat capacity (symbol C) is defined as the ratio of the amount of heat energy transferred to an object to the
resulting increase in temperature of the object.

C=QΔT.C=QΔT.

Heat capacity is an extensive property, so it scales with the size of the system. A sample containing twice the amount of
substance as another sample requires the transfer of twice as much heat (Q) to achieve the same change in temperature
(ΔT). For example, if it takes 1,000 J to heat a block of iron, it would take 2,000 J to heat a second block of iron with twice
the mass as the first.

Specific Heat

The heat capacity is an extensive property that describes how much heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of a
given system. However, it would be pretty inconvenient to measure the heat capacity of every unit of matter. What we
want is an intensive property that depends only on the type and phase of a substance and can be applied to systems of
arbitrary size. This quantity is known as the specific heat capacity (or simply, the specific heat), which is the heat capacity
per unit mass of a material. Experiments show that the transferred heat depends on three factors: (1) The change in
temperature, (2) the mass of the system, and (3) the substance and phase of the substance. The last two factors are
encapsulated in the value of the specific heat.

The dependence on temperature change and mass are easily understood. Because the (average) kinetic energy of an
atom or molecule is proportional to the absolute temperature, the internal energy of a system is proportional to the
absolute temperature and the number of atoms or molecules. Since the transferred heat is equal to the change in the
internal energy, the heat is proportional to the mass of the substance and the temperature change. The transferred heat
also depends on the substance so that, for example, the heat necessary to raise the temperature is less for alcohol than
for water. For the same substance, the transferred heat also depends on the phase (gas, liquid, or solid).

The quantitative relationship between heat transfer and temperature change contains all three factors:

Q=mcΔTQ=mcΔT,

where Q is the symbol for heat transfer, m is the mass of the substance, and ΔT is the change in temperature. The
symbol c stands for specific heat and depends on the material and phase.

The specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of 1.00 kg of mass by 1.00ºC. The specific
heat c is a property of the substance; its SI unit is J/(kg⋅K) or J/(kg⋅C). Recall that the temperature change (ΔT) is the
same in units of kelvin and degrees Celsius. Note that the total heat capacity C is simply the product of the specific heat
capacity c and the mass of the substance m, i.e.,

C=mcC=mc or c=Cm=CρVc=Cm=CρV,

where ϱ is the density of the substance and V is its volume.

Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes. Calorimetry is performed with
a calorimeter. A simple calorimeter just consists of a thermometer attached to a metal container full of water suspended
above a combustion chamber. The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat. Scottish
physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said
to be the founder of calorimetry.

Calorimetry requires that the material being heated have known thermal properties, i.e. specific heat capacities. The
classical rule, recognized by Clausius and by Kelvin, is that the pressure exerted by the calorimetric material is fully and
rapidly determined solely by its temperature and volume; this rule is for changes that do not involve phase change, such
as melting of ice. There are many materials that do not comply with this rule, and for them, more complex equations are
required than those below.
 Heat Capacity, C, of a body is defined as the amount of heat (Q) required to raise its temperature (θ) by one
degree, without going through a change of state.
 Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of an object depends on the mass of the object.
 Heat capacity also depends on the material of the object. Some materials are harder to heat up than others.
The molecules in a liquid such as water require more energy to move faster than copper atoms in a solid. So,
in order to record 1°C increase in temperature, liquids would require more heat energy than solids.
 SI. unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J K-1) or joule per degree Celsius (J °C-1).
 C=QΔθC=QΔθ , where
 C = heat capacity (JK-1, J°C-1)

 Q = heat or thermal energy absorbed or released (J)

 Δθ = change in temperature (K or °C)

Specific Heat Capacity

 Specific heat capacity, c, of a body is defined as the amount of heat (Q) required to raise the temperature
(θ) of a unit mass of it by one degree, without going through a change in state.
 When the mass of an object is greater, the object will contain more atoms or molecules than a less massive
object made up of the same material. Hence, when the temperature of the objects are raised, the more
massive object will require a larger thermal energy than the less massive object. (Analogy: The more massive
object has more “mouths” to feed) It is thus more common to consider the heat capacity per unit mass or
specific heat capacity of the body.

SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg-1 K-1) or joule per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J kg-1 °C-1)

Q=mcΔθQ=mcΔθ, where
c = specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1, J kg-1 °C-1)
m = mass of substance (kg)
Q = heat or thermal energy absorbed or released (J)
Δθ = change in temperature (K or °C)

Specific heat capacity of gases is higher than that of liquids and much higher than that of liquids and much higher
than that of solids. The substances with higher specific heat capacity cool or warm very slowly compared to
substances with lower specific heat capacity.

With gases, the molar heat capacity (the heat capacity of one mole of a gas at constant pressure or constant volume)
is generally more useful than the specific heat capacity, which is based on mass.

Specific heat capacity


When objects of different temperature are brought together, and heat is transferred from the higher-
temperature objects to the lower-temperature objects, the total internal energy is conserved. Applying
conservation of energy means that the total heat transferred from the hotter objects must equal the total
heat transferred to the cooler objects. If the temperature of an object changes, the heat (Q) added or
removed can be found using the equation:

where m is the mass, and c is the specific heat capacity, a measure of the heat required to change the
temperature of a particular mass by a particular temperature. The SI unit for specific heat is J / (kg °C).
This applies to liquids and solids. Generally, the specific heat capacities for solids are a few hundred J /
(kg °C), and for liquids they're a few thousand J / (kg °C). For gases, the same equation applies, but
there are two different specific heat values. The specific heat capacity of a gas depends on whether the
pressure or the volume of the gas is kept constant; there is a specific heat capacity for constant pressure,
and a specific heat capacity for constant volume.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with heat and temperature, and their relation to energy, work, radiation, and
properties of matter.

First law of thermodynamics


The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy specialized for thermodynamic
systems. It is usually formulated by stating that the change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the
amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings. The law of
conservation of energy can be stated like this: The energy of an isolated system is constant.

ΔU=Q−WΔU=Q−W .

Here ΔU is the change in internal energy U of the system, Q is the net heat transferred into the system, and W is the net
work done by the system. We use the following sign conventions: if Q is positive, then there is a net heat transfer into the
system; if W is positive, then there is net work done by the system. So positive Q adds energy to the system and positive
W takes energy from the system. Thus ΔU=Q−W. Note also that if more heat transfer into the system occurs than work
done, the difference is stored as internal energy. Heat engines are a good example of this—heat transfer into them takes
place so that they can do work.

According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat transferred to a system can be either converted to internal energy or
used to do work to the environment. A process in which a gas does work on its environment at constant pressure is
called an isobaric process, while one in which volume is kept constant is called an isochoric process.

Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure)

An isobaric process occurs at constant pressure. Since the pressure is constant, the force exerted is constant and the
work done is given as PΔV. An example would be to have a movable piston in a cylinder, so that the pressure inside the
cylinder is always at atmospheric pressure, although it is isolated from the atmosphere. In other words, the system is
dynamically connected, by a movable boundary, to a constant-pressure reservoir. If a gas is to expand at a constant
pressure, heat should be transferred into the system at a certain rate. This process is called an isobaric expansion.

Isochoric Process (Constant Volume)

An isochoric process is one in which the volume is held constant, meaning that the work done by the
system will be zero. It follows that, for the simple system of two dimensions, any heat energy
transferred to the system externally will be absorbed as internal energy. An isochoric process is also
known as an isometric process or an isovolumetric process. An example would be to place a closed
tin can containing only air into a fire. To a first approximation, the can will not expand, and the only
change will be that the gas gains internal energy, as evidenced by its increase in temperature and
pressure. Mathematically,

ΔQ=ΔUΔQ=ΔU.

We may say that the system is dynamically insulated, by a rigid boundary, from the environment.

An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains constant: ΔT = 0. This typically
occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir ( heat bath), and the change occurs slowly
enough to allow the system to continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. In contrast,
an adiabatic process is where a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0). (See our atom on “Adiabatic
Process. “) In other words, in an isothermal process, the value ΔT = 0 but Q ≠ 0, while in an adiabatic process, ΔT ≠ 0
but Q = 0.

Metabolism in humans is the conversion of food into energy, which is then used by the body to perform activities. It is
an example of the first law of thermodynamics in action. Considering the body as the system of interest, we can use
the first law to examine heat transfer, doing work, and internal energy in activities ranging from sleep to heavy
exercise. For example, one major factor in such activities is body temperature—normally kept constant by heat transfer
to the surroundings, meaning that Q is negative (i.e., our body loses heat). Another factor is that the body usually does
work on the outside world, meaning that W is positive. Thus, in such situations the body loses internal energy, since
ΔU=Q−W is negative.

Eating

Now consider the effects of eating. The body metabolizes all the food we consume. Eating increases
the internal energy of the body by adding chemical potential energy. In essence, metabolism uses an
oxidation process in which the chemical potential energy of food is released. This implies that food
input is in the form of work. Food energy is reported in a special unit, known as the Calorie. This
energy is measured by burning food in a calorimeter, which is how the units are determined.

Internal energy

Our body loses internal energy, and there are three places this internal energy can go—to heat transfer, to doing work,
and to stored fat (a tiny fraction also goes to cell repair and growth). As shown in Fig 1 heat transfer and doing work take
internal energy out of the body, and then food puts it back. If you eat just the right amount of food, then your average
internal energy remains constant. Whatever you lose to heat transfer and doing work is replaced by food, so that, in the
long run, ΔU=0. If you overeat repeatedly, then ΔU is always positive, and your body stores this extra internal energy as
fat. The reverse is true if you eat too little. If ΔU is negative for a few days, then the body metabolizes its own fat to
maintain body temperature and do work that takes energy from the body. This process is how dieting produces weight
loss.

Metabolism

Life is not always this simple, as any dieter knows. The body stores fat or metabolizes it only if energy
intake changes for a period of several days. Once you have been on a major diet, the next one is less
successful because your body alters the way it responds to low energy intake. Your basal metabolic
rate is the rate at which food is converted into heat transfer and work done while the body is at
complete rest. The body adjusts its basal metabolic rate to compensate (partially) for over-eating or
under-eating. The body will decrease the metabolic rate rather than eliminate its own fat to replace
lost food intake. You will become more easily chilled and feel less energetic as a result of the lower
metabolic rate, and you will not lose weight as fast as before. Exercise helps with weight loss
because it produces both heat transfer from your body and work, and raises your metabolic rate even
when you are at rest.

2nd law

For example, heat involves the transfer of energy from higher to lower temperature. A cold object in contact with a hot
one never gets colder, transferring heat to the hot object and making it hotter. Furthermore, mechanical energy, such
as kinetic energy, can be completely converted to thermal energy by friction, but the reverse is impossible. A hot
stationary object never spontaneously cools off and starts moving. Yet another example is the expansion of a puff of
gas introduced into one corner of a vacuum chamber. The gas expands to fill the chamber, but it never regroups in the
corner. The random motion of the gas molecules could take them all back to the corner, but this is never observed to
happen.

The fact that certain processes never occur suggests that there is a law forbidding them to occur. The first law of
thermodynamics would allow them to occur—none of those processes violate conservation of energy. The law that forbids these
processes is called the second law of thermodynamics. We shall see that the second law can be stated in many ways that may
seem different, but these many ways are, in fact, equivalent. Like all natural laws, the second law of thermodynamics gives
insights into nature, and its several statements imply that it is broadly applicable, fundamentally affecting many apparently
disparate processes. The already familiar direction of heat transfer from hot to cold is the basis of our first version of the second
law of thermodynamics.

In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of heat or thermal energy to
mechanical work. Gasoline and diesel engines, jet engines, and steam turbines are all heat engines that do
work by using part of the heat transfer from some source. Heat transfer from the hot object (or hot reservoir)
is denoted as Qh, while heat transfer into the cold object (or cold reservoir) is Q c, and the work done by the
engine is W. The temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs are Th and Tc, respectively.

What is Entropy?
The entropy of a system is a measure of its disorder and of the unavailability of energy to do work.

As entropy increases, less and less energy in the universe is available to do work. On Earth, we still have great stores of
energy such as fossil and nuclear fuels; large-scale temperature differences, which can provide wind energy; geothermal
energies due to differences in temperature in Earth’s layers; and tidal energies owing to our abundance of liquid water. As
these are used, a certain fraction of the energy they contain can never be converted into doing work. Eventually, all fuels
will be exhausted, all temperatures will equalize, and it will be impossible for heat engines to function, or for work to be
done.

Since the universe is a closed system, the entropy of the universe is constantly increasing, and so the availability of
energy to do work is constantly decreasing. Eventually, when all stars have died, all forms of potential energy have been
utilized, and all temperatures have equalized (depending on the mass of the universe, either at a very high temperature
following a universal contraction, or a very low one, just before all activity ceases) there will be no possibility of doing
work.

Either way, the universe is destined for thermodynamic equilibrium—maximum entropy. This is often called the heat death
of the universe, and will mean the end of all activity. However, whether the universe contracts and heats up, or continues
to expand and cools down, the end is not near. Calculations of black holes suggest that entropy can easily continue for at
least 10100 years.

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