British Steel

The Design of Steel Footbridges

This document
38 pages
[contains
Thisguide has been prepared for British Steel by:

D C ILES BSc MSc ACGI DIC CEng MICE

Manager - Bridges. The Steel Construction Institute

Theauthor gratefully acknowledges the contributionsmade by Mr W Ramsay, Manager, Development Engineering,

British Steel - Plates and Mr A C G Hayward, Cass Hayward and Partners, during the preparation of the publication.

Thanks is also givento the followingfor the use of photographsfor the illustrations in this book:

TheAngle Ring Co. Ltd.

British Rail, Regional Railways
British Steel — Tubes& Pipes
Cass Hayward & Partners
Crouch Hogg Waterman
Cumbernauld Development Corporation
Exeter City Council
The Forestry Commission
Lanarkshire Welding Co. Ltd.
Nusteel Structures Ltd

The preparation of this publication was sponsored by British Steel Sections, Plates and Commercial Steels
and British Steel Tubesand Pipes.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. FEATURESAND FORMS OF CONSTRUCTIONFOR FOOTBRIDGES 2

3. CONCEPTUALDESIGN AND DETAILING 4

3.1 GENERALARRANGEMENT 4
3.2 SELECTIONOF TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION 8
3.3 TRUSSES ANDVIERENDEELGIRDERBRIDGES 9
3.4 STEEL BEAM BRIDGES 18
3.5 COMPOSITE BEAM BRIDGES 21
3.6 CABLE STAYED BRIDGES 22
3.7 ACCESS RAMPS AND STAIRS 24
3.8 BEARINGS AND EXPANSIONJOINTS 25

4. DESIGN CODES, STANDARDSAND GUIDANCE 26

4.1 BRITISH STANDARDS 26
4.2 DEPARTMENTALSTANDARDS 26
4.3 BRITISH RAIL REQUIREMENTS 27
4.4 DESIGN OF HOLLOW SECTION JOINTS 27
4.5 DESIGN OF CABLE STAYED ANDSUSPENSION BRIDGES 27
4.6 DESIGN OF STEEL ANDCOMPOSITE BRIDGE BEAMS •
28
4.7 DYNAMIC RESPONSE 28
4.8 PROTECTIVE TREATMENT 28
4.9 STEEL MATERIALS 28

5. FLOWCHARTS 29

6. REFERENCES 33

7. BRITISH STEEL SALES & ADVISORY OFFICES 34

1
1. INTRODUCTION
Footbridgesare needed where a separate
pathwayhas to be providedfor people to cross
traffic flows or somephysical obstacle, such as a
river. The loads they carry are, in relation to
highway or railway bridges,quite modest,and in
most circumstances a fairly light structure is
required. They are, however, frequentlyrequired to
give a long clearspan, and stiffness then becomes
an importantconsideration. The bridgesare often
very clearly on viewto the public and thereforethe
appearance merits careful attention.
Steel offers economicand attractive forms of
construction which suit all the requirements
demanded of a footbridge.
A fully detailed design can be prepared with other
contract documents for pricing by tenderers.
However, it is commonpractice, particularly for
smaller bridges, for the detailed design of a
footbridgeto be includedas part of a design and
construct package. Many fabricatorsare able to
provide such a package, using methodsand
details of construction developedto suit their
1. Bells Bridge, Glasgow
particularfabricationfacilitiesand expertise.
However, the engineer supervising the work still
needsto be acquainted with the different forms of
construction which might be used and to be aware
oftheir advantages and limitations.
Longer span bridges and those which form part of
a larger scheme are likely to be designed in detail
by a consultant or local authority. Within such an
organisation the engineer carrying out the design
needs to be familiar with the particular
requirements for footbridges, their features and
construction details.
For the engineer in either of thesesituations, this
publication presentsguidance on the conceptual
design of steel and compositefootbridges, to aid
theselection of an outline design.
Typicalkey features are illustrated in section3,
references to codes and sources of further
guidance are given in section4. Simple flow
chartsshowingthe design steps are presented in
section5.
Basicrequirements
Footbridges, like anyother bridge, must be long
enough to clearthe obstaclewhich is to be
crossedand highenoughnot to interfere with
whatever passes beneath the bridge. However,
theaccessroute onto thefootbridgeis often much
different from what is familiar to the designerof a
highway bridge:there is no necessity for a gentle
horizontal alignment (indeed the preferred route
may be sharplyat right angles to the span).
Structural continuityis therefore less common.
Theprincipalspan is often a simply supported
one.
Provision of suitableaccess for wheelchairs and
cyclists is often specified for footbridges. Access
ramps must be provided and restricted to a
maximum gradient. Theconsequent length of
rampswhereaccess is from the level of the road
over which the bridgespans is generally much
longerthan the bridge itself. The form of
construction suitablefor the rampsmay have a
dominantinfluence on the final form of the bridge.
Thewidth of a footbridgeis usually quite modest,
just sufficient to permit free passage in both
directionsfor pedestrians. Occasionally the bridge
will have segregated provision for pedestrians and
cyclists, in which case it will need to be wider.
Parapets are providedfor the safetyof both the
pedestrians and traffic below. Footbridges over
railway lines are required to have higherparapets
and be provided with solid panels directlyover the
rail tracks.
Truss and vierendeel girderbridges
Trusses offer a light and economical form of
construction,particularly whenthespan is large.
The members of the truss can be quite slender
and thisnaturally leads to theuseof structural
hollow sections. Hollow sections have been used
for footbridgesfor over 30 years and some
fabricatorshave specialised in this form of
construction,developing techniques and details
which utilisethem to the best advantage.
Vierendeel girders using hollowsectionmembers
offeran alternative but complementary structural
form of similar proportionby substitutinga
rectangular framefor the triangulararrangement
used in trusses.
Trussesand vierendeel girders are arranged with
either half-through or through construction.Half
through construction is used for smaller spans,
where the depth needed is relatively shallow. For
larger spans, or where the truss is clad to provide
a completeenclosure for the pedestrians, through
trusses are used; the top chordsare then braced
together above head level.
Thefloor of the bridge is normally at thelevel of
the bottom chord and is usually of steel plate.
Reinforced concrete, mainly in the form of precast
planks, is sometimes used.
Steelbeam bridges
The simplest method of employing structuralsteel
as theprime structuralelementof a footbridgeis
to use a pair of girders (fabricated or rolled
sections), bracedtogetherfor stability and acting
as beams in bending, with a non-participating
walkway surface on top. A typical small bridge
deck might for example be formed bytimbers
placedtransversely across thetop of the beams.
Precast slabs mightalso be used, without being
shear connectedto the steel and therefore not
participating in global structuralaction.
Alternatively the floor might be formed by steel
plate, suitably stiffened to carry the pedestrian
loads, in which case the platecould also be made
to act structurally as thetopflangeof thesteel
beams.
Steelbox girderbridges
Another alternative is to use a small steel box
girder. Thetop flange acts as the floor of the
bridge, and there are usually short cantilevers
either side of the box. Thisform hasthe benefits
of good torsional stiffness which can simplify
supportarrangements and clean surfaces which
minimise maintenance.
3

Composite beam bridges

Compositebeams, steelgirders with a concrete use of through trussor vierendeel construction.

slab acting as both a walkwayfloor and
participating as a top flange, are a practical
solutionfor medium span footbridges. They are a
lighterversion of the form of composite
construction frequently employed in highway
bridges.Slabs may be cast in-situ, thoughthe
lesserrequirements for theshear connection and
the lighterdesign loads on the slab allowgreater
opportunityto employ pre-castslabs. Theslab
can also be cast on the beams in the worksor
other convenient site, sincethe weight and
dimensions are often sufficientlymodest to permit
transport and erectionof the complete
superstructure.
Although compositeconstruction is usually
associated with I sectiongirders, a concreteslab
can also be used with a steel box girder.
Cable stayedbridges
Theform of construction will probablybe dictated
by consideration of appearance of thebridge and
its relationship to adjacent structures. Whilst the
general principles discussed in this guide are
applicable, fully enclosed bridges are not
specifically dealt with in detailin this guide.
Decorative features
In addition to the basic impression made by the
form of construction,the appearance can be
greatly influenced by non-structural decorative
features, such as parapets and handrails. Where
particulareffectsare sought, the availability of
different pafterns for posts, rails, etc, should be
investigated. Non-structural embellishments of
supportscan also contribute- for example a cable
stayed pylon can be extendedto a spike or other
featureabove the level of the topmost stay
connection.

In seeking to providea bridgeof light appearance,

the useof cable stays is found to be very
successful. It often affords scope to create a
visually strikingstructurewhich provides a
landmark or a focus for the areain which it is
located.

Almostany form of constructioncan be used with

stays, though when a cable-stayed form is
chosen, the structuralrequirements are often
found to be of secondaryconsideration to the
achievement of a pleasing appearance.

Enclosedbridges
Enclosure of the sides of a footbridgeis often
called for to discouragethe throwing of objects
from the bridge. This is a particular requirement
for bridges over railway lines. Full enclosure, to the
sides and the roof of the walkway, is called for in
situationswhere the users are to be protected
from the environment. Such enclosure justifiesthe
 4

3. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND DETAILING

3.1 General arrangement

Figure 1 Basicsectional dimensions

As a first step, the basicrequirements for access
and safety should be determined. Thewidth and
form of access needed dependson theexpected
pedestrian traffic flow, though minimum Minimum footway
dimensions are adequate in most cases. iBm

For a simple footway,a minimum clearwidth of

1.8 m is required by both DoTand BR. To the

_
sides of this footway,parapets are required, which
should be 1.15 m high over roads or 1.5 m high
over railways, the height measured from the fl.15m
footwaysurfacein both cases. The resulting
minimum cross sectionto be provided is shown in
Figure 1. An increased parapet height of 1.3 m
may be needed over roads and rivers, subjectto
the agreement of the Technical Approval
Footway +cycleway
Authority,if the bridge is more than 10 m above
the ground below.
Where pedestrians and cyclists share the
pathway, the minimum width increases to 2.0 m
for unsegregated traffic (suitable only for low
traffic flows) or to 2.7 m if segregation is required
by marking or othervisualdifferentiation (colour
contrastetc). At the same time the minimum
parapet height is increased to 1.4 m. The cross
sectionfor a combined pathwayis also shown in
_ fli.4m

Figure 1.
Thedrainage requirements also affectthe cross Maried segregation

section,since kerbswill be needed to prevent 1.2m 1.5m

run-off where thebridge is above a carriageway or
a footpath.Typically an upstand of 50 mm should
be provided. This upstand can be provided by an Footway Cycleway .4 m
edge beam, by thelower chord of a truss or by a
flat weldedto the floor plate.
5
Span
Since there is usually no need to align the
approaches to a footbridge,the span should
normally be arranged square to the road, rail line
or otherfeature which it hasto cross.
Theminimum span required is that simply needed
to clearthewidth of obstacleor carriageway.
However, the span may be increased in order that
the supportsare positioned far enough from a
carriageway to avoidthe risk of impact from an
errant vehicle. The supportsof light structures
such as footbridgesare particularly prone to the
effectsof impact.
For footbridgesover highways, the span is
determined by the dimensions of the
carriageways, as given in the DoT's Departmental
Standard TD 27/86. To avoid the imposition of
impact loads the supportsneed to be set back
4.5 m from the edge of the carriageway (see
Figure 2). Where this can be arranged, perhaps
additionally spanning a footway beside the road,
the consequent savings in thecost of the
substructure should be considered. Supports
between carriageways shouldalso be avoided
wherever possible.
Thespace needed for approach ramps and stairs
will be significant in arranging thelayout of a
footbridge. This may influence the positioning of
the bridge and its supports,and thus its span.
Footbridges over railways are mostly required to
crosstwo or four tracks.The span between full
height abutments or over the width of a cutting will
be between 10 and 25 m. Where intermediate
supportsare placed closer than 4.5 m to the
nearest rail, BR mayrequire the superstructure to
be capableof supportingitself if one supportwere
to be demolished in an accident.
Figure 2 Governing dimensions in elevation.
I I I I I
1
5.7m
, 4.5m •
Clearance
The DoTrequire that theclearance under new
footbridgesbe at least 5.7 m (TD 27/86). Withthis
clearance the superstructure need not be
designed for impact loads (see Figure 2). If any
relaxation on clearance were permitted in special
cases it is likely that impact loads wouldhaveto
be considered. This would be very onerous on the
structural design.
Clearance over railways is specified by BR,
typicallya minimum of 4.640 m from rail level. This
provides minimum clearance on electrified lines:
greaterclearances are required near level
crossingsand where there is 'free running' (where
the wires are not attachedto the bridge).
Clearly, where access to the bridge has to come
from carriageway or track level, the riseneeded
for the stairsor ramps is thesum of theclearance
plus the superstructure constructiondepth
(walkway surlace to structure softit). This means
that ramps will be long(about 120 m at each end
of the bridge, for a 1 in 20 grade). It also means
that the depth of construction (for example the
depth of a plate girder) can add significantly to the
length of ramp, and thus to the cost of the whole
structure. Forthis reason, half-through
construction,with a very shallow construction
depth, is usually preferred.
Sufficient vertical camber is needed to ensure
drainage of the footbridgeto the ends, where the
run-offcan be carried to drains or a soakaway.
Stairs and ramps

Where access is required from a lowerlevel, stairs
and ramps must be provided. Stairsare only
suitable for able pedestrians and it is general DoT
policyto provideramps where possible. Such
rampsshould ideally be no steeper than 1 in 20,
though gradientsof up to 1 in 12 may be used for
straight rampswhere space is limited.
A ramp can be either a series of straightsections
or a spiral, depending on circumstances and
spaceavailable (see Figure 3).
Plain spiral ramps must have a minimum inside
radius of 5.5 m and a maximum gradientof 1 in 20
(gradient measured 900 mm from the inside edge).
They are thereforeunsuitable for a full 6 m rise
(too many turns or too large a radius).
Stepped ramps are sometimes used which, with a
125 mm step and a 1 in 12 slope between, can
effectively achieve a 1 in 6 gradient. For spiral
rampsthis gives a riseof 6 m in under360°turn.

Straightrampshave to be provided with landings

at intervals of no morethan 3.5 m rise. This is
often arranged in scissorfashion, with a 180°
change of directionat the landing. Thespace
occupiedby a ramp is quite significant and may
well influence the positionof the bridge.

2. Stairs & Ramps, Christchurch

7
Stairsare usually arranged in two or three flights
with intermediate landings, dependingon
particulararrangements, to complywith normal
safety requirements. They usually have semi-open
risers, for lighterappearance.
Handrails are providedon the inside faces of the
parapets on stairsand ramps. Minimum widths
must be maintained between thesehandrails.
Figure 3 Arrangement of typicalstairsand ramp
20 rises
max
3. Spiral Ramp, Myton Footbridge, Hull
Senjices
Occasionally the bridge mayhaveto carry a
service- water pipes or electriccables,for
example. It should normally be arranged that such
pipes are supportedout of sight, on bracketsor
cross-members between main beams for
example. If a serviceis positioned inside a box
girder, it is befter to put it in a duct, so that any
maintenance to the servicedoes not require entry
into the box girder.Gas or waterpipes should not
be sited inside a box girder, for safety reasons,
unless placed in a steel sleeve which runs the
length of the bridge.
1:20
3.2 Selection of type of construction
As mentioned previously, the depth of Suspension bridgesare veryrarely considered
construction is very importantto the overall extent these days, but may still be chosen for
of the footbridgewhereaccessis from the level of appearance reasons when the span exceeds
the road being crossed. In those circumstances it about 70 m.
is usually preferable to use a half-through form of
A summary of approximate span ranges suitable
construction.This usually leadsto selection of a
for thevarious types is given in Table 1.
trussor vierendeel girder bridge, though half-
through plate girderforms such as that developed
by British Rail mayalso be used.
Construction type Span range
However, not all bridgesrequire such access. (m)
Some simplycross,for example, a small river, or
Truss 15 to 60
spanacross a deep cutting. Here thedepth of
construction is not so important and steel girders Vierendeel girder 15 to 45
or steel compositeconstruction maybe employed. Twinsteelgirders 10 to 25

When the span is long, the dynamicresponse of Steel girders + steelfloor plate 10 to 30
the bridge becomes a significantconsideration, Steel box girder 20 to 60
particularly for the lighterall-steel bridge. The Compositebeams 10 to 50
greaterstiffness afforded by truss construction Cablestayed bridge 40 upwards
may well be advantageous. Alternatively, cable-
Suspension bridge 70 upwards
stayedconstructioncan be employed.
Cable stayed forms of construction can rarely be
Table 1
justifiedvisually below about 40 m. For spans
Span ranges for differenttypes of construction
between 50 m and 100 m a single pylon on one
side of the main span will give a satisfying
arrangement, both visually and structurally.
Beyond about 100 m twin pylons should be
considered.

4. RiverExe SuspensionBridge
9

3.3 Trusses and vierendeel girder bridges

Although trusses and vierendeel girders have a
different structural action,there are many similar
featureswhenthey are constructedof structural
hollow sectionmembers, as used in footbridges.
This sectiondeals with both types of construction.
Through and half-through construction
Trusses and vierendeel girdersfor footbridgesare
normally arranged with the deck at the level of the
bottom chord, in either through or half-through
construction. Half-through construction is usedfor
smaller spans, where the depth needed is less
than the clearance height for people to walk
through For large spans, or where thebridge is
clad to provide a complete enclosure for the
pedestrians, throughconstruction is used. Thetop
chordscan then be braced togetherabove head
level.

Stabilityof thetop compression chord in half-

through construction is provided by the U-frame
action of theside members and thecross-mem-
bers ofthe deck. In through construction, lateral
bracing between the two top chords offers a more
direct means of stabilising them.

5. HalfThrough Truss Footbridge

7. Through Truss Footbridge

6. RutherglenStationFootbridge
 10

Configuration
The type of truss usually employed is either a
Warren truss or a modified Warren truss.
Occasionally a Pratt truss maybe used. The
different types are illustrated in Figure 4.
Warren trussesare the simplest form of truss, with
all loads being carried principally as axial loads in
the members and with theminimum of members
meeting at joints. However, the loads which are
carried to the bottom chordsfrom the walkway
floor can lead to significantbending in these
members when the panels are large. A modified
warren truss reduces the span of thesechord
members, though the additional verticalmembers
add complexity to the fabrication. Pratttrusses are
used whereit is preferred that somemembers are
vertical, for example to facilitate the fixing of
claddingor decorative panels.
Vierendeel girders have no diagonal members and
relyon a combination of axial loading and bending
to carry loads. Thestiffness of the girderdepends
cruciallyon the bending stiffness of verticaland
horizontal members and on the stiffness of the
joints between the two. As a consequence they
are much heavier, for a given span, than a Warren
truss. However the appearance, which only shows
verticaland horizontal lines, in harmony with the
normal form of parapet (horizontal rails, vertical
postsand infill), is often consideredmore
pleasing.
For the largest spans, the vierendeel girderwill
probablybe tooflexible, though they have been
used successfully up to 45 m span.

Figure 4 Types of truss and vierendeel girder

Warren truss.

Modified Warren truss

N \N/VV
Pratt truss

Vierendeel girder
11

Proportions and appearance

The familiar image of a truss is probablyof a span vierendeel girders, where the depth is more
heavy-looking structure, relatively deep in than the parapet height, parapet panelscomplete
proportionto span. Suchtrusseswere often used with top rail can be fixed inside the rectangular
for railway bridges. However, a truss suitablefor a panels of the girder.
footbridgecan generally be of light appearance Where a truss is used, the parapet is usually fixed
and, for longerspans, of shallowdepth/span
to the inner face of the diagonal members. The
proportion.
parapets are less conspicuous to road users than
With half-through construction,the minimum the truss members, though they are still evident in
overall depth is determined by the parapet height; silhouette.
for a crossingover a highway the minimum is
Construction depth, from footwaysurfaceto
about 1.25 m. For spansover about 30 metres the
underside of the truss or girder, is normally quite
depth will need to be slightly greater, though
shallow, not morethan the depth ofthe chord
span:depthratios in excess of 30 can give a
members. This contributesgreatly to the light
pleasing appearance.
appearance.
For spans of about 50 m or more, full through
construction will probablybe necessary. Thenthe
depth is determined by internal clearance, which is
usually specified as 2.3 m minirrium. To reducethe
tunnel effectand to keep the top bracing away
from casual abuse (climbing on or swinging from
it) a depth of about 3 m is needed. Such spanswill
have a deeper span/depth ratio, though the
slender members will still give an impression of
lightness.
Thearrangement of thebracing and the line of the
parapets are the dominantfeatureswhich are 9. VierendeelFootbridge
seen by road users. They therefore require careful
attentionand treatment. Thetop and bottom chords of a truss are usually
made parallel, but for larger spans a less
Where the depth of vierendeel girder is determined
dominating appearance can be achieved by a
by parapet height, thetop chord can often be
used as the parapet rail, with suitable infill bars hog-backconfiguration, with a gentle curveto the
fixed between the verticalmembers. For longer top chord reducing the depth at theends ofthe
span. Thiscan be achieved with Warren and
vierendeel girders.

8. Large-SpanTruss Footbridge
 12

10. Truss Footbridge,

Buchan Park, Crawley

11. Large-SpanVierendeelFootbridge, A27Broadmarsh

13

Members and Connections - trusses

Both circularand rectangular structural hollow
sections are commonlyused in trusses. The
bottom chord is generally rectangular, to facilitate
connection with deck and cross-members. Rolled
sections or flats are sometimes used as cross-
members or as stiffeners to steelfloor plates.
Chordsand diagonals are usually arranged with
centrelines intersecting where possible. Standard
welding details have been developedfor hollow
sectionconnections.
For half-through trussesthe connection with
cross-members at the lowerchord requires
particularattention,since its stiffness and strength
are fundamental to U-frameaction.
Where the bottom chordsare of rectangular
section, moments from the cross-members would
"lozenge"or distort an unstiffened chord section.
To avoid this, plates can be slotted diagonally
acrossthesectionat the positionof thecross-
member (see Figure 5). The end U-frame has to be
designed for greaterforcesthan intermediate
frames.
Where a steelfloor plate is used it normally acts
as the 'bracing to thebottom chords, to carry the
lateral shear (mainly wind forces) back to the
supports. If a non-participating form of floor is
used, cross bracing in the plane of the bottom
chord, to resistlateral forces, must be considered.
Through trusses, used in longer spans, give lateral
stabilityto the topcompressionchord by means
of bracing in the plane of the top chord. Such
bracing will also share in the carryingof any lateral
forces, especially where the truss is clad on its
sides and thus subjectto significant wind loads.
At the endsof thespanthese lateral forces have
to be carried down to bearing level through portal
action or through a bracedframe.

100 x 100 x 10 RHS

10 thick insert plate

slotted into chord

weld ground flush

Figure 5 Typical detailof diagonal plate
through bottom chord

12. LowerChord connection detail

Members and connections - Vierendeelgirders
In footbridges,Vierendeel girdersnormally use
rectangular hollow sections for greaterstiffness
and strengthat the connectionsbetween verticals
and chords.
Thenature of vierendeel action is that vertical
shear is carried by shear/bending action of each
length of chord, and the verticalmembers are
subjectto complementary horizontal shear and
bending. Since shear is highest at the endsof the
span, the 'fixed end moments'are highest there
also.The vertical members thereforeneed to be
strongestat theends of the span.
On the otherhand the central portionsof the
chords sustain predominantly axial load, whilst the
endssustainpredominantly bending load. There is
less need to vary thesize ofthechord members,
and usually only thickness is varied, if at all.
Theconsequences are that the vertical members
are often wider (in the plane ofthe girder) at the
endsof the span and are sometimes closer
together, variations which are clearly visible in
silhouette.
Figure 6 Detailofa haunchedjoint in
a vierendeel girder
The strength of thejoint between chord and
vertical members mustbe adequate to transmit
thefixed end moments. To do this both should
have the samewidth (normal to the plane of the
girder). Under the higher moments on the joints
toward the endsof thespan a simple square joint
mayhave inadequate strength, and either
triangularfillets (cut from the same sectionas the
vertical) or reinforcing plates mayneed to be
added to increase stiffness and strength
(see Figure 6). The appearance of theseadditions
maynot always be acceptable and heavier
sections may be preferred.
Stability of the compression chord again requires
U-frame action of the cross sectionand this again
requires adequate stiffness and strength of the
cross-member to vertical connection at the
bottom chord. Even with the heavier sections
usually required for a vierendeel girder, it may still
be necessary to insert diagonal plates, as is done
for trusses.
15

Floor construction
Thefloor of a truss or vierendeel girderfootbridge
will usually be of steel plate, though precast
planks have been used with trusses. The lighter
steel deck is now generally preferred.
The plate, typically6 mm thick, is supportedon
and weldedto steel cross-members between the
chords. These cross-members form part of the
U-frameswhich stabilise the top chord and are
themselves usually hollow sections. The plate
panelsbetween chordsand cross-members are
dividedtransversely and sometimes longitudinally
by stiffeners (usually flats) to give added support.
On topof this plate a waterprooflayer is required
for corrosion protection, and to give a non-slip
surface for safety. This is usually achieved with a
thin membrane (which acts both as waterproofing
and as a binder) and a surface dressing of fine
aggregate. Thetotal thickness is about 4 mm. This
surface is often applied in the worksand does not
add significantly to erectionweights.
When precast planks are used it is necessary to
provide a shelf angle on the inner faceof the
chordson which theplanks can sit, It is very
importantthat the joint between concreteand
steel is properly sealed or it could becomea
moistureand corrosion trap.
Where drainage over the edges of the bridge is not 13. Stiffenedplate floor construction

permitted, arrangements must be made to carry

rainwater to the ends of the bridge and then to
drainsor a soakaway. A vertical curve or
longitudinal camber should be providedon a
bridgewhich otherwise would be level.
Where rainwater can be allowed to run off the side
of the bridge(for example over a river), the floor
may be slightly cambered transversely to facilitate
drainage. With stiffened thin steel platedecks,
care also needs to be exercised that panels do not
dish between stiffeners and allow ponding of
water- the spacingof stiffeners is usually limited
for this reason. Weld sizes should be keptto a
minimum, to reducedistortionfrom welding.

Parapets
Parapets are normally designed to complywith a
Department of Transport standard (see section
4.2). The parapet maybe either a separate item or
maybe combined with structuralmembers.
For trusses, the parapet is provided as separate
units fixed to the inside faces of thetruss
diagonals. Thediagonals must then be designed
to carry lateral loads from the parapet, and the
parapet rails must be designed to span between
the diagonals which supportthem. Parapet posts
can alternatively be fixed to thefootwaydeck,
though the attachment would need to be strong
enough to withstandthe overturning moment
arisingfrom lateral forceson the top rail.
15. Typicalparapet detail
16
Where vierendeel girdersare used it is convenient
to fix parapet panels in the rectangular panels of
the girders, effectively usingtheverticalmembers
as parapet posts. Thisachieves an integrated
appearance and producesa slightly lesser overall
width of bridgethan with separate parapets on the
inner faces of the girder. Thetop chord of the
girder mayalso function as thetop parapet rail, or,
if it is higher than the required parapet height, a
separate rail can be provided in addition to the top
chord.
Cladding
Overrail tracks, DoT and BR require that solid
non-climbablecladdingbe providedon the inside
face of the trussor vierendeel girder. This is
usually achieved by profiled steelsheeting,
rigidised aluminium, GRP panels or evenflat steel
sheets. Although the claddingis only required over
thetracks, a betterappearance is often achieved
by providing the claddingover thefull length of
thespan. Great care needs to be exercised in
detailing the cladding,to avoid the creationof
small inaccessible sheltered ledges on the top of
the lowerchord wheremoss and debris can
accumulate.
16. Parapetsin VierendeelGirder, Horam
17

Supports Erection

Trusses and vierendeel girders are supported
either on bearings (if they span between concrete
abutments, for example) or directlyon top of a
simplesteel substructure without any bearings.
At abutments the point of supportis normally
directly below the end verticalor diagonal
members and thus does not give riseto local
bending of the chord section. Other supports
should also preferably be arranged similarly.
Where it is not convenient to do so, for instance
when a top landing cantilevers a short distance
beyond the support columnsand the support is
midway between bracing connections, the bottom
chord is subjected to bending. It is then common
to use a heavier chord sectionover the last one or
two panels of the truss (see photograph17).
Fortunately, most footbridgescan be fabricatedas
a complete length of thespan and then
transported, with spans up to about 45 m.
Although fabrications over 27 m in length require
special permission to travel on the public highway,
mostfabricatorsprefer to completefabricationin
theworks wherever possible and are familiar with
arrangements for the movement of long lengths.
Bolted hollow sectionflanged joint details can be
used for site splices, though it may be felt that
flange plate end connections are somewhat
cumbersome in appearance. In-line splicedetails
are much less obtrusive, but require more effort in
design and fabrication(see photograph 18).
17. British Rail Footbridge, Crabtree

Fabrication of trusses

Fabricators who specialise in hollow section

fabricationare familiarwith all the types of detail
needed for trussfootbridgesand haveappropriate
equipment, such as profilecutting equipmentfor
tubularsetc.
A wide range of sizes of hollow sections is
available from the rolling mills, but it must be
remembered that the fabricatorhasto purchase
material for each job, either from the mill or from a 18. In-line splice detail

stockist,and his ordersmay be subjectto

minimum quantitiesand premiums for small
quantities. The designer should therefore try as far
as possible to standardise his choiceof section
size and material grade.

19. Erection ofChristchurchFootbridge

 18

3.4 Steel beam bridges

Types ofconstruction
Four types of construction are considered in this
section:

• a pair of steel beams with a non-structural

floor on top (e.g. timber)
• a pair of steel beams with a structurally
participating steel floor plate
•• a steel box girder
a half-through plategirder bridge, as
developed by British Rail.
20. Footbridge with timber deckandparapets
The first threeare appropriate where depth of
construction is not important. The fourth is The useof a steel box girderextendsthe clean
appropriate where minimum construction depth is lines to the soffit of the bridge. It can be
critical.
complemented by a simple basic parapet or can
Proportions and appearance be contrastedby embellishment with ornate
fixtures and fittings.Typically the box would be
For the relatively light loading on a footbridge, the about 1.0 m wide, with short steel cantilevers
depth of beam in all cases can be arranged to be either side to provide thenecessary width.
about 1/30 of the span. A typical bridgeover a
river or canal mightthen have a span of 30 m and Half-through plategirder bridges will usually have
a beam depth of 1 m. their U-frame stiffeners on theoutsidefaces and
generally look more heavy. Nevertheless, the half-
A simple I-beam bridge with non-structural floor
through plate girderbridge developedby British
mightcomprisetwogirdersabout 1.5 m apart on Rail (see page 20) achieves a pleasing
which is fixed a floor of, in some instances, timber
appearance.
planks. Parapet posts would be fixed to the top
flangeor theouter face of the steel beams. 21. Footbridge using rolledsections, Swale

Steel girders with a structural participating steel

floor platewould be of similar overall proportions.
Parapets would be fixed on top of the floor plate.
With both forms,thegirders can have a clean web
over their full length, as web stiffeners are needed
only at supportsand on the inner facesfor
attachment of bracing. Thestructuralelement
therefore looks cleanand simple. The appearance
will be influenced strongly by the treatmentof the
parapet rails, posts and any otherfeature added
to thebridge. The use of simple parapet details
will contributeto a good non-fussy overall
appearance.
In some circumstances a distinct curvature in
elevation (more than would sufficejust to aid
drainage to the ends) will add character to the
appearance.
19

Members and connections - I-beams/girders

For economical design, the pair of beams need
to be bracedtogetherto stabilise them against
lateral torsional buckling. Bracing at several
positions in the span will be necessary, roughly at
15 to 20 times the top flange width to achieve
reasonable limitingstress levels. Bracing can
simply be an X brace with singletie at each
position, bolted to stiffeners on the inside faces of
thewebs. For the main girders, fabricated
I-sectionsare likely to be lighterand more
economic than Universal Beams. Castellated
beams can provide a weightsaving in some
circumstances whilst offering an interesting and
different appearance.
A non-structural deck, such as timber planking,
can be simply bolted down to the top flange of the
I-beams.Particular attentionshould be paidto
detailing, to minimise crevices where dirt and
moisturecan accumulate.
Diaphragms are needed at supportsand are often
provided at several positions along the length of
thegirder (typically the third points) to control
distortion. Large holes will be required in the
diaphragms if access is required during fabrication
or maintenance.
To improveappearance it is common to use
slightlyslopingwebs, creatinga trapezoidal cross
section.
Theuse of steel box girders has the advantage of
torsional strength and stiffness. They can be used
in continuousconstruction to simplifysupports or
to curve the bridge in planwhen desired for
appearance. In a straight bridge,torsional restraint
(usually by means of twin bearings) is needed only
at theends: a single bearing will suffice at
intermediate supports,thus allowing the use of a
single slender column.

In manyinstances steel plate is used for the floor

of the bridge. The plate, typically about 6mm
thick, is usually weldedto the main girdersand
can therefore be assumed to act structurally with
them. Cross-members will be required to carry the
floor loading to the main beams and these are
sometimes extended by short steel cantilevers
outside the beam web, in which case an edge
beam is provided to give a neat faceand to give
TH
supportto the parapet. Athin waterproof wearing
surface is normally specified,dressedwith fine
aggregate for grip and durability. The surface is

/i\
often applied in the works. 22. Box Girder Footbridgeand Cycleway,Gablecross
Members and connections - box girders

Box girders are essentially similar to the paired

300gm ClearWOth

plategirders with steel deck, as described above,

except that the bottom flange joins the two webs P4Pedestrran

and encloses the space between. They are usually Parapet

6rnrmr Thrck Epoxy
Norm SlipSurtacing

considered only for spansover about 30 m. The on Steel Deck Plate

thickness of the top flangewhich also forms the

floor platewill be determined by overall bending FaIl

strength rather than local floor loading. The plate -

is typicallysupported by transverse stiffeners
/1 I
which cantilever to edge beams. Two or three RI-IS Fascra
Beam
Angle Strerger J Steel Flat Cross
Girders

longitudinal stiffeners may be providedto stiffen Steel Plate Diaphragnrms

the floor platewhen acting as thecompression '-._Folded Steel Plate

Box Girder
flange of the box. 800rmmm

3300mmOoerall Width

GENERAL CROSS SECTION

Figure 7

Memberand connections - half through girders
Half through plategirderfootbridgesare often
used over railways. The solid web provides the
required screening withoutthe need for anynon-
structural additions. Thisform hasdevelopedfrom
the half-through plategirderconcept often seen in
railway bridges. A particular form developed by
the former Midland Region of British Rail is
illustrated in photographs23/24.Two features to
note are: the use of a hollow sectionas top flange,
turned through450 it forms a steeplecope, which
discourages walking along the flange; the absence
of any projection of the bottom flangeprevents
climbing along the outerface.
U-frame action is provided by the flat intermediate
stiffeners to web and bottom flange. Typically they
are provided about every 1.5 m.
Parapets
Where there are no cantilevers the parapet can
either be fixed to thetop flange of the box or to
theweb of the girder. The attachment positions
should coincidewith bracing or cross-members,
to provide restraint against rotation under lateral
loadson the parapet rail.
Where there are cantilevers, either the posts
should coincide with the cantilever positions or
they should be mounted on a torsionallystiff
hollow sectionedge beam.
20
Fabrication
Whether using rolled I-beams or fabricated
I-section girders, the processes of drilling holes,
adding stiffeners etc. poses no difficultyto the
fabricator. The fabricated I-section can either be
made using jigs and semi-automatic welding or by
a T and I automatic welding machine. Curvature in
elevation is easily achieved with fabricatedgirders,
and universal beams can readily be curved by
specialist bending companies prior to fabrication.
Fabrication of box sections requires more
traditional methods, and the completion of the
closed box makesit almostessential for manual
work internally. Details should be arranged for
ease of access for work and inspection.
Splices
For spans up to around 40 m, it is quite likely
that the beams would be transportedfull length
and spliceswould not be needed. Over40 m
they would be split into at leasttwolengths; site
connections would normally be bolted.
Bolted splicesare quiteconventional, with few
problems. If a completelycleanface is sought,
it will be necessary to have a site weldedjoint.
23/24. HalfThrough Plate GirderFootbridge, BritishRail
21
3.5 Composite beam bridges
Types of Construction
Compositeconstruction is seen in footbridgesin
two forms - a concreteslab on top of two I-girders
or a concreteslab on top of a closed steel box
girder. The open steel box form with slab which is
sometimes used in highway bridges is not
normally seen in footbridges
Slabs may be cast in-situ, though the relatively
modest extentof the shear connection and lighter
design loads on the slab allowgreateropportunity
to employ pre-castslabs. Such slabs are provided
with open pocketsto fit over the shear
connectors. The pocketsand the joints between
slab sections are filled with concreteto createthe
necessary structural continuity.
25. Compositecurved 1' beam Footbridge, Washington
Proportions and appearance
Compositefootbridgestypically have a
span:depth ratio of about 20 (depth measured
from top of slab to underside of girder).
Short cantilevers outsidethe lines of thewebs will
give a betterappearance, in thesame way as they
do for highway bridges. A small upstand is needed
at the edges to provide a mounting for the
parapets and to act as a drainage upstand.A thick
edgebeam would createa rather heavy
appearance.
Members and connections
Compositeconstructionproduces a much heavier
structurethan an all-steelfootbridge;the dead
load accountsfor over half ofthetotal load in most
cases. The extra weightand consequent stiffness
of thisform of construction hastheadvantage of
being less responsive to dynamicexcitation.
Where transverse joints between precast units are
not designed to carry transverse shear, plan
bracing will also be needed.
Floorconstruction
Reinforced concreteslabs for footbridgesare
typicallyabout 150 mm thick. They can be
constructedin situ on falsework or by using
precast slabs.
Sometimes they can be cast in the fabrication
yard, and the complete composite structure
transported to site and erected.
A waterproofing membrane is required, plus some
form of durablewearing surface. A combined
membrane and wearing course with aggregate
dressing, similar to that used on steel decks, can
be used.
Parapets
As for other forms of construction,parapetsmust
complywith DoTrequirements. The parapet posts
are fixed to the concreteslab or edgebeam with
conventional holding down bolts.
 22

3.6 Cable stayed bridges

Footbridges carry only relatively light loading. Footbridge pylons are usually steel box or circular
However, whenthe main span is long, the sections, for slender appearance, ease of
requirements of supporting its own dead load and construction and economy.
of providing a sufficiently stiff structure lead
toward a much moresubstantial structurethan Members and connections
would seem appropriate for a 'mere' footbridge. The cablestayswill normally be made from wire
As a result, an increasingly popular solution for
ropeor spiral strand. Strandsare made by winding
longerspansis the useof a cable stayed together, or laying up, a numberof galvanised
arrangement. Thiseffectively dividesthe span into steel wires. Ropes are made up of a numberof
shorterlengths, for which lighter beams can be small strands wound together. Ropes and spiral
used. The pylons for these bridges also add a strandshavea lower effectivemodulus than solid
strong visual feature which is often welcomed. steel. Parallel wire strands are also available.
Types ofconstruction Adviceshould be sought from specialist
manufacturers on the selection of strands.
Cable stays can be used with any of the forms of
26. Cable stayed 'I' beam Footbridge, Cumbernauld
construction previouslydescribed, though to
complementthe light appearance, a slim form of
deck constructionis likely to be moreappropriate
for all except the largest spans. Supportscan be
providedto themain beams at about 10 m to 15 m
spacing, which facilitatesthe useof a slender
deck.

For mostfootbridges,twin planes of cable stays

will normally be used, one to each side of the
bridge deck. A pylonat one end of the main span
will sufficeup to about 100 m span. Very long
spans mayrequire the use of pylons at both ends.
'A' framepylons are popular, with the two stay 27. Cable stayed VierendeelFootbridge, Paddington
planes inclined. Alternatively, individual pylon legs
for each cable planecan be arranged, or a 'goal-
post' arrangement can be used; thestayscan
then lie in a verticalplane.

Usually, at leasttwo forestays should be provided

in each plane - a single stay is hard to justify on
economicor appearance grounds. The minimum
span for a cable stayed bridge with two forestays
is thus around 35 m.
A single backstay is usually sufficient,anchored to
thegirder at the abutmentwhich supportstheend
ofthe backspan. Further backstays are only
needed if the backspan is long and requires
intermediate support.

The stays are normally anchored at floor level to

longitudinal beams. The beams need to be stiff
and strong enough to span between anchorpoints
and they mayneed to be fairly deep. A lighter
appearance, with shallow beam/floor depth, might
be achieved by using a vierendeel girder and half-
throughconstruction.
23

In thedead load conditionthe stays are effectively inspected from time to time to checkfor corrosion
'
prestressed. is importantto calculate accurately
thestretch of the stays in thedead load condition,
and fatigue, particularly at the lower ends. The
stay anchorages should be accessible for such
so that the correct geometry of the structureis inspection and maintenance. Thedesign should
achieved. Provision should be made for length also be suchthat any one stay can be removed
adjustment in the stays, to accommodate and replaced.
tolerancesand errors.
Dynamic response
Stays must obviously be sufficientlystrong to
Cable stayed bridges are relatively flexible and are
supportthe beams, but often more significant for
more prone to oscillationunder wind or under
small bridges is the need to providesufficiently
deliberate excitation by users. An all-steel
stiffsupportsto the beams and to avoid slack
construction results in a very low level of structural
stayswhich will be easily vibrated.
damping, which can allowthe oscillationsto grow
Withtwin planes ofstays, thenatural arrangement significantly. The dynamic response of the bridge
forthedeck structureis with main beams at either should therefore be checked carefully. Artificial
edge, to whichthe stays areattached.Thefloor damping, such as tuned mass dampers, can be
then spanstransversely between the beams. providedif necessary.
A single plane of stayscan only be used where a
Floorconstruction
torsionallystiff box girderis provided; the stays
wouldbe attached on the centreline of thebridge. Deckconstruction is usually of stiffened steel
Thisis notnormally convenient for a single footway. plate, though timber or reinforced concreteare
sometimes used instead.
As well as provision for adjustment in length
during installation, attachment detailsshould also
be arranged such that any stay can be replaced if
need be. It is good practiceto make sure that the
anchorages are as strong at ULS as the breaking
load of the stays.
Underthe actionof live load the stays provide stiff
supportto the main beams and they thus behave
essentially as continuous beams. Axial load is also
transmitted to the beams by the stays, so the
beams must be designed for the combined load
effects.

For very longspans, thedeflection under load

changes the geometry of the structure. If the sag
of the stays is significant they will act as non-linear
springs. Both these effectsshould be taken into
account in theanalysis. Computerprograms are
available which automatically take account of the
non-linear effectsof varying geometryunder load.

Whilst ropes and strand can last the life of the

bridge, experience hasshown that they should be

28. Cablestayanchorage
 24

3.7 Access ramps and stairs

Where approach rampsor stairsare needed they
are usually structurallyindependent, exceptfor the
need to be supported at the top end either on the
footbridgesuperstructure or on a common
substructure support. They can therefore be of a
structurally differentform. However, it is generally
preferable to achieveharmony of appearance
between the two and to usea similar construction
form.

Stairsusually require, at most, one intermediate

support beneath the landing at mid-flight. Ramps
require moresupportsand indeed are small
bridgesthemselves. Even for ramps, thenumber
of intermediate supportsshould be kept as small
as possible, with spansof at least 10 m. Supports
should also be as simple as possible - aT-shaped
column and crosshead should be sufficientin
most cases.
Where supportsmaybe subjectto impact loads,
they will need to be significantlymoresubstantial.
Thefoundationswill also have to be larger. In
thesecircumstances thedesignercan choose
either reinforced concretecolumnsor a robust
steel structure.
Since landings are nominally level, care needs to 29. Stairs, showing open treadsand handrail
be exercised to avoid ponding of water and
accumulation of debris. Extra drain holes in these
areas togetherwith a small fall will suffice.

Handrails must be providedon the insidefacesof

parapets on stairs and ramps, for safety reasons.
A cleargap of at least 40 mm is desirable between
therails and any adjacent members.
Stairs normally have semi-open risers. Fully open
risers are not permitted by DoT.

At the bottom of flights of stairs, details should be

chosen whichavoid acutecorners, sincethey can
trap debris . To avoidthis, stairscan be supported
justabovethe bottom of the flight, so that there is
a cleargap between the underside ofthestringers
and ground level.

30. Scissor ramp

25

3.8 Bearings and expansion joints

The provisions for restraint or the accommodation For light all-steelbridges, all support details,
of movement due to expansion or other reasons bearings or direct connections to columns,
dependsverymuch on thegeneral arrangement of should be designed to resistat leasta nominal
thebridge, rampsand stairs. uplift.
When the bridgespans between bankseats or
abutments, expansion joints are needed, and the
structurewill sit on bearings. At one end the
bearings may be fixed longitudinally, but if
laminated bearings are used, both endscan be
'free, as long as the bearings can transmitany
longitudinal forces.

Expansion joints need to accommodate

movement ranges of about 20 mm, dependingon
span. Even at endswhich are longitudinally
restrained there hasto be some provision for
movement at deck level, owing to rotational
movements underlive load.

For footbridgeexpansion joints, a simpledetail

should be chosen, one which doesnotcollect dirt
or debrisand which can be dismantled for
maintenance if required. A simple leaf platefixed
to the bridge on one side and sliding on a second
plate on the fixed side can usually be arranged in
mostcircumstances. Particular attentionshould
always be givento the avoidance of stepsfacing
uphill, even as little as 5 mm, since they always
tend to accumulate material washed down by 31. EndBearing detail — box girder
run-off.

Where the bridgespans between steel column

supports, no bearings are needed. The bridge is
simply bolted down to the tops of the columns.
Expansion is accommodated by flexing of the
columns and no expansion joints are needed.

Consideration should be given to fixing long

rampsat the bottom end. Maximum longitudinal
movement at the far end thereforeoccurs where
thecolumnsare tallest and most ableto
accommodate it.

Stairs should preferably be fixed at the bottom

and bolted to column supports. This effectively
provides a restraint for any rampor bridge
connected to the top of a straightflight.

32. Expansionjoint — leafplate


4. DESIGN CODES, STANDARDS AND GUIDANCE
4.1 British Standards
In most circumstances,the British Standard BS 540d"
will apply to the design and construction of
footbridges. In some cases, possiblywhere the
bridge is connectedto a building, BS5950(2) might
be calledfor.
For design of steel and composite structures, the
followingParts of BS5400 are applicable.
Part 2 Specification for loads
Part 3 Codeof practice for design of
steel bridges
Part 4 Codeof practice for design of
concretebridges
Part 5 Codeof practicefor design of
composite bridges
Part 6 Specification for materials and
workmanship, steel
These Codes coverall aspectsof designfor
footbridgesof beam and truss construction.
Design of tubularjoints is not coveredin detail
within Part 3 - seesection4.4 for furtherguidance.
Similarly, the design of cable stays, the strands
and their anchorages, are notcoveredby these
Codes - refer to section4.5 for guidance.
Dimensional and safetyrequirements for stairsare
given in BS 5395. These requirements are
amended slightlyby the Departmental Standard
for footbridges.
4.2 Departmental Standards
Until 1992, the Department ofTransport
documented its requirements for the designof
highways and structuresin England in the form of
Departmental Standards, which are mandatory,
and Advice Notes, which provideguidance.
TheWelsh Office, the ScottishOffice and the
Department ofthe Environment for Northern
Ireland issued similar documentsfor bridges
within their areas. From 1992, all Departmental
Standards and AdviceNotes are issued on behalf
of thefour Overseeing Departments jointly.
Currentand future documentsnow form part of
thesystemcalled 'Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, which was introducedby HA 51/92''.
The application of eachof the Parts of BS 5400 is
implemented by a Departmental Standard,
accompanied by an Advice Note.
26
A particularpoint to note is that the requirements
in relation to loads resulting from collisionof
vehicles with the structurehavebeen significantly
modified by DoT. The impact loads and the
circumstances in which they should be applied are
specified in BD 37/88 (the DoT'sversion of BS
5400 Part 2) and an amendment to it. The
provisions relate to impact loads on supports
located within 4.5 m ofthe edge of the carriageway
and to superstructures which have less than 5.7 m
clearance abovethe surface ofthe carriageway.
Other Standards and Advice notesalso relate to
thedesign of footbridges. Design criteriafor
footbridgesare given in BD 29/87. Highway
cross sections and headroom are given in TD
27/866). Selected information from thesetwo
documents is includedin section3.
Standard ID 27/86 specifies a minimum clearance
for footbridgesof 5.7 m. Thisavoidsthenecessity
of applying the impact requirements of BD 37/88
on thesuperstructure, which would be particularly
onerous on a light structure such as a footbridge.
Wheresupportsneed to be closeto the edge of
thecarriageway, they are required to be provided
with protective plinths and designed for impact
loads. Where they can be kept back from the
carriageway, perhaps to spana footway beside
theroad, the consequent savings in thecost of the
substructure should be considered. Supports
between carriageways should also be avoided
(unless they can be located morethan 4.5 m from
theroad, which is not usually feasible).
5
The design of parapets is coveredby BE (this is
due to be reissued as BD 52/92). Pedestrian
parapets are referred to as type P4 or, for use over
railways, type PS. Standard parapet designswhich
complywith the memorandum are available.
27
4.3 British Rail requirements
British Railare particularyconcerned with
prevention of unauthorised access, as part of a
general philosophyof a 'fenced way' for their
tracks. They also have more stringent
requirements in relation to collisionloads. Advice
Notes are being prepared, though none are
currently available. Thefollowingcommentsare
based on advice given in recent projects.
Although a parapet heightof 1500 mm is specified
over railways in DoT's BE5 document,BR
generally seek a minimum of 1550 mm. Not only
mustthepedestrian face of the bridge be
designed to be non-climbable, it mustalso be
impossible to climb along the outer facefrom the
endsof the bridge- this usually means that trusses
are clad either side ofthe diagonals at the ends.
The topflanges, chordsor parapets must be
arranged so that theyare impossible towalk along.
The zone within 4.5 m of the outermostrunning
rail is considereda danger zone; if any supportis
located within that zone, collisioneffectsmust be
considered. Any substructure column must be
ableto withstanda large impact load, and the
superstructure must be ableto continue to carry
somelive load without supportfrom the column.
In each case, theexact requirements must be
ascertained from the appropriate division of BR.
4.4 Design of hollow section joints
Thedesign of hollow sectionjoints is not fully
coveredby the requirements of BS5400: Part 3.
There is however extensive background research
into thebehaviour of tubularjoints and various
documentshave been published which provide
guidance.
For triangulated structures, where thejoints transmit
essentially axial loadsfrom one member to another,
the design of thejoint involves checks on (a) the
adequacy of the welds at the end of the member and
(b) the bending of the walls ofthe hollowsections
(which are subjectedto out of plane forces).
Guidance literature is available both for circular
sections and for rectangular sections. General
guidance is given in CIDECT publications89and
guidance in relation to BS 5950: Part 1 is given in
a British Steel publicationT Design rulesin both
of these documentsmay be applied using partial
factors appropriate to BS5400. Similar rules are
included in AppendixK of the recently published
draft EC32
The extent of guidance on thedesign of joints for
themomentsassociated with vierendeel action (or
with U-frame action) is morelimited,though there
has also been research on this topic. A stiffer and
more efficientjoint is achieved when the bracing
member is the same width (normal to the moment
plane) as the chord member. Design guidance in a
publication by British Steel13is restrictedto this
type of joint. Adequacy of both the bracing
member and the chord member must be checked.
If necessary, reinforcement of thejoint can be
designed.
4.5 Design of cable stayed and
suspension bridges
For general guidance on the designof cable
stayed bridges, reference should be made to
standard texts, such as Walther14or Troitsky15
These are comprehensive books, but they do
includespecificcommenton footbridgeswith
illustrated examples.
The provisions of BS5400 do notcover in detail
thedesign of wire ropes or similarelements, nor is
there anyother appropriate national code.
The designer therefore needs to base his detailed
design on an empirical approach, based on load
effects calculated in the usual manner according
to BS 5400 and adoptingthe general objectives of
thecode.
Details of the specification of wire ropes and
(16}
strands can be found by reference to BS 302
and of the sockets by reference to BS463
The cold drawn wire usedfor ropes and strands
does not have a linearstress/strain relationship,
with a definiteyield plateau, as doesstructural
steel. Therelationship is generally smooth,with
decreasing tangent modulus as loadincreases.
Design of stays has therefore been based
traditionallyon permissible stresses calculatedby
dividing the ultimate or breaking strength by a
suitably large factor (i.e. a workingstress
philosophy). In the absence of formal codes on a
limit state basis, division ofthisstrengthby a
partial factor'Ym of about 2.0 at ULS, in
conjunction with normal values of Yfl and Yf3 gives
results consistentwith the traditional approach.
Guidance on the design of suspension bridges
can be found in texts such as Pugsle8Thetensile
elements maybe wire rope or strand, as for cable
stayed bridges,though high tensile steel rods may
be used for the main tension members.
 28

4.6 Design of steel and

composite bridge beams
Guidance on the designof compositehighway
bridgesis given in a series of publicationsby The
SteelConstruction lnstitutThese can be used
as general guidance in thedesignof footbridges
in accordance with BS 5400, both for composite
beam and all-steel beam designs.

4.7 Dynamic response

Limitations on the dynamicresponse of
footbridgesare given in DoT standard BD 37/88.
The natural frequencyof many footbridgeswill be
below 5 Hz and the response must be checked.
The aerodynamic response of all footbridgesover
30 m span hasto be checked (BD37/88). Rules
for determining theseeffects are given in theDraft
Design Rules°

4.8 Protective treatment

For bridges subjectto DoT requirements,
the protective treatmentspecifications should
be selectedfrom those listed by DoTin their
guidancenote22When usingthose notes,
access conditionsshould normally be taken as
'difficult', whichwill result in use of metal spray
for thefirst coat. Galvanising may be suitablefor
small components,such as parapets.

For other bridges, the DoT specifications, or

alternatives, maybe used, with the client's
agreement.
In some circumstances, Weather Resistant Steels
might be used, providedthat
24
environmental
constraints can be met.

4.9 Steel materials

Steel material for plates, rolledsections and
structuralhollow sections is covered by British
Standards BS EN 10025, AS EN 10155(25) and
BS4360. Information about the productsavailable
from British Steel26> can be obtained from the
commercial offices detailed in section7.
29

5. FLOW CHARTS
Thedesign requirements and procedures for
footbridgesare presented in this section in the
form of a series of flow diagrams. There are five
figures, an overall summary diagram and one
separate diagram for each of the four principal
forms of construction.References in Figures 5.2,
5.3, and 5.4 are to clauses in BS 5400:Part 3 or to
Parts 4 and 5.

Figure 5.1 Flow diagram for the design of footbridges

DoT Standardsfor highwaycross

section and headroom

(Figure5.2) (Figure5.3) (Figure 5.4) (Figure5.5)

 30

Figure 5.2 Flow chart for trusses and vierendee!girders

Global analysis

12.3
'Jr 'Jr
LONGITUDINALEFFECTS LATERALEFFECTS

truss

f!edN0
Check as a truss'
Check combined
bending and axial
effects

12.1 12.6

Jr 1 V 1
TENSION COMPRESSION TENSION COMPRESSION
MEMBERS MEMBERS MEMBERS MEMBERS

12.5

Yes

Yes

SATISFACTORY
31

Figure 5.3 Flowchart forsteel beams

 32

Figure 5.4Flow chart for composite beams Figure 5.5 Flow chart for cable-stayed bridges

Non-linear analysis
deflectionsor DL sag
of staysare significant

5/6.1.2
4/4.8.3

Yes

9.9.8
9.9.5.2

.1.1
33

REFERENCES 14. WALTHER, R. et al,

Cable stayed bridges,
1. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Thomas Telford, London, 1988
BS 5400: Steel, concreteand composite 15. TROITSKY, M. S.,
bridges - Partsito 10, BSI, London, Cable-stayed bridges,BSP, Oxford, 1988
(various dates) 16. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
2. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION BS302, Stranded steelwire ropes,
BS 5950, Structural useof steelwork in BSI, London
17. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
building, BSI, London
3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION BS460:Part 2:1970 Specification for sockets
BS 5395, Stairs, ladders and walkways, for wire ropes (metric units), BSI, London
BSI, London 18. PUGSLEY,A.
4. DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORT Thetheory of suspension bridges,
Edward Arnold, London, 1957
HA 51/92,The Introduction of theDesign
Manual for Roads and Bridges, 19. ILES, D. C.,
DoT, London, 1992 P-065, Design guidefor continuous
5. DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORT compositebridges: 1 compact sections
P-066, Design guidefor continuous
Departmental Standard BD 29/87,
compositebridges: 2 non-compactsections
Design criteria for footbridges,
P-084, Design guidefor simplysupported
DoT, London, 1988
composite bridges,
6. DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORT
The Steel Construction Insititute, Ascot
Departmental Standard TD 27/86, Cross 20. Bridge Aerodynamics
sections and headroom, DoT, London, 1988
Thomas Telford Ltd, 1981
7. DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORT
21. DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORT
BE 5, Technical memorandum on the design
Series 1900, Notes for Guidance on the
of highway bridge parapets, 4th revision,
Specification for Highway Works,
DoT, London, July 1982
HMSO, 1992
8. CIDECT 22. BRITISH STEEL
Design guidefor circular hollowsections Steel Highway Bridges Protection Guide,
(RHS)under predominantly static loading, BritishSteel, 1992
Verlag TUV, Cologne, 1991 23. DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORT
9. CIDECT Department Standard BD 7/81, Weathering
Design guide for rectangular hollow sections Steel for Highway Structures,
(RHS) joints under predominantlystatic loading, DoT, London, 1981
Verlag TUV, Cologne, 1992 24. BRITISH STEEL
10. CIDECT Weather resistant steels, their useand
Structural stability of hollow sections, Verlag application, British Steel, 1992
TUV, Cologne, 1992 25. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
11. BRITISH STEEL BS 4360: 1990, Weldable structuralsteels,
Design of SHS weldedjoints to BS 5950, BS EN 10025: 1990, Hot rolledproducts of
TD338/5E/91 British Steel, Welded Tubes, non-alloy structuralsteels and their technical
Corby, 1991 delivery conditions
12. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION BS EN 10155: 1993, Structural steels with
DD BS ENV 1993-1-1, Eurocode No.3, improved atmosphericcorrosionresistance.
Design of steel structures, BSI London, 1992 Technical delivery conditions,BSI, London
13. BRITISH STEEL 26. BRITISH STEEL
Report TCS 102, RHS full width vierendeel Product& Technical brochures
joints design, British Steel, Welded Tubes, Structural sections
Corby, July 1986 Structural plates
Structural hollow sections
 34

7. BRITISH STEEL SALES & ADVISORY OFFICES

British Steel British Steel British Steel
Sections, Plates Sections, Plates Tubes& Pipes
& Commercial Steels & Commercial Steels P0 Box 101, Weldon Road
Plates Structural Sections Corby, Northamptonshire
P0 Box30, Motherwell Steel House, Redcar NN17 1UA
Lanarkshire Cleveland TS1O 50W Telephone: 0536 402121
ML1 1AA Telephone: 0642 474111 Fax: 0536 404005
Telephone: 0698 266233 Fax: 0642 489466
Fax: 0698 262020

The Structural SectionsAdvisory Engineersare located as follows:

1 London City and South East 4 South West and South Wales
Postcodes: BN BR CT DA EC GU
ME RH SESM TN WC
British Steel
Structural AdvisoryService
Lynton House
7-12 Tavistock Square
London
WC1H 9LT
Telephone: 071 388 5555
Fax: 071 388 0975
Postcodes: BA BH BS CF DT EX GL
HR LD NP PL SA SN SP TA TO TR
British Steel
Structural AdvisoryService
Tower House, Fairfax Street
Bristol
BS1 3BZ
Telephone: 0272 290461
Fax: 0272 252157

2 WestLondon and Central 5 West Midlands, Merseyside, 7 Scotland and North Lakes
Southern Counties North & Central Wales Postcodes: AB CA DD DG EH FK
Postcodes: CR HA HP KT OX
AG SL SO SWTW UB W
o Postcodes: B CH CW CV DE
DY L LL M 5K ST SY TF WA WN
G IVKAKWKYMLPAPHTDZE

WR WSWV
British Steel British Steel British Steel
Structural AdvisoryService Structural Advisory Service Structural AdvisoryService
Lynton House Midland House P0 Box 30, Motherwell
7-12 Tavistock Square NewRoad, Halesowen Lanarkshire
London West Midlands B63 3HY ML1 1AA
WC1H 9LT Telephone: 021 585 5522 Telephone: 0698 266233
Telephone: 071 388 5555 Fax: 021 585 5241 Telex: 777961
Fax: 071 388 0975 Fax: 0698 262020

3 North London, East Midlands 6 North 8 Ireland

and East Anglia Postcodes: BB BD BL DH DL DN North and South
Postcodes: AL CB CM CO E EN FY HD HG HU HX LA LS NE OL
IG IP LE LN LU MK N NG NN NR PR SSRTSWFYO
NW PE RM SG SS WD
British Steel British Steel British Steel Ireland Ltd
Structural AdvisoryService Structural Advisory Service Structural AdvisoryService
Lynton House Steel House, Redcar Leeson Court
7-12Tavistock Square Cleveland TS1O 50W 88 Lower Leeson Street
London Telephone: 0642 474242 Dublin 2
WC1H 9LT Telex: 587401 Telephone: 616773/616761
Telephone: 071 388 5555 Fax: 0642 489466 Telex: 31591
Fax: 071 388 0975 Fax: 765406
PLEASE NOTE
Carehasbeentakento ensurethatthe Contentsof this publication are accurate, but British Steelplcand itssubsidiary companies do not accept responsibility for errors
orforinformation whichisfound to bemisleading. Suggestions forordescriptions oftire end useor application of productsormethodsof worfung are forinformation only
and British Steelplcand itssubsidiaries accept no liability inrespect thereof. Before using products supplied ormanufactured by British Steelplcthe customershould
satisfyhimself of theirsuitability.
Iffurtherassistance is required, British Steelplc, within the operational limitsof its research facilities mayoftenbe ableto help.
 British Steel
Sections, Plates & CommercialSteels
P0 Box 30, Motherwell,
Lanarkshire ML1 1AA
Telephone: 0698 266233
Telefax: 0698 262020 Telex: 777961