chapter

6 Networking systems
Computer networks have existed
almost as long as electronic
computers themselves. Originally,
these networks consisted of a
central mainframe computer with
a number of terminals (or
workstations). Usually, these
terminals did none of the
processing or storing of data and
information. Processing and
storage were handled by the
mainframe. This was known as
centralised processing. Today,
computer networks consist of a
mixture of centralised processing
and distributed processing, where
the terminals can process and store
data and information.

This chapter will teach you about

the nature of networking systems
and also about file management,
users and groups for any operating
system. It will also give you hands-
on experience in setting up servers
and protocols in a networked
environment.

6.1 Communications
networks
6.2 Networking
6.3 Protocols
6.4 Network topologies
6.5 Data transmission —
modes and rates
6.6 Data transmission media
6.7 Security of information
6.8 Network operating
systems
6.9 Project — Creating a
peer-to-peer network
 A student:
5.2.1 describes and applies
problem-solving processes
when creating solutions
5.2.2 designs, produces and
evaluates appropriate
solutions to a range of
challenging problems
5.2.3 critically analyses
decision-making processes
in a range of information
and software solutions.

AppleTalk data transmission network interface card router

bandwidth decryption (NIC) server
baseband encryption network operating simplex
baud rate file server system (NOS) star topology
bits per second (bps) firewall node switch
bridge full duplex optical fibre system backup
broadband gateway peer-to-peer network topology
bus topology half duplex peripheral twisted pair cable
client hub print server virtual private
client–server network local area network protocol network (VPN)
coaxial cable (LAN) proxy server web server
communications mail server repeater wide area network
network NetBEUI ring topology (WAN)
workstation
 6.1 Communications networks

Before you start, have you completed the

following unit?
11.1 What hardware does

Nature and role

A communications network is a set of products,
concepts and services that enable the connection of
computer systems. Their purpose is to transmit data
in a variety of forms (for example, voice and video)
between the systems. The Internet is arguably the
world’s largest communications network.
In its simplest form, a network is two computers
linked together, usually with cables. As they become
larger and more complicated, networks consist of
computers and their peripheral devices. Each device
on a network is called a node.
Networks allow many users, usually within a
company or organisation, to share limited or
expensive resources such as printers and scanners.
Computer networks also allow users to share
software and data, and to communicate quickly and
efficiently over vast distances.
Advantages and disadvantages
Some of the advantages of communications
networks include:
• ability to share peripheral devices. Peripheral
devices such as printers and photocopiers can be
extremely expensive. A network allows one
printer to be shared by several users, thus
reducing costs.
• central administration of application programs and
other software. A network allows central
administration of common software. For
example, a network administrator can download
the latest version of Microsoft Office from a
central server to end users’ workstations, rather
than visiting each workstation to install the
software. Updating and patching of software can
also be achieved remotely.
• sharing a single Internet connection. With the
appropriate software and hardware, a network
Connecting computers in a communications network allows
sharing of resources such as printers, software and data.
allows many workstations to share a single
Internet connection.
• access to shared files. Users can share files such as
photographs, MP3s, spreadsheets and documents
on any computer on the network.
• access to databases. Many companies have on-line
databases. These can be shared by many users in a
number of locations.
• ability to play networked games. Networked games
allow several users at different computers to
challenge each other in the same game.
Despite these advantages, there are also a number
of disadvantages to establishing a network over using
unconnected, individual workstations.
• cost of installation. A complex network can cost
hundreds of thousands of dollars to install. This
initial outlay must be weighed against the
potential long-term savings of using a network.
• administration and maintenance. A network
administrator (or several in the case of large
networks) is required to administer the network,
including updating and installing software and
creating and deleting user accounts.

152 Information and Software Technology

• equipment failure. When file servers crash, users
lose access to network resources, data and the
Internet and this can have a substantial effect on
productivity.
• security. It is critical to secure both the network
and the data it contains. Networks are targets for
hackers and viruses so appropriate measures are
needed to prevent inappropriate use and loss of
data. Such measures include firewalls, passwords,
secure tape backups and uninterruptible power
supplies, which give the server enough time to
shut down correctly in the event of power failure.
Client–server and peer-to-peer networks
Networks can be classified as either client–server or
peer-to-peer networks. A client–server network is
based on a central server or servers with many
clients. Usually, the server stores user files and data,
authenticates users and provides other services such
as printing and data backup. Users need to log in to
gain access to shared resources. This also ensures that
only registered users have access to files and
resources.
Networks that operate without a central server are
peer-to-peer networks. All nodes on the network
have equal status. Essentially, the computers are
connected either directly to each other or through a
hub or switch. Users then set up shared folders on
their hard drives to enable file sharing. Peer-to-peer
networking has become very popular for local area
network (LAN) parties, where a group of friends can
play network games.
• describe the nature and role of a
communications network?
• discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of networks?
• compare a client–server network with a
peer-to-peer network?
Remember
1. Explain the purpose of a communications
network.
2. Define the term ‘node’.
3. Discuss three advantages of setting up a
network.
4. Discuss two disadvantages of setting up a
network.
5. Describe the two classifications of networks.
Think
6. Explain why the Internet could be called the
world’s largest communications network.
Investigate
7. Find out if your school has a network. Make a
diagram of it. In your diagram, show the main
connection points (hubs/switches) and how
these are joined by either fibre optic cable or
copper wire. Show any wireless access points.
Your diagram can be a physical layout, showing
the buildings, or a logical layout, showing just
the hub/switch, workstations, nodes and
connections.

Requests

Peer 1 Peer 2

Server Hub

Responses
Client

Peer 3 Peer 4
(a) A client–server network is a set of computers connected to a ‘master’ computer, called the server, that controls what happens on the
network. (b) In peer-to-peer networks, there is no central server among the connected computers.

Networking systems 153

 6.2 Networking

Before you start, have you completed the

following unit?
6.1 Communications networks

We have described a computer network as a

number of connected computers and peripheral
devices. In this unit we look at:
• types of networks
• components that make up networks.

Types of networks
There are three types of networks: local area
networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN) and
virtual private networks (VPN).

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is one that services a
work group or department within an organisation.
A LAN is usually limited to a single geographical
location such a building or a group of buildings on
a single site, such as a school. The network in this school is probably a local area network (LAN).

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) can be thought of as a
collection of LANs. A WAN is usually used to
connect computers which are hundreds or thousands
of kilometres apart. A business with offices in Printer

different cities can connect the LANs in each office to

create a WAN, allowing all of its staff to
communicate easily.
A WAN may use a private, leased line, the public
telephone network or a combination of both. A
private, leased line is dedicated to the network. It
offers higher transmission speeds and more accurate
and secure transfer of data than is available through
the public telephone network.

Virtual private network Server

A virtual private network (VPN) is one which uses
the public telephone network and the Internet to Library Administration
carry encrypted data. VPNs created by businesses building
and educational institutions allow their employees
and students to gain remote access to their LANs, so
they can work or study at home. An example of a local area network (LAN)

154 Information and Software Technology

 Canberra
Melbourne
LAN
LAN
Public/private
telephone
network
A wide area network (WAN) allows computers to communicate over long distances: for
example, between offices in different cities.
A VPN provides an
organisation with the same
capabilities as a WAN but at a
much lower cost. It uses data
encryption and other security
measures to ensure that only
authorised users can access the
VPN.
More information on VPNs
Printer
Components of a network
The simplest network is two
computers connected directly to
each other. More complex
networks, however, require
additional components.
Servers
Servers are purpose-built
computers that store data, control
access to data, authenticate users
and, in some cases, perform any
required processing. A single
Classroom
server may perform all of these
tasks but, in most cases, the
following purpose-built servers
are used to handle specific tasks:
Sydney
LAN
• File servers are used to store
files and data that are to be
shared by users of the
network. File servers may also
authenticate users to ensure
that only registered users have
access to certain files and
data.
• Web servers host (store)
websites for retrieval by users
on the Internet.
• Proxy servers act as an
intermediary between an end
user and the Internet. They
temporarily store frequently
accessed web pages. When a
user requests a web page, the
proxy server checks whether it
has stored the page before
forwarding the request to the
Internet. This can make access
to frequently visited pages
much faster than retrieving
the pages from the Internet
each time they are required.
• Print servers are dedicated to
processing printing requests
from users on a LAN.
• Mail servers store and process
email and manage email
accounts.
Networking systems 155
 Packet switching
Most networks, including the Internet, use packet switching to exchange data. Packet switching divides
messages into small data packets, transmits the packets and, later, joins the packets to form the original
message. It allows many users to use the same transmission line by interspersing the data packets from
different users. Data packets from one message do not necessarily take the same path, and could arrive at their
destination in a different order from the original, before being reassembled.
Each data packet contains an address and control instructions to reassemble the message in the correct order.
If a packet is lost along the way, the receiving computer will request that the packet be resent.

Receiver

>
<1
> <3
<3 >
<1
>
<4> <2>
<4
> 1>
<4 <2 432
Sender > > <
<2
>
<3 Packet Assembler/Disassembler
>
<1
>

<4321>
Packet Assembler/Disassembler Nodes/routers/switches etc.
Original
message Communication lines/pathways
<3> Packet of data

In packet switching, the data packets do not necessarily take the same path.

Workstations bandwidth of the switch) and they can be managed

Workstations are the computers, which may be (each port on the switch can be configured
connected to a network, that allow users to do their individually).
work. They range from dumb terminals with no
hard-drive memory or processor (all processing and
data storage is done by the server) to high-end,
graphics workstations that have more processing
power than some of the supercomputers of about
five years ago.

Hubs and switches

A hub is a device used as a central connection point
when adding workstations to a network, or to
strengthen signals when longer cable segments are
added between workstations.
A switch is similar to a hub. Their main
differences are that switches have per-port switching A type of network hub showing the CAT 5 cable used for data
(each port or outlet on the switch gets the full transmission to the networked devices

156 Information and Software Technology

Repeaters
Repeaters are the simplest form of signal booster.
They are physical devices designed to tie two long
network cable segments together. Repeaters accept
data in the form of packets sent by the nodes on the
network and rejuvenate (or amplify) the packet
signal so that it can travel a long distance without
data loss.

Gateways
A gateway is a combination of hardware and
software which links two different types of networks.
This usually involves converting different protocols
(see 6.3 Protocols).
Bridges
A bridge is a physical device that allows two or more
networks to exchange data regardless of their specific
topologies. For example, a bridge can connect a bus
network to a ring network. (see 6.4 Network
topologies).
Routers
Routers are more sophisticated than bridges; they
are not tied to any one topology or protocol. They
pay attention only to the destination addresses (a set
of four integers separated by full stops) attached to
data packets. These addresses identify the interfaces
as nodes within the network. Routers may be a
physical device or a piece of routing software.
Network interface card
A network interface card (NIC) is the card installed
in a computer or peripheral device that allows it to
connect to the network. The NIC must be matched
to the topology of cables of the network. NICs
package data according to the rules of the network
operating system (NOS) and transmit data along the
connecting network cable. An exception to this, of
course, is the wireless network card which does not
use a cable.
Network operating system (NOS)
Networks require specialised software called the
network operating system (NOS). The NOS is like
the operating system on a personal computer; it
provides an interface between the users, and the
network and its attached peripheral devices. The
NOS handles such tasks as user authentication, file
storage and management of printing jobs.
An example of an internal network card (top) and a laptop network
card (bottom)
Some of the more widely used network operating
systems include Novell®, Microsoft Server 2003®,
Unix® and Linux®.
Network operating systems are covered in more
detail in 6.8 Network operating systems.
can you?
• design a small network of at least two
workstations to allow file sharing?
• represent a LAN or WAN using ICT such as
graphics software?
• describe your school’s communication link
with the outside world?
• describe and compare servers for a
particular network?
• download and upload files to a host?
• describe the purpose of various network
connection devices?
Remember
1. Describe the three types of networks.
2. Distinguish between a LAN and a WAN.
3. Explain the term ‘data packet’.
4. Explain what a server is. Describe three different
types of servers.
Think
5. Define the term ‘hub’. How is it different from a
switch?
Investigate
6. Find out more about proxy servers. Explain how
they make web pages load more quickly. What
other functions do proxy servers perform?

Networking systems 157

 6.3 Protocols

Before you start, have you completed the

following unit?
6.2 Networking

Humans need language to communicate so that we

can share and transfer ideas. The language’s rules
assist in this communication. The rules are the
grammar and the vocabulary, which are the words
that we use. In any language, words have meaning
only because the speakers of that language agree that
When computers establish communication, it is called ‘handshaking’.
a certain word will have a certain meaning.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol. It was developed in the 1960s by
the United States Department of Defence to link
computers across the world to maintain connectivity
in the case of another world war. TCP/IP can

TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol is the protocol
suite used by the Internet and
is widely used in commercial
We can communicate with other people who speak our language and private networks.
because we understand the rules — the grammar and vocabulary —
of our language. In the same way, computers require protocols, or
agreed rules, to communicate with each other.
IPX/SPX
Internet Packet eXchange/
Sequenced Packet eXchange
is a protocol developed by
Novell for its network
operating systems.

For any data communication to occur across /Figure 6.3.3 – protocols summary diagram, no
networks and between computers, we require caption/
protocols. A protocol is a set of agreed rules that
control and enable communication between
Network
computers in a network. Protocols establish rules for protocols
transmission of data and error detection. By using
the same protocol, different types of computers can
communicate with each other even though they may
be using different operating systems.

Types of protocols
Network protocols are grouped into sets of NetBIOS & NetBEUI AppleTalk
compatible protocols referred to as ‘suites’. The Network Basic Input/Output AppleTalk allows file transfer,
protocols that we will discuss in this unit are: System and NetBIOS Extended printer sharing and mail service
User Interface allow applications among Apple systems.
• TCP/IP • IPX/SPX on different computers to
communicate within a LAN.
• NetBIOS and NetBEUI • AppleTalk.

158 Information and Software Technology

communicate to any PC using a
desktop or network operating
system anywhere in the world as
long as it supports the TCP/IP
suite. It is the protocol of choice
for Internet and intranet
applications.
TCP/IP can be thought of as a
special set of numbers, similar to
those used in telephones. In the
same way that homes and
businesses have unique phone
numbers, so must the PCs using
TCP/IP. TCP/IP addresses are
split into four octets with full
stops (dots) between them, such
as 127.248.119.145. An octet is an
eight-bit storage unit or a byte.
Because the numbers are often
difficult to remember, these
address numbers can be
associated with a domain name
that people can understand and
remember more easily. The
address numbers are substituted
for the domain name by domain
name servers, which have
conversion tables to convert the
four-octet version of an address
to a domain name.
IPX/SPX
IPX/SPX is an acronym for
Internet Packet eXchange/
Sequenced Packet eXchange.
Unlike TCP/IP, IPX/SPX is a
proprietary protocol, owned and
developed by Novell but also used
by other network operating
system companies.
IPX is a protocol that sends
data packets to requested
destinations, such as workstations
and servers. The IPX protocol
addresses and routes outgoing
data packets across a network. It
reads the assigned addresses of
returning data and directs the
data to the proper area within the
workstation’s or network server’s
operating system.
SPX verifies and acknowledges
successful packet delivery to any
network destination by
requesting verification from the
destination that the data were
received. The SPX verification
must include the value that
matches a value which was
calculated from the data before
transmission. By comparing the
values, SPX ensures that the data
packet arrived at the destination
and that it arrived intact. If a
certain number of data
transmissions fail to be
acknowledged, SPX assumes that
the connection has failed and
warns the operator of the failure.
NetBIOS and NetBEUI
NetBIOS stands for Network
Basic Input/Output System. It is a
protocol that can communicate
with network hardware without
using any other network software.
NetBIOS enables the use of
naming conventions rather than
the typical numbering schemes,
such as those used by TCP/IP and
IPX. However, NetBIOS does not
support routing to other
networks; other protocols, such
as TCP/IP, are needed for
communication between
networks.
NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS
Extended User Interface. It was
originally developed in 1985 by
IBM as a networking protocol. As
an extension of NetBIOS, it has
the same shortcomings as
NetBIOS. Because of these
limitations, it is recommended
for linking fewer than 200 PCs on
the same segment, or where
bridging or switching is used to
connect segments.
AppleTalk
Apple Computer developed the
AppleTalk protocol suite to allow
file transfer, printer sharing and
mail service between Apple
systems (using the LocalTalk
interface, which is built into
Apple hardware) and to send data
to other network media. For
example, it allows
communication with other
network protocols such as
Ethernet either by using
LocalTalk to Ethernet bridges or
through Ethernet add-in boards
on Apple machines.
AppleTalk is a multi-layered
protocol providing data
transmission between networks,
transaction and data stream
service (data streaming for audio
and video), naming service
(domain name service — DNS),
and comprehensive file and print
sharing. In addition, many third-
party applications exist for the
AppleTalk protocols.
• describe the purpose
of a protocol?
• identify and describe
types of protocols?
Remember
1. Define the term ‘protocol’.
2. Explain what ‘TCP/IP’
stands for and describe the
main features of this
protocol.
Think
3. Discuss why are there so
many different protocols.
Investigate
4. Find out what IEEE stands
for. What are the main IEEE
standards for networking?
In IEEE 802.11, what do the
letters at the end stand for
(e.g. IEEE 802.11g)?
Networking systems 159
 6.4 Network topologies
Node

Node Node
Before you start, have you completed the
following unit?
6.2 Networking

Node Node
When we talk of the topology of a network, we are
describing the cabling arrangement between the
nodes of the network. There are three main ways to
connect the nodes: star topology, ring topology and
bus topology.
Node Node

Star topology
In a star topology, an individual wire connects each
PC (or node in the case of peripherals) to a central
location. Here, all the wires are connected to a hub
(or switch) device, which completes the electronic
connections. The hub or switch acts as a central
A ring network topology
place for all of the signals to meet and then branch
out to their individual destinations.
Node
Bus topology
Node Node
The bus topology uses a cable in a single line with
two end points. At each end point, there is a
terminator that prevents signals at the end of the
cable from being reflected back into the network.

Node Node Node Node

Central
Node node Node

Bus

Terminator

A star network topology

Ring topology
In a ring topology, the cable is laid in a circle. Each
signal has to pass by each node sequentially in the
ring. Traffic can be one-way around the loop or it Node Node
can travel in both directions if a double loop is used. A bus network topology

160 Information and Software Technology

 TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Star • Each node has its own cable and does not • If the central node fails, the entire network will
need to share the line with any other node. cease to operate.
• If a cable to a node is broken, then only that • More cabling is required than for other network
node is affected. topologies.
• New links to the central node can be added
easily, or existing links removed, without
affecting the rest of the network.
• It is easy to identify a faulty cable because it
will affect only a single link.

Ring • A single cable is used to connect all the • If the ring is broken, or the cable is faulty, the
nodes. entire network will stop working.
• The ring must be broken (and the network
stopped) to add new nodes or to remove
existing ones.

Bus • They are easy and cheap to set up.
• Nodes can be added and removed easily.
• Because one cable carries all the data,
collisions (data traffic jams) can affect networks
with many nodes.
• A fault in the cable can be difficult to locate
because it will usually stop all the nodes from
transmitting or receiving.

Advantages and disadvantages

The table above summarises the advantages and • graphically illustrate network topologies?
disadvantages of each type of network topology. • critically analyse a given network
topology for a particular situation?

Node Node

Remember
1. Describe the three network topologies.
2. Identify one advantage for each of the different
topologies.
3. Identify one disadvantage for each of the
different topologies.
Think
4. What topology would you use so that you and
three of your friends could play networked
Ter
computer games? Explain your decision.
Investigate
5. If your school has a network, find out what
topology it uses. What would be the most
appropriate network topology for your particular
school? (Hint: The size of your school and the
number of computers on your network will
influence your decision.)
Node Node

Networking systems 161

 6.5 Data transmission — modes and rates

Before you start, have you completed the

following units?
6.2 Networking
10.3 Data coding Simplex mode of data transmission — Data can move through the
medium in one direction only.
10.5 Data transmission and compression

Data transmission modes

In very general terms, data transmission is the act of
moving any kind of information from one space to
another. Historically, this was done by courier, a
chain of bonfires or semaphores, and later by Morse
code over copper wires. In computer terms, it means
sending a stream of bits or bytes from one location
to another.
A range of media can be used to transmit data,
Half duplex mode of data transmission — Data can travel through
such as copper wire, optical fibre, radio-link, laser, the medium in only one direction at a time.
radio and infra-red light. These are discussed in
6.6 Data transmission media.
When we speak of data transmission modes, we
are speaking of the direction of flow of data. There
are three data transmission modes: simplex, half
duplex and full duplex.

Simplex
In simplex data transmission mode, data can
travel in one direction only: from sender to receiver.
The simplex mode is used in radio, telegrams and
television. When thinking of the simplex mode,
imagine a car travelling along a one-way street. Full duplex mode of data transmission — Data can travel through
the medium in both directions simultaneously.

Half duplex
In half duplex data transmission mode, data can
travel in both directions but not at the same time;
the sender and receiver must take turns. The half
duplex mode is used in two-way and ham radios.
This time, imagine two cars wishing to use a street
that is wide enough to allow only one car through
at a time.
Full duplex
Full duplex data transmission mode allows data to
flow in both directions simultaneously. The current
telephone system uses the full duplex mode. Both
participants may speak simultaneously, even though
it would be difficult to talk and listen at the same
time! If we continue the car analogy, imagine two
cars on a road wide enough to allow them to travel
in opposite directions at the same time.
Data transmission rates
Data transmission rate is the rate at which data can
be transferred from one point to another. The speed
of data transmission depends on a number of factors
including the data transmission mode, transmission
medium and other connection devices such as
modems and network adapters.

162 Information and Software Technology

 Baud rates vs bits per second
Baud rate (named after Emile
Baudot, a French
communications pioneer) is the
number of distinct signal events
or timing intervals in a second.
Bits per second (bps) is a count
of the number of bits transmitted
each second.
Baud and bps do not measure
exactly the same thing. Consider
a single message, containing five
bits, sent out in one second. The
message has five distinct signal
events (timing intervals) in the
second so the baud rate and the
bits per second are the same
(5 baud and 5 bps). Now consider
two separate messages, each
containing five bits, being sent at
the same time. The transmission
rate is 5 baud or 10 bps. This is
because there are still only five
distinct signal events but twice
the amount of data is being
transmitted in each event. This
can be achieved because the
signals are sent in different
frequency bands so that they do
not interfere with each other.
The transmission device and
the available bandwidth
determine the speed of data
transmission. Bandwidth is the
1
Signal
1 channel 1
0 which you could use in your
1 home, including dial-up and
Signal
channel 2
0 0
1 second 1 second
Signal events
A 5 Baud, 5 bps message A 5 Baud, 10 bps message
difference between the highest
and lowest signal frequencies
(measured in hertz) that a
particular link can carry. When
only one link uses the available
bandwidth, the link is classified as
baseband. When the single
bandwidth can be split into many
smaller separate bands (each
capable of carrying a different
signal), the link is classified as
broadband. Broadband links can
be more useful for networks than
baseband.
• recognise the
different modes of
data transmission?
• discuss and compare
the methods used to
measure transmission
rates?
Remember
1. Define the term ‘data
transmission’.
2. Describe the three modes of
data transmission.
3. Explain what is meant by
‘baud rate’.
Think
4. Explain the difference
between baud rate and bps.
5. Distinguish between
baseband and broadband.
Investigate
6. Investigate at least five
Internet service providers
broadband services.
Compile a report comparing
their services and costs. In
your report, compare the
advantages, disadvantages
and costs of dial-up access
and broadband (cable or
ADSL).
Networking systems 163
 6.6 Data transmission media
Twisted pair cable
A twisted pair cable consists of pairs of insulated
Before you start, have you completed the
copper wire twisted together (to reduce interference)
following units? and covered by an outer jacket. The twisted pair
6.2 Networking
cable used in networks is called unshielded twisted
pair (UTP). It is called unshielded because there is
6.5 Data transmission — modes and rates
no shielding between the insulated pairs and the
outer jacket. Its main advantage is that it is cheap to
purchase and install. UTP cable is currently able to
To allow transmission, data need some type of transfer data at 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps).
medium through which they can travel. This
medium can be either a cable, such as copper wire or
optical fibre, or it may be wireless, using radio or
microwaves.

Cable media
Cable media include copper wire, as a coaxial cable
or a twisted pair cable, and optical fibre cable. Each
of these media has several advantages and
disadvantages.

Coaxial cable
A coaxial cable is made of stiff copper wire
surrounded by insulating material, which is then
encased in a cylindrical conductor like a mesh. The
cable is then coated in a plastic cover. The mesh
shielding helps to block electrical interference; this
makes it a more reliable carrier of data than a twisted
pair cable, However, it is heavier and less flexible
than a twisted pair cable and takes up more space.
The data transfer rate through a coaxial cable is
limited to 10 Mbps.
Insulation Mesh shielding
Outer insulation
Conductor
Coaxial cable
Twisted pair cable
Optical fibre cable
Optical fibre cable allows data to be sent as pulses of
light. One light pulse can signal a ‘1’ bit, while a no-
light pulse signals a ‘0’ bit. The optical fibre consists
of an extremely thin fibre of glass or plastic
surrounded by a layer of a different type of glass or
plastic. The boundary between the two different
materials acts like a mirror and traps the light pulses
inside the inner cable. A laser diode at one end of the
cable emits light pulses into the cable. A photodiode
(light-detecting diode) at the other end of the cable
detects the light pulses.
Optical fibre cable has several advantages over
copper wire cables:
• It is not affected by electrical interference, such as
lightning and power surges.
• It is thinner and lighter than coaxial cables.
• It provides greater security because it is difficult
to intercept.

164 Information and Software Technology

 Fibres

Outer sheath Tube

Kevlar strength
member

125-micron cladding

Primary buffer

62.5-micron core

Optical fibre cable
• It has a high transmission speed and low error
rate.
• It can carry thousands of separate signals.
However, optical fibre cable also has some
disadvantages:
• It is expensive to make and repair.
• It needs transponders at each end of the link to
convert the data between light pulses and
electrical signals.
Wireless media are alternatives to the expense of laying cables
over vast distances and to rural areas.
Wireless media
Laying cables to link urban and rural centres over
vast and harsh terrain is an extremely expensive
operation; the maintenance costs are also very high.
Technologies, such as radio and microwave links,
have been developed to avoid this expense. Using
these links, data can travel in radio waves or
microwaves, either through the air, or through space
in the case of satellite microwaves.

A comparison of data transmission media

MEDIUM ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES DATA TRANSMISSION RATE

Coaxial cable Cheap Slow data transfer Up to 10 Mbps

Easily terminated Connectors prone to moisture
Shielding allows many cables to damage and corrosion
be combined into larger cables.

Unshielded Cheap Data loss due to 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps

twisted pair Easily terminated electromagnetic interference

Flexible Maximum 100 m between

nodes

Optical fibre High bandwidth Expensive Over 400 Mbps (maximum

50 km between antennas Difficult to join/terminate capacity not yet known)

Can be used where cabling is not Inflexible; will break if bent too
possible or too expensive far

Microwave High bandwidth Subject to interference by Over 2 Gbps

50 km between antennas weather

Can be used where cabling is not Antennas must be in line of

possible or too expensive sight of each other.

Networking systems 165

 Radio
Radio can use either a narrow
line-of-sight transmission or a
wide area transmission, similar to
commercial radio stations. The
major drawbacks with using
radio as a communications
medium are signal interference
and the lack of security; anyone
can tune in to a radio frequency
and intercept your transmissions.

Microwaves
Microwave transmitters send very
high frequency radio waves in a
direct line. These transmissions
can be sent and received by
towers mounted on tall buildings
or mountain tops or by satellites
orbiting the Earth.
Communications satellites are
placed 35 000 kilometres above
the Earth so they can send Microwave transmissions for international signals are sent and received by satellite.
microwave signals to, and receive
signals from, up to a third of the
Earth’s surface.
Satellites are commonly used
for international telephone
signals as well as television and
data links. However, microwaves
can be affected by the weather
and temperature changes, which
can weaken the signals. Because
of this, and the high production
and launch costs of satellites,
optical fibre cables will eventually
replace them.

Wireless networks
Wireless networks, which use FM
radio frequencies, have become
increasingly popular in homes
and small businesses. This is
because they do not require
cabling, which can be expensive
and requires specialist
installation. To set up a wireless
network, you need a wireless base
station and wireless network
cards for each PC. Wireless Wireless networks give laptop computers freedom of movement but
networks operate on the 802.11 require a WAP (wireless access point) and wireless network cards.

166 Information and Software Technology

network standard; the current
standard, 802.11g, can transfer
data at 54 Mbps. This is
approximately half the speed of
a 100BASE-T network. As with
radio transmission media,
security can be a problem for
wireless networks and all
manufacturers of wireless base
stations have built-in data
encryption and security facilities.
Factors influencing media
transmission
When creating a network, you
need to consider a number of
factors that influence media
transmission. These include set-up
cost, the number of nodes and the
distance between them, and the
ease with which the network can
be maintained and expanded.
Cost
One of the major influencing
factors in building a network is
cost. When building a network,
there is always a trade-off
between what is desired and what
is affordable; nearly all network
development projects are
constrained by the available funds
or budget. The budget will
influence all decisions including
the type and brand of hubs,
switches and cabling. For
example, optical fibre cabling is
faster and can carry data for
greater distances than UTP but it
is also more expensive. Building a
suitable network with a limited
budget is a difficult task.
Distance
Distance is an important factor to
consider when deciding what
type of cabling to use. Different
types of cable have maximum
effective length limits. For
example, the maximum length
for UTP is 100 metres in total
can you?
between nodes. Data
transmission signals degrade over
distance so you will need to
determine how many repeaters
are required to ensure there is no
data loss. Over large distances,
you may need to decide between
using optical fibre cable and
microwave; cost will then be an
important factor.
The number of nodes
In a network, nodes are the
devices at the end of a cable, such
as workstations and printers. The
size and shape of your network
will be determined in part by the
number of nodes in it; a network
with two nodes will be very
different from a network with
1000 or more nodes. The number
of nodes in your network will also
influence the transfer rate of data
through your network. The more
nodes you have, the greater the
demand for individual
frequencies (bandwidth) for data
transmission.
The number of nodes may also
influence whether you choose
hubs or switches. Hubs share
their bandwidth between the
number of users, so a 100-Mbps
hub with 10 users will give each
user 10 Mbps. However, switches
give each user the full bandwidth,
so a 100-Mbps switch with
10 users will give each user
100 Mbps.
Sustainability and expansion
(scaling)
When designing a network, you
need to consider how it will be
maintained and you need to
design it so that it can expand
easily. For example, it is easier
and cheaper to add nodes to a
star network than to a ring
network.
• describe the different
media available for data
transmission?
• explain how different
factors affect the choice
of transmission media?
Remember
1. Describe three types of
data transmission media.
2. Give three advantages of
optical fibres over copper
wire cables for data
transmission. Give one
disadvantage.
3. Describe one disadvantage
of using radio waves to
transmit data.
Think
4. Explain the differences
between optical fibre and
UTP cables.
Challenge
5. You have been asked to
develop a network plan for
a local community office
which has five computers
(one is a laptop). The four
desktop computers are on
desks about 15 metres
apart and one of them will
be used as a server. When
the laptop is in the office, it
will need to be connected to
the network. Only two or
three people will use
computers at any given
time. Draw a physical
network diagram of your
solution; show the office
layout and placement of
computers as well as any
cabling. Find out an
approximate cost for the
materials used in your
solution.
Networking systems 167
 6.7 Security of information
Before you start, have you completed the
following units?
6.2 Networking
10.5 Data transmission and compression
10.6 Data storage and function
10.7 Data security
12.3 Legal and security issues
The primary purpose of a network is to share files
among authorised users. However, data and
information in a network are also open to attack by
unauthorised users, such as hackers, as well as
malicious attack by viruses. Some attacks are made
simply as a means for hackers to test their skills; they
get a buzz from being able to hack into a system.
Others try to gain access to systems for monetary
gain, to damage files or to steal information. Data and
information are not vulnerable to attack only while
stored on the system; they are also open to attack
while being transmitted from one point to another.
Security
A number of systems can be put into place to secure
data stored in or transmitted through networks. These
include firewalls, proxy servers and data encryption.
Firewalls
A firewall is a hardware or software solution that
controls access to a protected network. Firewall
managers use one of two philosophies during
firewall configuration:
• allow all incoming transmissions except
designated packets
• block all incoming transmissions except
designated packets.
Today, the latter is becoming far more prevalent.
Everything is locked out by default. Only designated
packets are allowed through the firewall.
Proxy servers
Proxy servers can be configured to act as firewalls that
prevent direct communication between a client and a
168 Information and Software Technology
host by acting as an intermediary. Proxy servers can
also be set up as ‘honey pots’; these are sites without
sensitive data which trick hackers by attracting them
away from the real servers in your network.
Data encryption/decryption
Encryption and decryption of data is special coding
or scrambling of a communication signal for security
purposes. When data are sent, they are encrypted.
Upon arrival at their destination, they have to be
decrypted before they can be used. There are a
number of encryption/decryption systems available
that work at a variety of levels, from very strong
encryption to mild encryption.
One way of encrypting data is to use public and
private keys. A public key is designed to be spread
around freely, while a private key is held only by its
owner and should never be disclosed publicly. The
keys complement each other so that, if you encrypt
something with a public key, it can be decrypted only
with your corresponding private key. The security of
these keys depends on a mathematical relationship
between the public and private keys. You can’t derive
one from the other, so passing out the public key
does not compromise the security of the private key.
Encryption hides data so that only the intended
party can read them. Signing uses encryption to
prove the origin and authenticity of some piece of
data. These two processes in combination provide
the following three features that ensure data security:
• Privacy is ensured when data are properly
encrypted. Data cannot be read by anyone except
the intended recipient.
• Authentication can be used to demonstrate that the
receiving server has the proper private key, thus
proving its identity and its right to the data.
Authentication also allows you to verify that a piece
of data was not tampered with after it was sent.
• Non-repudiation is an aspect of conventional
business often overlooked by e-commerce users.
For example, if we sign a paper contract and give
you a copy, it is very hard for us to say later that
we never signed it. Digital signatures can make
electronic transmissions legally binding.
Storage
Each server’s operating system stores data in a
proprietary format on its local disk, which users can
access. This proprietary file
system helps to enforce the
security and special features that
the server’s operating system may
support. Files can be stored on
many different types of media
from slow tape backup to very
high-speed disk arrays.
There are many other types of
storage media in use today
including CD-RW (compact disc),
DVD+/–RW (digital video disc), A variety of backup media
DLT (digital linear tape) and
various other backup tapes. the file server fails. Protecting

Magnetic hard disk arrays still
provide the fastest access to
information at a relatively low cost.
Media which can be moved away
from the system are best when
considering backup strategies.
Backup
In most networks, the file server
stores important data needed for
the operation of the business or
organisation. It can be a disaster
if the data are lost or damaged, or
can you?
data on the file server is vital, and • describe the appropriate
storage medium,
a data backup policy is just as
including backup
important an an insurance policy. requirements, for
Most file servers use a system different situations?
backup every night when the • discuss implications of
network is not being used. All the various backup and
data created or altered during the storage techniques?
day are copied to magnetic tapes, • discuss a range of
although high-capacity, security techniques for
recordable DVDs are now starting networks?
to be used. On some systems, the
backup is done by copying all the
data to another file server.

Characteristics of various data backup media

Remember
MEDIUM CAPACITY ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES 1. Explain the term ‘firewall’.
2. Identify the two areas where
Tape 4–8 GB High capacity Expensive hackers may be able to
Removable Prone to breakage
attack network data.
Rewritable Low access speeds
3. Explain how proxy servers
CD-R 650–700 MB Low cost Not rewritable help to secure data.
High access speed Low capacity
Removable Prone to scratches and Think
loss of data 4. Discuss why network
security is so important.
CD-RW 650–700 MB Low cost Low capacity
High access speed Prone to scratches and Investigate
Removable loss of data 5. Visit some online businesses
Rewritable like amazon.com and ebay®.
How do these companies
DVD+/-R 4.5 GB Low cost Not rewritable ensure secure transactions?
High access speed Prone to scratches and (Hint: When you visit these
Removable loss of data websites, look for their
security information
DVD+/-RW 4.5 GB Low cost Prone to scratches and sections.)
High access speed loss of data
Removable 6. How does your school
protect data such as
DVD+/-R 9 GB Low cost Prone to scratches and student information and
Dual layer High access speed loss of data exam results?
Removable

Networking systems 169

 6.8 Network operating systems
Before you start, have you completed the
following unit?
6.2 Networking
Until a computer’s operating system is loaded, it is
just a collection of hardware. It is the operating
system that makes the computer usable. This also
applies to networks. A network requires cables,
workstations, hubs and switches but it is the network
operating system (NOS) that enables data to be
transferred between these components. The network
operating system is a set of programs that ensures
reliable data transfer. It also provides tools so that the
network administrator can manage various
functions of the network.
services simultaneously. The NOS must be able to
handle several requests at once; this is called
‘multitasking’. In addition, the client operating
system must be able to multitask because it needs to
handle incoming network traffic, such as email,
without demanding the user’s attention. This allows
the user to perform other tasks on the workstation
without interruption.
The NOS typically comprises two parts: the client
software that is installed on each workstation and the
server software that is installed on the server only.
Together, the client software and the server software
provide a secure method for clients to access
resources on the server. When users log in, their
identity is authenticated by the server. This means
that the client software sends the user name and
password to the server. The server software then

One of the many network operating systems available

Purpose
The network operating system manages the flow of
data across the network. It enables clients
(workstations) attached to the network to access
network resources, such as files and printers, that are
shared by the network servers.
Usually, many clients are attached to a LAN so
clients may request access to one or more network Network management involves many routine tasks.

170 Information and Software Technology

searches its database for that
username. If the user exists and
the password is correct, the user
will be logged in to the system.
If the user does not exist or the
password is incorrect, the user
will not be logged in to the
system and an error message
will be displayed.
For a network to function
efficiently, the network server
running the NOS must meet the
minimum required specifications.
The table on the right shows
the minimum hardware
requirements of some popular
network operating systems.
Management
A network operating system
provides the network
administrator with the tools to
manage the network. The
network administrator uses these
tools to perform a huge range of
tasks including:
• establishing users and groups.
The network administrator
adds and removes users and
groups from the system. Users
and groups are allocated access
to the resources they need to
do their work. Groups contain
users who have similar tasks to
perform and who require
access to the same resources.
Establishing groups allows the
network administrator to give
file and resource permissions
to a group instead of individual
users. When users are added to
a group, they acquire the
permissions of that group.
• security permissions. Security is
an integral part of any
network. When users are
created, they are given access
only to the files and resources
that they will need to perform
their work. These security
permissions are usually • use of compression technologies.
applied when the user logs in No matter how new or
to the network. expensive a network is, it
• policies and profiles. Policies seems that it never has enough
and profiles are used to storage space and it never has
customise the client’s desktop. high enough data transfer
Policies can be ‘open’ (users rates. Compression
have rights to use everything technologies go some way to
on the client machine) or solving these two problems.
‘locked down’ to restrict what Data that are used infrequently
a user can do on a client can be tagged for compression,
machine. Profiles can be used thus taking up less disk space
in conjunction with policies. while not in use. Equally, there
Profiles generally give the user are a number of data
a uniform working compression technologies that
environment regardless of compress data to be
which workstation they use on transferred so that they will
the network. require less bandwidth.
NOS NOVELL WINDOWS 2000 SERVER LINUX
CPU 1 CPU 133 MHz Pentium 1 CPU Pentium
Pentium II
Memory 128 MB 128 MB minimum, 32 MB minimum,
(RAM) 256 MB recommended 64 MB recommended
Storage 1.3 GB 1 GB minimum, 2 GB 500 MB minimum,
recommended 600 MB
recommended
Other VGA video card, CD-ROM drive, network card, PS/2 mouse
• explain the purpose of a NOS?
• discuss effective network
management strategies?
Remember
1. Explain the function of a NOS.
2. Identify the two parts of a NOS.
3. Explain the term ‘multitasking’.
4. Distinguish between a user and a group.
Think
5. Discuss why is it important to keep your password to yourself.
Investigate
6. What network operating system is used at your school? Are there any
advantages of using this NOS rather than another NOS? Is more than
one NOS being used? Find out how and why.
Networking systems 171
 6.9 P RO J E C T
— Creating a peer-to-peer network
Before you start, have you completed the
following units?
6.2 Networking
6.3 Protocols
6.8 Network operating systems
Project outline
In this project, you will connect two computers to
create a simple peer-to-peer network. We will use
two computers that are running Windows XP
Professional®.
Imagine that you and a friend wish to share some
files which are stored on your computers. These files
are too large to fit on a floppy disk and neither of you
has a CD burner. However, you will be able to share
the files if you set up a peer-to-peer network.
You will need:
• two computers of comparable specifications: that
is, similar (preferably the same) operating systems
on both machines, the same CPU and a similar
amount of RAM
• a network interface card (NIC) in each computer
• one crossover network cable (You will need two
standard network cables if you use a hub or
switch.)
• TCP/IP networking protocol
• static IP addresses for each computer.
Creating the network
Step 1 Install the hardware
a If your computers do not already have network
interface cards, you will need to install them.
b Once the NICs are installed, you need to start
your computer. XP Professional will detect the new
hardware and will install the software drivers for it.
(You may need to insert the driver disk that came
with the NIC.)
172 Information and Software Technology
BEWARE: To complete step 1a, you will need to
open your computer case. Your computer case
contains sensitive electrical equipment that can be
damaged easily by static electricity. The case also
contains a 220–240 volt power supply that can be
extremely dangerous. If you are not confident with
this step, ask a professional computer technician
to install the NICs.
If you choose to perform this step yourself, make
sure that you follow the installation instructions
that come with the NICs. Also, ensure that you
follow anti-static procedures whenever you work
inside your computer. At the very least, you should
use an anti-static wrist strap.
c Finally, plug in your network cable(s). If you
have a hub or a switch, you will need a standard
network cable for each computer. These are plugged
into each computer’s NIC at one end, with the other
end of the cable being plugged into an empty port
on the hub or switch.
If you do not have a hub or a switch, you will
need to use a network crossover cable. These cables
have two of the copper strands inside crossed over to
different pins at each end of the cable. You could
make one yourself with some Cat 5 cable, cable ends
and a crimping tool, but it is probably cheaper and
easier to buy a ready-made cable.
Step 2 Give your computers unique IP addresses
a In XP Professional, you need to find the
Network Connections window. Click on Start, right
click on My Network Places and select Properties
(see screen 1 on the next page).
b From the resultant Network Connections
window, right click on Local Area Connection and
select Properties (screen 2).
c In the Local Area Connection Properties window,
select Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and then click on
Properties (screen 3).
Screen 1 — Finding Network Connections in XP Professional
Screen 2 — Selecting Local Area Connection Properties
d In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties
window (screen 4):
• Select Use the following IP address. Type in an IP
address (192.168.0.xxx), substituting the xxx for a
number of your choice. (Note: The number that
you put in place of xxx must be different on each
of your computers. Valid numbers are 1–244. For
Screen 3 — Selecting Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Properties
simplicity, use 192.168.0.1 and 192.186.0.2 for
your two computers.)
• Enter a Subnet mask number. Use 255.255.255.0.
(Note: The subnet mask number must be the same
on both computers.)
• Leave Default gateway blank.
P R O J E C T — Creating a peer-to-peer network 173
 P R O J E C T — Creating a peer-to-peer network
Screen 5 — Finding My Computer Properties
Screen 4 — Setting the TCP/IP properties
Screen 6 — Changing the computer name and
workgroup settings
• Finally, when you clicked on Use the following IP
address, the option Use the following DNS server
addresses was selected automatically. You can leave
these fields blank. Click OK to accept the settings.
You may need to restart your computer for these
settings to take effect.
Repeat step 2 for the second computer.
Remember that each computer MUST have a
unique IP address and the SAME subnet mask.
174 Information and Software Technology
Step 3 Give each computer a unique network
name
a Click on Start, right click on My Computer and
select Properties (screen 5).
b From the System Properties window (screen 6),
select the Computer Name tab. Make sure that each
computer has a unique name and is a member of
the same workgroup. These properties are usually
set when installing Windows. You can change them
here by clicking on Change. For simplicity, use
‘Computer1’ and ‘Computer2’ as the Computer
names and use ‘Workgroup’ as the Workgroup name.
 Click on the folder
you wish to share.

Screen 7 — Selecting a folder to share

Screen 8 — Setting network sharing and security properties

Step 4 Set up a share point on
each computer
a You need to set up at least
one share point on each
computer. This can be an entire
disk drive or a single folder. It is
not a good idea to share an entire
drive and, if you try to do so,
Windows will warn you before
allowing you to proceed. Either
create a new folder or select an
existing folder that you wish to
share on each computer. Click on
Start and double click on My
Computer. Find the folder that
you wish to share, right click on
it and select Sharing and Security
(screen 7).

P R O J E C T — Creating a peer-to-peer network 175

 P R O J E C T — Creating a peer-to-peer network
Screen 9 — Creating a new user
b In the Properties window for
the selected folder (screen 8),
click on the Sharing tab and:
• select Share this folder on the
network
• give the folder a Share name
• select Allow network users to
change my files
• click OK to accept these
settings.
Registered users will now be
able to log in to your shared
folder and work with files in that
folder as though they were on
their own computer.
Step 5 Set up registered users
a Click on Start, right click
on My Computer and select
Manage. From the Computer
Management window (screen 9),
select Local Users and Groups.
Right click in the white space of
the right-hand window and
select New User.
176 Information and Software Technology
Screen 10 — Setting authentication details for a new user
b Fill in the appropriate details network connections for a
for your new user (screen 10). computer of that name that is in
Use a password that is easy to the same workgroup as your
remember. Select Password never computer.
expires. Click Create when all Once a connection is
details have been entered. established you should see the
folder that you shared on the
Step 6 Establish a connection other computer (screen 12).
between the two You can now treat that folder as
computers though it were on your own
computer.
Click on Start and double click
on My Computer. In the address
bar of Windows Explorer (screen
11), type:
• ‘//computer1’ if you are using
‘Computer2’ and wish to
connect to ‘Computer1’
• ‘//computer2’ if you are using
‘Computer1’ and wish to
connect to ‘Computer2’.
Windows will then search Screen 11 — Selecting the computer you
through all of your active want to connect to
Screen 12 — Folders on the remote computer

Extensions
Now that you have set up your own peer-to-peer
network, you can explore some of the other aspects Screen 13 — Allowing other network users access to a printer
of networks with one or more of the following
extension activities.

Create a LAN
Start with a single, 5- or 8-port hub and add
additional computers to your network using the
same procedures outlined in the project. Set up
another network (it may be in a different room)
using the same IP address sequence (192.168.0.xxx).
Use the uplink ports on the two hubs and a longer
network cable to connect the two hubs.
Attach a printer to one of the computers on your
network. After installing the driver for the printer on
the computer, set it up so that it can be shared with
other computers (see screen 13).
Each computer on the network will have to install
the printer as a new printer attached to the network
(see screen 14). Screen 14 — Adding a network printer

Design and construct an intranet
If you have also completed (or are currently
studying) chapter 5 The Internet and website
development, design and build an intranet for your
network. Use one computer as the web server
containing all the web content.
Evaluate a network
Imagine that you will be expanding your new
network throughout the school, including to nearby
buildings. Evaluate the performance of your current
network in relation to this expansion — will it be
adequate? What additional information and software
technology would be needed to make the expansion
worthwhile?
• design and construct an intranet?
• evaluate the performance of a given
network in terms of bandwidth, speed
of device and cables?
• assemble a simple peer-to-peer
communication system?

P R O J E C T — Creating a peer-to-peer network 177