FALGUNI MISS

BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES

02. STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES, CELL CYCLE, CELL

DIVISION 2019 – 20.
• Chromatin fibre:
o Definition: Chromatin fibres are thin thread like structures of genetic
material distributed in the nucleoplasm.
o Location: They are distributed in the nucleoplasm of a cell.
o Function: They enclose the genetic material DNA.
• Chromosomes:
o Definition: Chromosomes are highly condensed coiled chromatin fibres
distributed in the nucleoplasm.
o Location: It is located in the nucleoplasm of a cell.
o Function: It carries genes which determine hereditary characters
• Chromatids: They are duplicated paired chromosomes attached to each other by a
centromere.
• Centromere:
o Definition: It is a small constricted region forming a point of attachment for
two sister chromatids.
o Function: The centromere serves to attach to the spindle fibres during cell
division.
• Nucleosome: It is a complex structure formed by winding a DNA strand around a
core of eight histone molecules.
• DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid): It is a macro-molecule having double-helical
structure composed of nucleotides.
• Nucleotide: It is a basic structural unit of DNA composed of phosphate, sugar
(pentose) and a nitrogenous base.
• Genes: Genes are specific sequences of nucleotides on a chromosome determining
heredity characteristics.
• Formation of the new DNA:
o Gene Duplication: During the interphase of mitotic cell cycle, each DNA
molecule (chromosome) duplicates for their equitable distribution in two
daughter cells.
o DNA Replication:
§ The DNA double helix opens at one end, making the two strands free,
to which a new strand begins to form.
§ This process continues in a sequence for the whole length of the DNA
molecule.

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• Function of New cells: We need to be produce new cells for growth, repair,
replacement & reproduction.
o Growth – A single cell divides by mitosis repeatedly to form a cluster of cells
which starts shaping for different functions to form tissues and organs.
o Repair – Accidental injuries get repaired through cells which divide by mitosis
to cover up the gaps and join the broken ends.
o Replacement – The wear and tear of cells during normal body function needs
replacement by new cells through mitotic division of their parent cells.
o Reproduction – To propagate the species by fission or diploid as in mitosis or
by haploid as in meiosis.
• Asters: An aster is a star shaped micro tubular structure with radiating rays formed
around each centrosome during mitosis.
• Spindle fibres: Spindle fibres are a number of microtubules (fibres) appearing
between 2 daughter centrioles and connecting to centromere of each chromatid.
• Haploid cell: Haploid cell is a nucleus of a cell having single set of chromosomes,
from each parent.
• Diploid cell: Diploid cell is a nucleus of a cell having two complete set of
chromosomes, one from each parent.

• Types of cell division:
o Mitosis (diploid division) - Cell division taking place in somatic cells for
growth, repair, replacement and development.
o Meiosis (haploid division) - Cell division which takes place in the
reproductive organs for the production of gametes (sex cells).
• Interphase: The phase between two successive cell divisions of a cell in a cell cycle is
known as interphase.
• MITOSIS: In this cell division:
o One parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
o The chromosome number of the parent cell is maintained at each cell division
while forming the new daughter cells.
• Phases of mitosis:
o It occurs in two steps: Karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
§ Karyokinesis – All the nuclear changes that occur during cell division
are collectively termed as Karyokinesis.
§ Cytokinesis – All the cytoplasmic changes that occur during cell
division are collectively termed as Cytokinesis.
o Karyokinesis: It occurs in 4 phases:
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase (PMAT).

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§ Prophase:

§ Metaphase:

§ Anaphase:

§ Telophase:

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o Cytokinesis:
§ Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis.
• In animal cell - The cleavage furrow deepens from periphery to
the centre and divides the cell into two new cells.
• In plant cell - a cell plate is formed at the centre and grows to
the periphery and divides the cell into two new cells.
§ All contents of cytoplasm including the organelles get randomly
distributed in the daughter cells.
§ Mitochondria and chloroplasts, have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Both of these divide by simple fission, and are distributed between
the two daughter cells produced by mitosis.
• During Mitosis:
o Two daughter cells are formed.
o Diploid (2n) condition is maintained.
• Significance of mitosis:
§ Growth, Repair and Regeneration.
§ Asexual reproduction (Amoeba, Bacteria).
§ Diploid chromosome number is maintained
• Cell Cycle:
o Definition: It is the cyclical events, which take place during any cell division.
o It comprises of: Interphase (G1-S-G2) – Mitosis –
Karyokinesis (PMAT) – Cytokinesis.
o Interphase:
§ It has three stages: G1-S-G2
§ First Growth Phase now called Gap 1 (G1):
• Changes occurring in this phase are:
o Cell grows and functions normally
o RNA and proteins are synthesised.
o Mitochondria and chloroplasts divides.
o The volume of cytoplasm increases.
• Fate of cell after G1:
o The cell may either withdraw by entering the resting
phase (R) now called gap zero (G0) phase OR
o The cell prepares for next cell division by entering into
Synthesis (S) phase.
§ Synthesis Phase (S): Active synthesis of DNA.
§ Second Growth Phase now called Gap 2 (G2): Changes occurring are:
• More RNA and proteins are synthesized.

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• MEIOSIS:
o Meiosis takes place in the reproductive organs.
§ In humans- Testis and Ovary produce sperms and ova.
§ In flowering plants - Anthers and Ovary produce pollen grains and ovules.
o During meiosis:
§ The number of chromosomes in the sex cells becomes half.
§ Homologous chromosomes come in pair.
§ They duplicate to form 4 non – sister chromatids. This condition is
called the tetrad.
§ During the tetrad condition, the maternal and paternal chromosomes
exchange their genetic material during crossing over.
o Homologous chromosomes: is a pair of similar chromosomes, one from each parent.
o Synapsis: Pairing up of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
o Crossing over: A process of exchange of genetic materials between non sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes at the point of intersection called
chiasmata during meiosis.
o Chiasmata: The point of intersection at which crossing over takes place is
called chiasmata.
o Tetrad: A condition of duplicated homologous chromosomes to form 4 non-
sister chromatids during meiosis cell division.
• Significance of meiosis:
o Genetic variations can be seen in offspring due to exchange of genetic
material during crossing over.
o During meiosis, haploid gametes are formed so that a diploid chromosome
number is maintained in the zygote.


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